The Alchon Huns, ( Bactrian: αλχον(ν)ο ''Alchon(n)o'') also known as the Alchono, Alxon, Alkhon, Alkhan, Alakhana and Walxon, were a nomadic people who established states in

Central Asia Central Asia, also known as Middle Asia, is a subregion, region of Asia that stretches from the Caspian Sea in the west to western China and Mongolia in the east, and from Afghanistan and Iran in the south to Russia in the north. It includes t ...

and

South Asia South Asia is the southern subregion of Asia, which is defined in both geographical and ethno-cultural terms. The region consists of the countries of Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka.;;;;;;;; ...

during the 4th and 6th centuries CE. They were first mentioned as being located in Paropamisus, and later expanded south-east, into the

Punjab Punjab (; Punjabi: پنجاب ; ਪੰਜਾਬ ; ; also romanised as ''Panjāb'' or ''Panj-Āb'') is a geopolitical, cultural, and historical region in South Asia, specifically in the northern part of the Indian subcontinent, comprising ...

and

central India Central India is a loosely defined geographical region of India. There is no clear official definition and various ones may be used. One common definition consists of the states of Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh, which are included in alm ...

, as far as

Eran Eran is an ancient town and archaeological site in the Sagar district of Madhya Pradesh, India. It was one of the ancient mints for Indian dynasties as evidenced by the diverse coins excavated here. The site has 5th and 6th-century Gupta era ...

and

Kausambi Kosambi (Pali) or Kaushambi (Sanskrit) was an important city in ancient India. It was the capital of the Vatsa kingdom, one of the sixteen mahajanapadas. It was located on the Yamuna River about southwest of its confluence with the Ganges at ...

. The Alchon invasion of the

Indian subcontinent The Indian subcontinent is a list of the physiographic regions of the world, physiographical region in United Nations geoscheme for Asia#Southern Asia, Southern Asia. It is situated on the Indian Plate, projecting southwards into the Indian O ...

eradicated the Kidarite Huns who had preceded them by about a century, and contributed to the fall of the

Gupta Empire The Gupta Empire was an ancient Indian empire which existed from the early 4th century CE to late 6th century CE. At its zenith, from approximately 319 to 467 CE, it covered much of the Indian subcontinent. This period is considered as the Gol ...

, in a sense bringing an end to

Classical India The middle kingdoms of India were the political entities in the Indian subcontinent from 200 BCE to 1200 CE. The period begins after the decline of the Maurya Empire and the corresponding rise of the Satavahana dynasty, starting with Simuka, ...

. The invasion of India by the

Huna people Hunas or Huna (Middle Brahmi script: ''Hūṇā'') was the name given by the ancient Indians to a group of Central Asian tribes who, via the Khyber Pass, entered the Indian subcontinent at the end of the 5th or early 6th century. The Huna King ...

s follows invasions of the subcontinent in the preceding centuries by the Yavana (

Indo-Greeks The Indo-Greek Kingdom, or Graeco-Indian Kingdom, also known historically as the Yavana Kingdom (Yavanarajya), was a Hellenistic-era Greek kingdom covering various parts of Afghanistan and the northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent (p ...

), the Saka (

Indo-Scythians Indo-Scythians (also called Indo-Sakas) were a group of nomadic Iranian peoples of Scythian origin who migrated from Central Asia southward into modern day Pakistan and Northwestern India from the middle of the 2nd century BCE to the 4th centur ...

), the Palava (

Indo-Parthians The Indo-Parthian Kingdom was a Parthian kingdom founded by Gondophares, and active from 19 CE to c. 226 CE. At their zenith, they ruled an area covering parts of eastern Iran, various parts of Afghanistan and the northwest regions of the Indian ...

), and the Kushana (

Yuezhi The Yuezhi (;) were an ancient people first described in Chinese histories as nomadic pastoralists living in an arid grassland area in the western part of the modern Chinese province of Gansu, during the 1st millennium BC. After a major defeat ...

). The Alchon Empire was the third of four major Huna states established in Central and South Asia. The Alchon were preceded by the

Kidarites The Kidarites, or Kidara Huns, were a dynasty that ruled Bactria and adjoining parts of Central Asia and South Asia in the 4th and 5th centuries. The Kidarites belonged to a complex of peoples known collectively in India as the Huna, and in Euro ...

and succeeded by the

Hephthalites The Hephthalites ( xbc, ηβοδαλο, translit= Ebodalo), sometimes called the White Huns (also known as the White Hunas, in Iranian as the ''Spet Xyon'' and in Sanskrit as the ''Sveta-huna''), were a people who lived in Central Asia during th ...

