Aprilia is an Italian

motorcycle A motorcycle (motorbike, bike, or trike (if three-wheeled)) is a two or three-wheeled motor vehicle steered by a handlebar. Motorcycle design varies greatly to suit a range of different purposes: long-distance travel, commuting, cruising ...

manufacturer founded immediately after

World War II World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...

Noale Noale is a town in the Metropolitan City of Venice, Veneto, Italy. It is part of the Miranese district, together with the neighboring municipalities of Mirano, Santa Maria di Sala, Salzano, Scorzè, Spinea and Martellago. The town is home to the ...

, Italy, by Alberto Beggio. The company started as a manufacturer of

bicycles A bicycle, also called a pedal cycle, bike or cycle, is a human-powered or motor-powered assisted, pedal-driven, single-track vehicle, having two wheels attached to a frame, one behind the other. A is called a cyclist, or bicyclist. Bic ...

and moved on to manufacture scooters and small-capacity motorcycles. In more recent times Aprilia has produced large

sportbike A sport bike (sports motorcycle, or sports bike) is a motorcycle designed and optimized for speed, acceleration, braking, and cornering on asphalt concrete race tracks and roads. They are mainly designed for performance at the expense of comfo ...

s such as the 1,000 cc

V-twin A V-twin engine, also called a V2 engine, is a two-cylinder piston engine where the cylinders share a common crankshaft and are arranged in a V configuration. Although widely associated with motorcycles (installed either transversely or longit ...

RSV Mille and the V4 RSV4. Aprilia has supported a strong

motorsport Motorsport, motorsports or motor sport is a global term used to encompass the group of competitive sporting events which primarily involve the use of motorized vehicles. The terminology can also be used to describe forms of competition of two ...

competition program beginning with

motocross Motocross is a form of off-road motorcycle racing held on enclosed off-road circuits. The sport evolved from motorcycle trials competitions held in the United Kingdom. History Motocross first evolved in Britain from motorcycle trials competi ...

racing and then a world championship-winning

road racing Road racing is a form of motorsport racing held on a paved road surface. The races can be held either on a closed circuit or on a street circuit utilizing temporarily closed public roads. Originally, road races were held almost entirely on publ ...

program. The company was acquired by

Piaggio Piaggio & C. SpA (Piaggio ) is an Italian motor vehicle manufacturer, which produces a range of two-wheeled motor vehicles and compact commercial vehicles under seven brands: Piaggio, Vespa, Gilera, Aprilia, Moto Guzzi, Derbi, and Scarabeo. Its ...

in 2004.

History

Aprilia was founded after the

Second World War World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...

by Cavaliere Alberto Beggio as a bicycle production factory at

Italy Italy ( it, Italia ), officially the Italian Republic, ) or the Republic of Italy, is a country in Southern Europe. It is located in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea, and its territory largely coincides with the homonymous geographical re ...

, in the province of

Venice Venice ( ; it, Venezia ; vec, Venesia or ) is a city in northeastern Italy and the capital of the Veneto Regions of Italy, region. It is built on a group of 118 small islands that are separated by canals and linked by over 400 ...

. Alberto’s son,

Ivano Beggio Ivano Beggio (31 August 1944 – 12 March 2018) was an Italian engineer and businessman who was the founder, owner and president of Aprilia Aprilia is an Italian motorcycle manufacturer founded immediately after World War II in Noale, It ...

, took over the helm of the company in 1968 and constructed a 50 cc "motorcycle". The first production Aprilia

mopeds A moped ( ) is a type of small motorcycle, generally having a less stringent licensing requirement than full motorcycles or automobiles. The term used to mean a similar vehicle except with both bicycle pedals and a motorcycle engine. Mopeds typi ...

were named Colibrì, Daniela and Packi. Aprilia later produced a

bike in 1970 called the Scarabeo. Produced until the end of the 1970s, the Scarabeo came in 50 and 125 cc versions. In 1977 Ivan Alborghetti from Milan, Italy won the Italian 125 and 250 cc motocross championships on Aprilias. In 1978 Alborghetti closed the season with two third places in individual races and sixth place in the World Championship. In the 1980s Aprilia added enduro, trials and road bikes of between 50 and 600 cc. In 1981 Aprilia introduced the TL320 trials machine. In 1983 Aprilia launched the St 125 road bike. In 1984 Aprilia launched an improved model called STX, and an enduro, called the ET 50. In 1985, Aprilia started outsourcing engines for some models to the Austrian company

Rotax Rotax is the brand name for a range of internal combustion engines developed and manufactured by the Austrian company BRP-Rotax GmbH & Co KG (until 2016 BRP-Powertrain GmbH & Co. KG), in turn owned by the Canadian Bombardier Recreational Product ...