Bactria Bactria (; Bactrian: , ), or Bactriana, was an ancient region in Central Asia in Amu Darya's middle stream, stretching north of the Hindu Kush, west of the Pamirs and south of the Gissar range, covering the northern part of Afghanistan, southwe ...

and the

Nezak Huns The Nezak Huns ( Pahlavi: 𐭭𐭩𐭰𐭪𐭩 ''nycky''), also Nezak Shahs, formed a major principality in the south of the Hindu Kush region, active from circa 484 to 665 CE. Despite being traditionally identified as the last of the Hunnic stat ...

in the

Hindu Kush The Hindu Kush is an mountain range in Central and South Asia to the west of the Himalayas. It stretches from central and western Afghanistan, Quote: "The Hindu Kush mountains run along the Afghan border with the North-West Frontier Provinc ...

. The names of the Alchon kings are known from their extensive coinage, Buddhist accounts, and a number of commemorative inscriptions throughout the

. The Alchons have long been considered as a part or a sub-division of the

, or as their eastern branch, but now tend to be considered as a separate entity.

Identity

Name

To contemporaneous observers in India, the Alchon were one of the '' Hūṇa'' peoples (or Hunas), whose origins are controversial. A seal from

associated with

Toramana Toramana also called Toramana Shahi Jauvla ( Gupta script: ''Toramāṇa'', ruled circa 493-515 CE) was a king of the Alchon Huns who ruled in northern India in the late 5th and the early 6th century CE. Toramana consolidated the Hephthalite p ...

, bears the title ''Hūnarāja'' ("Huna King"). Toramana is also described as a ''Huna'' ( Gupta ashoka huu

''Hūṇā'') in the

Rīsthal inscription The Rīsthal inscription is a stone-slab inscription which was discovered in 1983 in the area of Rīsthal near Mandsaur in Madhya Pradesh, India. The inscription describes the event in the year 515 CE, when the Aulikara king Prakashadharma of Mal ...

The Hunas appear to have been the peoples known in contemporaneous Iranian sources as ''Xwn'', ''Xiyon'' and similar names, which were later Romanised as

Xionites Xionites, Chionites, or Chionitae (Middle Persian: ''Xiyōn'' or ''Hiyōn''; Avestan: ''Xiiaona''; Sogdian ''xwn''; Pahlavi ''Xyon'') were a nomadic people in the Central Asian regions of Transoxiana and Bactria. The Xionites appear to be syno ...

or Chionites. The Hunas are often linked to the

Huns The Huns were a nomadic people who lived in Central Asia, the Caucasus, and Eastern Europe between the 4th and 6th century AD. According to European tradition, they were first reported living east of the Volga River, in an area that was part ...

that invaded Europe from Central Asia during the same period. Consequently, the word Hun has three slightly different meanings, depending on the context in which it is used: 1) the Huns of Europe; 2) groups associated with the

who invaded northern India; 3) a vague term for Hun-like people. The Alchon have also been labelled "Huns", with essentially the second meaning, as well as elements of the third. The name "Alchon" generally given to them comes from the Bactrian legend of their early coinage, where they simply imitated

Sassanian The Sasanian () or Sassanid Empire, officially known as the Empire of Iranians (, ) and also referred to by historians as the Neo-Persian Empire, was the last Iranian empire before the early Muslim conquests of the 7th-8th centuries AD. Named ...

coins to which they added the name "alchono" ( Alxono (Bactrian script)

, αλχονο, also αλχοννο) in

Bactrian script Bactrian (, , ) is an extinct Eastern Iranian language formerly spoken in the Central Asian region of Bactria (in present-day Afghanistan) and used as the official language of the Kushan, and the Hephthalite empires. Name It was long thought tha ...

(a slight adaptation of the

Greek script The Greek alphabet has been used to write the Greek language since the late 9th or early 8th century BCE. It is derived from the earlier Phoenician alphabet, and was the earliest known alphabetic script to have distinct letters for vowels as we ...