. In 1985 Aprilia launched a 125 STX and 350 STX. In 1986 Aprilia launched the AF1; a small sports model, and the Tuareg; a large tanked bike for African rallies like the

Dakar Rally The Dakar Rally (or simply "The Dakar"; formerly known as the "Paris–Dakar Rally") is an annual rally raid organised by the Amaury Sport Organisation. Most events since the inception in 1978 were staged from Paris, France, to Dakar, Senegal, ...

. Aprilia factory rider Philippe Berlatier contended for the trials world championship reaching fifth place, and

Loris Reggiani Loris Reggiani (born 7 October 1959 in Forlì) is an Italian former Grand Prix motorcycle road racer who competed for the Aprilia factory racing team. His best years were in 1981, when he won two races in the 125 class, finishing the season in se ...

rode an Aprilia GP 250 with Rotax engine to sixth place in the road racing World Championship. Two seasons later, on August 30, 1987, at

San Marino Grand Prix The San Marino Grand Prix () was a Formula One championship race which was run at the Autodromo Internazionale Enzo e Dino Ferrari in the town of Imola, near the Apennine mountains in Italy, between 1981 and 2006. It was named after nearby San ...

in Misano Loris Reggiani's AF1 won the first World Speed Championship. In 1990 Aprilia launched the Pegaso 600, a road bike derived from off-road mechanics. Later, in 1992 Aprilia rider

Alessandro Gramigni Alessandro Gramigni (born 29 December 1968) is an Italian former professional motorcycle racer. He competed in Grand Prix motorcycle racing from 1990 to 1997 and in the Superbike World Championship from to . Gramigni is notable for winning the ...

won the World 125 Road Racing Championship title. Also in 1992, Tommy Ahvala won the

World Trials Championship The FIM Trial World Championship and FIM X-Trial World Championship are the most prestigious motorcycle trials tournaments of the world, organised by the Fédération Internationale de Motocyclisme. The outdoor championship is held since 1964 and ...

on an Aprilia Climber. Since then, Aprilia has 124 times won 125 and 250 cc class Grand Prix, 15 Road Racing World Championship titles, and 16 European speed titles. Many world champions started on Aprilia such as Biaggi, Capirossi, Gramigni, Locatelli, Sakata and Rossi. Also in the 1990s, Aprilia entered the scooter market starting in 1990 with Italy’s first all-plastic scooter, the Amico. In 1992, Aprilia introduced the Amico LK and the two stroke Pegaso 125, both with

catalytic converter A catalytic converter is an exhaust emission control device that converts toxic gases and pollutants in exhaust gas from an internal combustion engine into less-toxic pollutants by catalyzing a redox reaction. Catalytic converters are usually ...

s. In 1993 Aprilia launched a large diameter wheel scooter reusing the name Scarabeo with a four-stroke, four-valve engine. Later Aprilia launched more scooters such as the Leonardo, the SR and the Gulliver. In 1995, Aprilia commissioned

Philippe Starck Philippe Starck (; born 18 January 1949) is a French industrial architect and designer known for his wide range of designs, including interior design, architecture, household objects, furniture, boats and other vehicles. Life Starck was born on ...

to design the Motò which was shown in New York’s Modern Art Museum. Also in 1995 Aprilia launched the

two stroke A two-stroke (or two-stroke cycle) engine is a type of internal combustion engine that completes a power cycle with two strokes (up and down movements) of the piston during one power cycle, this power cycle being completed in one revolution of t ...

RS 125 and RS 250 sports bikes. In 1998 Aprilia launched the RSV Mille, a 1000cc

V-Twin A V-twin engine, also called a V2 engine, is a two-cylinder piston engine where the cylinders share a common crankshaft and are arranged in a V configuration. Although widely associated with motorcycles (installed either transversely or longit ...

Superbike, and the Falco, a 1000cc V-Twin sport tourer with emphasis on sport. Both bikes used a variation of a

1000cc engine. In 1999 Aprilia entered World Superbike Championship racing with its RSV Mille, and during 2000, Aprilia acquired Moto-Guzzi and Laverda, both historic heritage Italian marques. In 2000 Aprilia launched the 50 cc DiTech (Direct Injection Technology) two stroke engine for scooters which provides high mileage and low emissions, and also the RST Futura, a sport tourer, and the ETV 1000 Caponord; an

adventure touring A touring motorcycle is a type of motorcycle designed for touring. Although almost any motorcycle can be used for this purpose, manufacturers have developed specific models designed to address the particular needs of these riders. Touring motorc ...

motorcycle. Both of these latter two motorcycles used a variation of the Rotax 1000 cc V-Twin. Most recently, in 2003, Aprilia launched the RSV Mille Tuono which was essentially an RSV Mille with motocross-style high handlebars and only a small headlight fairing. Most of the major motorcycle magazines picked it for the best bike of the year. In 2004 Aprilia was acquired by Piaggio & C. SpA, to form the world’s fourth largest motorcycle group with 1.5 billion Euro in sales, an annual production capacity of over 600,000 vehicles, and a presence in 50 countries. With the acquisition by Piaggio, the new President of Aprilia is Roberto Colaninno (President of Piaggio & C.), and the Managing Director is Rocco Sabelli. The son of the founder, Ivano Beggio, was the Honorary President and died on 13 March 2018. On 15 August 2010, Aprilia became the most successful motorcycle racing brand in history, surpassing fellow Italian

MV Agusta MV Agusta (, full name: MV AGUSTA Motor S.p.A., original name: Meccanica Verghera Agusta or MV) is a motorcycle manufacturer founded by Count Domenico Agusta on 19 January 1945 as one of the branches of the Agusta aircraft company near Milan in ...

with a record 276th victory.

Grand Prix World Championship

Despite being a relatively small company by global motorcycling standards, Aprilia is very active in

motorcycle sport Motorcycle sport is a broad field that encompasses all sporting aspects of motorcycling. The disciplines are not all races or timed-speed events, as several disciplines test a competitor's various riding skills. Motorcycle racing Motorcycle rac ...

s. It contested many Road Racing formulae, including the now-defunct 125 cc, 250 cc and 500 cc

Grand Prix Grand Prix ( , meaning ''Grand Prize''; plural Grands Prix), is a name sometimes used for competitions or sport events, alluding to the winner receiving a prize, trophy or honour Grand Prix or grand prix may refer to: Arts and entertainment ...

classes of the

FIM FIM may refer to: Organizations and companies * Fédération Internationale de Motocyclisme, the International Motorcycling Federation * Flint Institute of Music, in Michigan, United States * Fox Interactive Media, now News Corp. Digital Media * ...

World Championship. From 2002 to 2004 they participated in the FIM

MotoGP Grand Prix motorcycle racing is the premier class of motorcycle road racing events held on road circuits sanctioned by the Fédération Internationale de Motocyclisme (FIM). Independent motorcycle racing events have been held since the start ...

World Championship, and from 1999 to 2002 they participated in the FIM

Superbike World Championship Superbike World Championship (also known as WorldSBK, SBK, World Superbike, WSB, or WSBK) is a silhouette-class road racing series based on heavily modified production motorcycles, also known as superbike racing. The championship was founded i ...

. Aprilia has returned to World Superbike since the 2009 season and in MotoGP since the 2012 season. Aprilia also feature in the off-road racing world, with their 450 cc V-2 motocrosser producing respectable results (including race wins) in both off-road (

Motocross Motocross is a form of off-road motorcycle racing held on enclosed off-road circuits. The sport evolved from motorcycle trials competitions held in the United Kingdom. History Motocross first evolved in Britain from motorcycle trials competi ...