) and the

tamgha A tamga or tamgha (from otk, 𐱃𐰢𐰍𐰀, tamga, lit=stamp, seal; tr, damga; mn, tamga; ; ); an abstract Seal (emblem), seal or Seal (emblem), stamp used by Eurasian nomads and by cultures influenced by them. The tamga was normally the e ...

symbol of their clan. Khingila Alchono inscription

Khingila Khingila I ( Bactrian: χιγγιλο ''Khingilo'', Brahmi script: ''Khi-ṇgi-la'', Middle Chinese: 金吉剌 ''Jīnjílà'', Persian: شنگل ''Shengel''; c.430-490) was the founding king of the Hunnic Alkhan dynasty ( Bactrian: αλχανο ...

with the word "Alchono" in the

(αλχονο) and the

Tamgha A tamga or tamgha (from otk, 𐱃𐰢𐰍𐰀, tamga, lit=stamp, seal; tr, damga; mn, tamga; ; ); an abstract Seal (emblem), seal or Seal (emblem), stamp used by Eurasian nomads and by cultures influenced by them. The tamga was normally the e ...

symbol on his coin
CNG Coins
Several original coins such as those of

also bear the mention "alchono" together with the Tamgha symbol.

Philological Philology () is the study of language in oral and written historical sources; it is the intersection of textual criticism, literary criticism, history, and linguistics (with especially strong ties to etymology). Philology is also defined as the ...

ly, "alchono" (αλχονο) may be a combination of ''al-'' for

Aryan Aryan or Arya (, Indo-Iranian *''arya'') is a term originally used as an ethnocultural self-designation by Indo-Iranians in ancient times, in contrast to the nearby outsiders known as 'non-Aryan' (*''an-arya''). In Ancient India, the term ' ...

and ''-xono'' for

, although this remains hypothetical. Another etymology could be ''al-'', Turkish for scarlet, and ''-xono'' for Huns, meaning "Red Huns", red being a symbol of the south among steppe nomads.

Visual appearance

The Alchons are generally recognized by their elongated skull, a result of artificial skull deformation, which may have represented their "corporate identity". The elongated skulls appears clearly in most of the portraits of rulers in the coinage of the Alkhon Huns, and most visibly on the coinage of

. These elongated skulls, which they obviously displayed with pride, distinguished them from other peoples, such as their predecessors the

. On their coins, the spectacular skulls came to replace the

Sasanian The Sasanian () or Sassanid Empire, officially known as the Empire of Iranians (, ) and also referred to by historians as the Neo-Persian Empire, was the last Iranian empire before the early Muslim conquests of the 7th-8th centuries AD. Named ...

-type crowns which had been current in the coinage of the region. This practice is also known among other peoples of the steppes, particularly the

, and as far as Europe, where it was introduced by the Huns themselves. In another ethnic custom, the Alchons were represented beardless, often wearing a

moustache A moustache (; en-US, mustache, ) is a strip of facial hair grown above the upper lip. Moustaches have been worn in various styles throughout history. Etymology The word "moustache" is French, and is derived from the Italian ''mustaccio'' ...

, in clear contrast with the

Sasanian Empire The Sasanian () or Sassanid Empire, officially known as the Empire of Iranians (, ) and also referred to by historians as the Neo-Persian Empire, was the History of Iran, last Iranian empire before the early Muslim conquests of the 7th-8th cen ...

prototype which was generally bearded. The emblematic look of the Alchons seems to have become rather fashionable in the area, as shown by the depiction of the Iranian hero

Rostam use both this parameter and , birth_date to display the person's date of birth, date of death, and age at death) --> , death_place = Kabulistan , death_cause = With the conspiracy of his half-brother Shaghad, he fell into a wel ...

, mythical king of

Zabulistan Zabulistan ( fa, زابلستان ''Zābulistān''/''Zābolistān''/''Zāwulistān'' or simply ''Zābul'', ps, زابل ''Zābəl''), was a historical region in southern Afghanistan roughly corresponding to the modern provinces of Zabul and G ...

, with an elongated skull in his 7th century CE mural at

Panjikent , image_skyline = Pajakent Bazaar1.jpg , imagesize = , image_caption = Panjakent Bazaar , image_flag = , image_seal = , image_map = , map_caption = , pushpin_map = Tajikistan#West Asia , pushpin_relief = yes , pushpin_label_position = , pushp ...

Symbolism

Another way for the Alchon Huns to affirm their identity and to differentiate themselves from their predecessors the

, was the use of a specific symbol, or ''

'', which regularly appears on their coinage and seals: Alchon_Tamga

History

Invasion of Bactria (370 CE)

During the reign of

Shapur II Shapur II ( pal, 𐭱𐭧𐭯𐭥𐭧𐭥𐭩 ; New Persian: , ''Šāpur'', 309 – 379), also known as Shapur the Great, was the tenth Sasanian King of Kings (Shahanshah) of Iran. The longest-reigning monarch in Iranian history, he reigned fo ...