) and on-road ( Supermoto) categories. Aprilia made their international racing debut in the

Motocross World Championship FIM Motocross World Championship is the premier championship of motocross racing, organized by the Fédération Internationale de Motocyclisme (FIM), divided into two distinct classes: MXGP and MX2. Race duration is 30 minutes plus two laps per ...

competing in the 125cc class from

1976 Events January * January 3 – The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights enters into force. * January 5 – The Pol Pot regime proclaims a new constitution for Democratic Kampuchea. * January 11 – The 1976 Phila ...

until 1981 with a best result being a fifth place in the

1979 Events January * January 1 ** United Nations Secretary-General Kurt Waldheim heralds the start of the ''International Year of the Child''. Many musicians donate to the ''Music for UNICEF Concert'' fund, among them ABBA, who write the song ...

season with rider Corrado Maddi. The firm then focused on the Grand Prix road racing world championships in

1985 The year 1985 was designated as the International Youth Year by the United Nations. Events January * January 1 ** The Internet's Domain Name System is created. ** Greenland withdraws from the European Economic Community as a result of a ...

and since then it has seen varying successes. Aprilia won their first world championship race at the

1991 Czechoslovak motorcycle Grand Prix The 1991 Czechoslovak motorcycle Grand Prix was the thirteenth round of the 1991 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season. It took place on the weekend of 23–25 August 1991 at the Masaryk Circuit located in Brno, Czechoslovakia. 500 cc race report ...

with rider

winning the 125cc race. In they won their first

world championship with Gramigni winning the 125cc class. They continued to be successful in the smaller displacement categories, winning numerous races and championships in the 125 cc and 250 cc

classes. However, their 500 cc Grand Prix bikes failed to attain the same success. They began campaigning in the 500cc class in

1994 File:1994 Events Collage.png, From left, clockwise: The 1994 Winter Olympics are held in Lillehammer, Norway; The Kaiser Permanente building after the 1994 Northridge earthquake; A model of the MS Estonia, which Sinking of the MS Estonia, sank in ...

with a 250 V twin motor enlarged to 380cc in hopes of using its lighter weight and nimble handling as an advantage against the heavier,

V4 engine A V4 engine is a four-cylinder piston engine where the cylinders share a common crankshaft and are arranged in a V configuration. The V4 engine is less common compared to straight-four engines. However, V4 engines have been used in automobiles ...

bikes used by the competition. The bike eventually displaced 430cc and had its best result with a third place by rider

Doriano Romboni Doriano Romboni (8 December 1968 in Lerici, Italy – 30 November 2013 in Latina, Italy) was an Italian Grand Prix motorcycle road racer. Career Romboni raced in 125cc and 250cc World Championship races on Hondas. In 1996 he rode for the ...

at the

1997 Dutch TT The 1997 Dutch TT was the seventh round of the 1997 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season. It took place on 28 June 1997 at the TT Circuit Assen located in Assen, Netherlands. 500 cc classification 250 cc classification 125 cc classification ...

but, could never overcome power disadvantage during the starting line sprint and was withdrawn at the end of the season for further development. Their first MotoGP effort, dubbed the RS Cube, was technically advanced but difficult to ride and performed poorly in the championship. The Cube did, however, pioneer many advanced technologies including ride by wire throttle and pneumatic valve actuation systems. Aprilia left the MotoGP class at the end of and then left the lower classes when two-stroke engines were banned. Aprilia set the record for the most points earned by a manufacturer in a single season from the 125cc class with 410 points in . It was also the highest points earned by a constructor in Grand Prix motorcycle racing's history until when 420 points were won by the same bikes winning 16 out of 17 races. The company is also notable for choosing somewhat atypical engine configurations. For example, they progressed with development of a V-2 500 cc Grand Prix bike when other teams were moving to V-4 configurations for what some believed was better and more usable power outputs. Aprilia continued this trend, taking advantage of lighter minimum weights with the introduction of their RS Cube MotoGP bike – featuring three cylinders in an inline triple layout, the bike had the fewest cylinders on the Grand Prix paddock. Aprilia rejoined the MotoGP class in , taking advantage of the newly introduced ''Claiming Rule Team'' category that encouraged independent teams with lower budgets to use bikes from manufacturers not officially involved in MotoGP. Aprilia supplied RSV4 SBK-derived bikes under the ''ART'' (Aprilia Racing Technology) name to

Aspar Team Aspar Team (formerly Ángel Nieto Team) is a Grand Prix motorcycle racing team from Spain, competing in the Moto2, Moto3 and MotoE World Championships. History The team was created by former world champion Jorge Martínez in 1992, when he was s ...