, the

and the

Kushano-Sasanians Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom (also called Kushanshahs, KΟÞANΟ ÞAΟ ''or Koshano Shao'' in Bactrian, or Indo-Sasanians) is a historiographic term used by modern scholars to refer to a branch of the Sasanian Persians who established their rule in ...

gradually lost the control of

to these invaders from

, first the

from around 335 CE, then the Alchon Huns from around 370 CE, who would follow up with the invasion of

India India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the so ...

a century later, and lastly the

from around 450 CE. Early confrontations between the

with the nomadic hordes from Central Asia called the "

Chionites Xionites, Chionites, or Chionitae (Middle Persian: ''Xiyōn'' or ''Hiyōn''; Avestan: ''Xiiaona''; Sogdian ''xwn''; Pahlavi ''Xyon'') were a nomadic people in the Central Asian regions of Transoxiana and Bactria. The Xionites appear to be syno ...

" were described by

Ammianus Marcellinus Ammianus Marcellinus (occasionally Anglicisation, anglicised as Ammian) (born , died 400) was a Roman soldier and historian who wrote the penultimate major historical account surviving from Ancient history, antiquity (preceding Procopius). His w ...

: he reports that in 356 CE, Shapur II was taking his winter quarters on his eastern borders, "repelling the hostilities of the bordering tribes" of the

and the Euseni ("Euseni" is usually amended to "Cuseni", meaning the

Kushans The Kushan Empire ( grc, Βασιλεία Κοσσανῶν; xbc, Κυϸανο, ; sa, कुषाण वंश; Brahmi: , '; Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit, BHS: ; xpr, 𐭊𐭅𐭔𐭍 𐭇𐭔𐭕𐭓, ; zh, wikt:貴霜, 貴霜 ) was a Sync ...

), finally making a treaty of alliance with the Chionites and the Gelani, "the most warlike and indefatigable of all tribes", in 358 CE. After concluding this alliance, the

(probably of the

tribe) under their King

Grumbates Grumbates or Krumbates was a king of the Chionitae, probably of the Kidarites tribe, an ancient nomadic tribe of Transoxiana. Etymology The exact origin of his name is not fully known. Hyun Jin Kim etymologized his name as ''*Qurum-pat'', "rul ...

accompanied Shapur II in the war against the Romans, especially at the siege of Amida in 359 CE. Victories of the Xionites during their campaigns in the Eastern

Caspian Caspian can refer to: *The Caspian Sea *The Caspian Depression, surrounding the northern part of the Caspian Sea *The Caspians, the ancient people living near the Caspian Sea *Caspian languages, collection of languages and dialects of Caspian peopl ...

lands were also witnessed and described by

.History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Ahmad Hasan Dani, B. A. Litvinsky,

Unesco The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) aimed at promoting world peace and security through international cooperation in education, arts, sciences and culture. It ...

br>p.38 sq
/ref> The Alchon Huns occupied Bactria circa 370 CE, chasing the Kidarites in the direction of India, and started minting coins in the style of Shapur II but bearing their name "Alchono".

Invasion of Kabulistan (c.385 CE)

Around 380-385 CE, the Alchons emerged in Kapisa, taking over Kabulistan from the

Persians, while at the same time the

(Red Huns) ruled in

Gandhara Gandhāra is the name of an ancient region located in the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent, more precisely in present-day north-west Pakistan and parts of south-east Afghanistan. The region centered around the Peshawar Vall ...

. The Alchons are known to have reused the mint and the coin dies of

south of the Hindu Kush, again simply adding their name "Alchono" to Sasanian coinage. The Alchon Huns are sometimes said to have taken control of

Kabul Kabul (; ps, , ; , ) is the capital and largest city of Afghanistan. Located in the eastern half of the country, it is also a municipality, forming part of the Kabul Province; it is administratively divided into 22 municipal districts. Acco ...

in 388.

Coinage

The Alchon Huns initially issued anonymous coins based on

designs. Several types of these coins are known, usually minted in

, using Sasanian coinage designs with busts imitating Sasanian kings

(r.309 to 379 CE) and

Shapur III Shapur III ( pal, 𐭱𐭧𐭯𐭥𐭧𐭥𐭩 ), was the Sasanian King of Kings () of Iran from 383 to 388. He was the son of Shapur II () and succeeded his uncle Ardashir II (). His reign was largely uneventful; to the west, the dispute over ...

(r.383 to 388 CE), adding the Alchon

and the name "Alchono" (αλχοννο) in

(a slight adaptation of the

which had been introduced in the region by the

Greco-Bactrians The Bactrian Kingdom, known to historians as the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom or simply Greco-Bactria, was a Hellenistic-era Greek state, and along with the Indo-Greek Kingdom, the easternmost part of the Hellenistic world in Central Asia and the India ...

in the 3rd century BCE) on the obverse, and with attendants to a

fire altar A fire temple, Agiary, Atashkadeh ( fa, آتشکده), Atashgah () or Dar-e Mehr () is the place of worship for the followers of Zoroastrianism, the ancient religion of Iran (Name of Iran, Persia). In the Zoroastrian religion, fire (see ''atar'' ...

, a standard Sasanian design, on the reverse.CNG Coins
/ref> It is thought the Alchons took over the Sasanian mints in Kabulistan after 385 CE, reusing dies of

and

, to which they added the name "Alchono".

Gandhara (460 CE)

Around 430 King

, the most notable Alchon ruler, and the first one to be named and represented on his coins with the legend "χιγγιλο" (''Chiggilo'') in

n, emerged and took control of the routes across the

from the Kidarites. Coins of the Alchons rulers Khingila and

Mehama Mehama ( Bactrian: ''Meyam'', Brahmi: ''Me-ha-ma''), ruled c.461-493, was a king of Alchon Huns dynasty. He is little known, but the Talagan copper scroll mentions him as an active ruler making a donation to a Buddhist stupa in 492/93.For an imag ...

were found at the Buddhist monastery of

Mes Aynak Mes Aynak (Pashto/ Persian: , meaning "little source of copper"), also called Mis Ainak or Mis-e-Ainak, was a major Buddhist settlement southeast of Kabul, Afghanistan, located in a barren region of Logar Province. The site is also the location ...

, southeast of

, confirming the Alchon presence in this area around 450-500 CE. Khingila seems to have been a contemporary of the

ruler

Bahram V Bahram V (also spelled Wahram V or Warahran V; pal, 𐭥𐭫𐭧𐭫𐭠𐭭), also known as Bahram Gor (New Persian: , "Bahram the onager") was the Sasanian King of Kings (''shahanshah'') from 420 to 438. The son of the incumbent Sasanian shah ...

. As the Alchons took control, diplomatic missions were established in 457 with

China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...

. Khingila, under the name ''Shengil'', was called "King of India" in the

Shahnameh The ''Shahnameh'' or ''Shahnama'' ( fa, شاهنامه, Šāhnāme, lit=The Book of Kings, ) is a long epic poem written by the Persian poet Ferdowsi between c. 977 and 1010 CE and is the national epic of Greater Iran. Consisting of some 50,00 ...

Ferdowsi Abul-Qâsem Ferdowsi Tusi ( fa, ; 940 – 1019/1025 CE), also Firdawsi or Ferdowsi (), was a Persians, Persian poet and the author of ''Shahnameh'' ("Book of Kings"), which is one of the world's longest epic poetry, epic poems created by a sin ...

. Alchon ruler

(r.461-493) was elevated to the position of Governor for

Emperor

Peroz I Peroz I ( pal, 𐭯𐭩𐭫𐭥𐭰, Pērōz) was the Sasanian King of Kings () of Iran from 459 to 484. A son of Yazdegerd II (), he disputed the rule of his elder brother and incumbent king Hormizd III (), eventually seizing the throne after a ...

(r. 459–484), and described himself as "King of the people of Kadag and governor of the famous and prosperous King of Kings Peroz" in a 462-463 letter. He allied with Peroz I in his victory over the

in 466 CE, and may also have helped him take the throne against his brother

Hormizd III Hormizd III ( pal, 𐭠𐭥𐭧𐭥𐭬𐭦𐭣; New Persian: ), was the seventeenth king (shah) of the Sasanian Empire, ruling briefly from 457 to 459. He was the son and successor of Yazdegerd II (). His reign was marked by the rebellion of his ...