Paul Bird Motorsport Paul Bird Motorsport are a British motorcycle road racing, car racing and rallying organisation. The owner Paul Bird competed as a rally driver and was formerly a solo-rider in motocross. His son Frank is a car racer. Motorcycle racing The tea ...

and Speed Master teams. In both the and seasons Aprilia's ART machinery stood out as the best CRT bikes. In , Aprilia partnered with

Gresini Racing Gresini Racing is a motorcycle racing team competing in the MotoGP World Championship under the name Gresini Racing MotoGP as a Ducati satellite team, in the Moto2 World Championship as Team Gresini Moto2, and the MotoE World Cup as Felo Gresin ...

as a factory-supported independent team. The team competed as the Aprilia Racing Team Gresini with an all-new 1000cc V4-engined RS-GP. In , Aprilia entered the series as an official factory team for the first time since 2004. Their previously supported Gresini Racing team returned to a fully-independent team using

Ducati Ducati Motor Holding S.p.A. () is the motorcycle-manufacturing division of Italian company Ducati, headquartered in Bologna, Italy. The company is directly owned by Italian automotive manufacturer Lamborghini, whose German parent company is Au ...

bikes. Aprilia's factory team is named Aprilia Racing.

Riders championships

Manufacturers championships

* 250 cc class ** 1995, 1998, 1999, 2002, 2003, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009 * 125 cc class ** 1996, 1997, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2011

Results

MotoGP results

By rider

By season

(

key Key or The Key may refer to: Common meanings * Key (cryptography), a piece of information that controls the operation of a cryptography algorithm * Key (lock), device used to control access to places or facilities restricted by a lock * Key (map ...

) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in ''italics'' indicate fastest lap)

Racing history

Superbike World Championship (SBK)

Aprilia entered the Superbike World Championship in

1999 File:1999 Events Collage.png, From left, clockwise: The funeral procession of King Hussein of Jordan in Amman; the 1999 İzmit earthquake kills over 17,000 people in Turkey; the Columbine High School massacre, one of the first major school shootin ...

using a homologation special version of their V-twin road bike RSV Mille. They were third in the riders' championship in

2000 File:2000 Events Collage.png, From left, clockwise: Protests against Bush v. Gore after the 2000 United States presidential election; Heads of state meet for the Millennium Summit; The International Space Station in its infant form as seen from ...

with rider

Troy Corser Troy Gordon Corser (born 27 November 1971) is an Australian former professional motorcycle road racer. He competed in the Superbike World Championship from 1992 to 2011 except for the 1997 season when he competed in Grand Prix motorcycle raci ...

, and third in manufacturers' points and fourth in rider points both in

2001 The September 11 attacks against the United States by Al-Qaeda, which Casualties of the September 11 attacks, killed 2,977 people and instigated the global war on terror, were a defining event of 2001. The United States led a Participants in ...

with Corser and in

2002 File:2002 Events Collage.png, From left, clockwise: The 2002 Winter Olympics are held in Salt Lake City; Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother and her daughter Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon die; East Timor gains East Timor independence, indepe ...

with

Noriyuki Haga is a Japanese former professional Motorcycle sport, motorcycle racer. He won 43 world championship superbike races during a 25 year racing career, making him one of the most accomplished competitors never to have won a Superbike World Championsh ...

. Aprilia retired from the series at the end of that season. In February 2008, Aprilia debuted a V-4

superbike A sport bike (sports motorcycle, or sports bike) is a motorcycle designed and optimized for speed, acceleration, braking, and cornering on asphalt concrete race tracks and roads. They are mainly designed for performance at the expense of comfor ...