. But he was later able to wrestle autonomy or even independence. Between 460 and 470 CE, the Alchons took over

and the

which also had remained under the control of the

, while the

remained further east. The Alkhon Huns may simply have filled the power vacuum created by the decline of the Kidarites, following their defeat in India against the

Skandagupta Skandagupta ( Gupta script: ''Ska-nda-gu-pta'', r. c. 455-467) was a Gupta Emperor of India. His Bhitari pillar inscription suggests that he restored the Gupta power by defeating his enemies, who may have been rebels or foreign invaders. He ...

in 455 CE, and their subsequent defeat in 467 CE against the

, with

Hephthalite The Hephthalites ( xbc, ηβοδαλο, translit= Ebodalo), sometimes called the White Huns (also known as the White Hunas, in Iranian as the ''Spet Xyon'' and in Sanskrit as the ''Sveta-huna''), were a people who lived in Central Asia during th ...

and Alchon aid under

, which put an end to Kidarite rule in

Transoxiana Transoxiana or Transoxania (Land beyond the Oxus) is the Latin name for a region and civilization located in lower Central Asia roughly corresponding to modern-day eastern Uzbekistan, western Tajikistan, parts of southern Kazakhstan, parts of Tu ...

once and for all. The numismatic evidence as well as the so-called "Hephthalite bowl" from

, now in the

British Museum The British Museum is a public museum dedicated to human history, art and culture located in the Bloomsbury area of London. Its permanent collection of eight million works is among the largest and most comprehensive in existence. It docum ...

, suggests a period of peaceful coexistence between the Kidarites and the Alchons, as it features two

Kidarite The Kidarites, or Kidara Huns, were a dynasty that ruled Bactria and adjoining parts of Central Asia and South Asia in the 4th and 5th centuries. The Kidarites belonged to a complex of peoples known collectively in India as the Huna, and in Eur ...

noble hunters wearing their characteristic crowns, together with two Alchon hunters and one of the Alchons inside a medallion. At one point, the Kidarites withdrew from Gandhara, and the Alchons took over their mints from the time of

. The Alchons apparently undertook the mass destruction of Buddhist monasteries and

stupas A stupa ( sa, स्तूप, lit=heap, ) is a mound-like or hemispherical structure containing relics (such as ''śarīra'' – typically the remains of Bhikkhu, Buddhist monks or Bhikkhuni, nuns) that is used as a place of meditation. In ...

Taxila Taxila or Takshashila (; sa, तक्षशिला; pi, ; , ; , ) is a city in Punjab, Pakistan. Located in the Taxila Tehsil of Rawalpindi District, it lies approximately northwest of the Islamabad–Rawalpindi metropolitan area and ...

, a high center of learning, which never recovered from the destruction. Virtually all of the Alchon coins found in the area of

were found in the ruins of burned down monasteries, where apparently some of the invaders died alongside local defenders during the wave of destructions. It is thought that the Kanishka stupa, one of the most famous and tallest buildings in antiquity, was destroyed by them during their invasion of the area in the 460s CE. The

Mankiala stupa The Manikyala Stupa ( ur, ) is a Buddhist stupa near the village of Tope Mankiala, in Pakistan's Punjab province. The stupa was built to commemorate the spot, where according to the Jataka tales, an incarnation of the Buddha called Prince Satt ...

was also vandalized during their invasions. The rest of the 5th century marks a period of territorial expansion and eponymous kings, several of which appear to have overlapped and ruled jointly."Here, for the first time, the names of Hepthalite (Alchon) kings are given, some of them otherwise known only from coins. Another important fact is that it dates all these kings in the same time." from The Alchon Huns invaded parts of northwestern India from the second half of the 5th century. According to the Bhitari pillar inscription, the Gupta ruler

already confronted and defeated an unnamed Huna ruler circa 456-457 CE.

Sindh

From circa 480 CE, there are also suggestion of Hunnic occupation of

Sindh Sindh (; ; ur, , ; historically romanized as Sind) is one of the four provinces of Pakistan. Located in the southeastern region of the country, Sindh is the third-largest province of Pakistan by land area and the second-largest province ...

, between

Multan Multan (; ) is a city in Punjab, Pakistan, on the bank of the Chenab River. Multan is Pakistan's seventh largest city as per the 2017 census, and the major cultural, religious and economic centre of southern Punjab. Multan is one of the List ...

and the mouth of the

Indus river The Indus ( ) is a transboundary river of Asia and a trans-Himalayan river of South and Central Asia. The river rises in mountain springs northeast of Mount Kailash in Western Tibet, flows northwest through the disputed region of Kashmir, ...

, as the local

Sasanian coinage of Sindh The Sasanian coinage of Sindh refers to a series of Sasanian-style issues, minted from 325 to 480 CE in Sindh, in the southern part of modern Pakistan, with the coin type of successive Sasanian Empire rulers, from Shapur II to Peroz I. Together wit ...

starts to incorporate sun symbols or a Hunnic

to the design. These little-known coins are usually described as the result of the invasions of the "

". The quality of the coins also becomes very much degraded by that time, and the actual gold content becomes quite low compared to the previous Sasanian-style coinage.

Contributions

The Hūṇas were precisely ruling the area of

Malwa Malwa is a historical region of west-central India occupying a plateau of volcanic origin. Geologically, the Malwa Plateau generally refers to the volcanic upland north of the Vindhya Range. Politically and administratively, it is also syno ...

, at the doorstep of the Western Deccan, at the time the famous

Ajanta caves The Ajanta Caves are approximately thirty rock-cut Buddhist cave monuments dating from the second century BCE to about 480 CE in the Aurangabad district of Maharashtra state in India. The caves include paintings and rock-cut sculptures des ...

were made by ruler

Harisena Harisena, also called Harishena or Hirisena, was a 4th-century Sanskrit poet, panegyrist, and government minister. He was an important figure in the court of Gupta emperor, Samudragupta. His most famous poem, written , describes the bravery of S ...

of the

Vakataka The Vakataka dynasty () was an ancient Indian dynasty that originated from the Deccan in the mid-3rd century CE. Their state is believed to have extended from the southern edges of Malwa and Gujarat in the north to the Tungabhadra River in the ...

Empire. Through their control of vast areas of northwestern India, the Huns may actually have acted as a cultural bridge between the area of

and the Western Deccan, at the time when the Ajanta or

Pitalkhora caves The Pitalkhora Caves, in the Satmala range of the Western Ghats of Maharashtra, India, are an ancient Buddhist site consisting of 14 Rock cut architecture, rock-cut cave monuments which date back to the third century BCE, making them one of the ...

were being decorated with designs of Gandharan inspiration, such as Buddhas dressed in robes with abundant folds.

First Hunnic War: Central India

In the First Hunnic War (496–515), the Alchon reached their maximum territorial extent, with King

pushing deep into Indian territory, reaching

Gujarat Gujarat (, ) is a state along the western coast of India. Its coastline of about is the longest in the country, most of which lies on the Kathiawar peninsula. Gujarat is the fifth-largest Indian state by area, covering some ; and the ninth ...

and

Madhya Pradesh Madhya Pradesh (, ; meaning 'central province') is a state in central India. Its capital is Bhopal, and the largest city is Indore, with Jabalpur, Ujjain, Gwalior, Sagar, and Rewa being the other major cities. Madhya Pradesh is the seco ...

Central India Central India is a loosely defined geographical region of India. There is no clear official definition and various ones may be used. One common definition consists of the states of Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh, which are included in alm ...

, and ultimately contributing to the downfall of the

. To the south, the

Sanjeli inscriptions The Sanjeli inscriptions consist in three copperplate charters found in Sanjeli in northern Gujarat, dated to 499 CE, 502 CE and 515 CE respectively: they are the "Sanjeli Charter of the Merchants", "Sanjeli Charter of Bhūta" and the "Sanjeli Cha ...

indicate that Toramana penetrated at least as far as northern

, and possibly to the port of

Bharukaccha Bharuch (), formerly known as Broach, is a city at the mouth of the river Narmada in Gujarat in western India. Bharuch is the administrative headquarters of Bharuch District. The city of Bharuch and surroundings have been settled since time ...

. To the east, far into

, the city of

, where seals with Toramana's name were found, was probably sacked by the Alkhons in 497–500, before they moved to occupy

. In particular, it is thought that the monastery of Ghoshitarama in Kausambi was destroyed by Toramana, as several of his seals were found there, one of them bearing the name ''Toramana'' impressed over the official seal of the monastery, and the other bearing the title ''Hūnarāja'' ("King of the Huns"), together with debris and arrowheads. Another seal, this time by Mihirakula, is reported from Kausambi. These territories may have been taken from Gupta Emperor

Budhagupta Budhagupta (Gupta script: ''Bu-dha-gu-pta'', ) was a Gupta emperor and the successor of Kumaragupta II. He was the son of Purugupta and was succeeded by Narasimhagupta.Raychaudhuri, H.C. (1972). ''Political History of Ancient India'', Calcutta: ...

. Alternatively, they may have been captured during the rule of his successor

Narasimhagupta Narasimhagupta (Gupta script: ''Na-ra-si-ṅha-gu-pta'') Baladitya was an emperor of the Gupta Empire of North India. He was son of Purugupta and probably the successor of Budhagupta. Defeat of the Hunas According to the Chinese monk Xuanzang ...