, the RSV4, for the 2009 Superbike World Championship. Biaggi RSV4

Aprilia won its first Superbike world championship in

2010 File:2010 Events Collage New.png, From top left, clockwise: The 2010 Chile earthquake was one of the strongest recorded in history; The Eruption of Eyjafjallajökull in Iceland disrupts air travel in Europe; A scene from the opening ceremony of ...

with

Max Biaggi Massimiliano "Max" Biaggi (; born 26 June 1971) is an Italian former professional Grand Prix motorcycle road racer who achieved six World Championships. With four 250 cc road race titles and two in World Superbikes, he is one of only two ri ...

, claiming both the riders and the manufacturers titles.

Riders' championships

Manufacturers' championships

2012 File:2012 Events Collage V3.png, From left, clockwise: The passenger cruise ship Costa Concordia lies capsized after the Costa Concordia disaster; Damage to Casino Pier in Seaside Heights, New Jersey as a result of Hurricane Sandy; People gather ...

2013 File:2013 Events Collage V2.png, From left, clockwise: Edward Snowden becomes internationally famous for leaking classified NSA wiretapping information; Typhoon Haiyan kills over 6,000 in the Philippines and Southeast Asia; The Dhaka garment fact ...

2014 File:2014 Events Collage.png, From top left, clockwise: Stocking up supplies and personal protective equipment (PPE) for the Western African Ebola virus epidemic; Citizens examining the ruins after the Chibok schoolgirls kidnapping; Bundles of wat ...

SuperMoto World Championship

Aprilia debuted in the FIM Supermoto World Championship in 2004 and since then it has won many titles in both S1 and S2 classes.

Riders' championships

Manufacturers' championship

* S2 class: 2006, 2007 * S1 class: 2008, 2011

Models

;Racing motorcycles: * RS125R * RSV 250 * RSW-2 500 * RS Cube * RSV4 R ** Limited Edition 2019: RSV4 X * RS-GP Aprilia models are: ;Road * AF1 * RSV Mille * RSVR1000R * RSV4 Factory * RSV4 RR * RSV4 R * Tuono 125 * Tuono 1000R * Tuono 660 * Tuono V4 R * Dorsoduro 1200 * Dorsoduro 900 * Dorsoduro 750 * Shiver 900 * Shiver 750 * Mana 850 GT * RS4 125 * RS4 50 * RS 50 * RS 125 * RS 250 * RS 660 * STX 125 ;Dual-sport * ETX 125 * ETX 350 * ETX 600 * ETV 1000 * Caponord 1200 * Pegaso 50 * Pegaso 125 * Pegaso 600 * Pegaso 650 * Tuareg 50 rally * Tuareg 125 rally * Tuareg 250 rally * Tuareg 50 * Tuareg 125 * Tuareg 350 * Tuareg 600 * Tuareg 660 ;Off-road * SXV 4.5 – 5.5 * RXV 4.5 – 5.5 * MXV 4.5 * SX 50 * RX 50 * SX 125 * RX 125 * RX 250 ;Scooters * Amico * Atlantic 125/200/250/300/400/500 * Leonardo 125/150/250/300 * Mojito 125 * SR * SXR * SR Max *

Storm A storm is any disturbed state of the natural environment or the atmosphere An atmosphere () is a layer of gas or layers of gases that envelop a planet, and is held in place by the gravity of the planetary body. A planet retains an atmos ...

* Area 51 * SR Motard * Scarabeo 50 2T * Scarabeo 50 4T4V * Scarabeo 100 4T * Scarabeo 125 ie * Scarabeo 200 ie *

Sportcity Sportcity in Manchester is a multipurpose sports and leisure facility. Originally built to host the 2002 Commonwealth Games, it is in east Manchester, a mile from Manchester city centre, and was developed on former industrial land including th ...

* SR GT * SRV 850

Notes

References

External links

* {{125cc/Moto3 World Constructors' Champions Motorcycle manufacturers of Italy Scooter manufacturers Moped manufacturers Companies based in Veneto Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1945 Italian companies established in 1945 Italian brands Motorcycle trials Piaggio Group Engine manufacturers of Italy

History

Grand Prix World Championship

Riders championships

Manufacturers championships

Results

MotoGP results

By rider

By season

Racing history

Superbike World Championship (SBK)

Riders' championships

Manufacturers' championships

SuperMoto World Championship

Riders' championships

Manufacturers' championship

Models

See also

Notes

References

External links