First Battle of Eran (510 CE)

A decisive battle occurred in

, where a local Gupta ruler, probably a governor, named

Bhanugupta Bhanugupta was one of the lesser known kings of the Gupta dynasty. He is only known from an inscription in Eran, and a mention in the Manjushri-mula-kalpa. Only mentioned in the Eran inscription as a "Raja" and not a "Maharaja" or a "Maharajad ...

was in charge. In the ''

'' inscription, this local ruler reports that his army participated in a great battle in 510 CE at

, where it suffered severe casualties. Bhanugupta was probably vanquished by Toramana at this battle, so that the western Gupta province of

fell into the hands of the Hunas. Toramana portrait from coin

According to a 6th-century CE Buddhist work, the '' Manjusri-mula-kalpa'', Bhanugupta lost Malwa to the "

Shudra Shudra or ''Shoodra'' (Sanskrit: ') is one of the four '' varnas'' of the Hindu caste system and social order in ancient India. Various sources translate it into English as a caste, or alternatively as a social class. Theoretically, class ser ...

, who continued his conquest to

Magadha Magadha was a region and one of the sixteen sa, script=Latn, Mahajanapadas, label=none, lit=Great Kingdoms of the Second Urbanization (600–200 BCE) in what is now south Bihar (before expansion) at the eastern Ganges Plain. Magadha was ruled ...

, forcing

Baladitya to make a retreat to

Bengal Bengal ( ; bn, বাংলা/বঙ্গ, translit=Bānglā/Bôngô, ) is a geopolitical, cultural and historical region in South Asia, specifically in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent at the apex of the Bay of Bengal, predom ...

. Toramana "possessed of great prowess and armies" then conquered the city of Tirtha in the Gauda country (modern

)."After the successful conclusion of the

episode, the conquering

Hunas Hunas or Huna (Middle Brahmi script: ''Hūṇā'') was the name given by the ancient Indians to a group of Central Asian tribes who, via the Khyber Pass, entered the Indian subcontinent at the end of the 5th or early 6th century. The Huna Kin ...

ultimately burst out of Eastern

and swooped down upon the very heart of the Gupta empire. The eastern countries were overrun and the city of the Gaudas was occupied. The Manjusrimulakalpa gives a scintillating account of this phase of Toramana's conquest. It says that after

's defeat and discomfiture, Toramana led the Hunas against Magadha and obliged Baladitya (Narasimha-gupta Baladitya, the reigning Gupta monarch) to retire to

. This great monarch (Toramana), Sudra by caste and possessed of great prowess and armies took hold of that position (bank of the Ganges) and commanded the country round about. That powerful king then invested the town called Tirtha in the Gauda country." in Toramana is said to have crowned a new king in

Benares Varanasi (; ; also Banaras or Benares (; ), and Kashi.) is a city on the Ganges river in northern India that has a central place in the traditions of pilgrimage, death, and mourning in the Hindu world. * * * * The city has a syncretic tr ...

, named Prakataditya, who is also presented as a son of Narasimha Gupta. Having conquered the territory of Malwa from the Guptas, Toramana was mentioned in a famous inscription in

, confirming his rule on the region. The ''

Eran boar inscription of Toramana The Eran boar inscription of Toramana, is a stone inscription found in Eran in the Malwa region of Madhya Pradesh, India. It is 8 lines of Sanskrit, the first three of which are in meter and the rest in prose, written in a North Indian script. It i ...

'' (in

, Malwa, 540 km south of

New Delhi New Delhi (, , ''Naī Dillī'') is the capital of India and a part of the National Capital Territory of Delhi (NCT). New Delhi is the seat of all three branches of the government of India, hosting the Rashtrapati Bhavan, Parliament House ...

, state of

) of his first regnal year indicates that eastern

was included in his dominion. The inscription is written under the neck of the boar, in 8 lines of

Sanskrit Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...

in the

Brahmi script Brahmi (; ; ISO: ''Brāhmī'') is a writing system of ancient South Asia. "Until the late nineteenth century, the script of the Aśokan (non-Kharosthi) inscriptions and its immediate derivatives was referred to by various names such as 'lath' o ...

. The first line of the inscription, in which Toramana is introduced as ''Mahararajadhidaja'' (The Great King of Kings), reads: On his gold coins minted in India in the style of the Gupta Emperors, Toramana presented himself confidently as: The fact that the Alchon Huns issued gold coins, such as the Toramana issue, in addition to their silver and copper coins, suggest that their empire in India was quite rich and powerful.

Defeat (515 CE)

Toramana was finally defeated by local Indian rulers. The local ruler

is sometimes credited with vanquishing Toramana, as his 510 CE inscription in

, recording his participation in "a great battle", is vague enough to allow for such an interpretation. The "great battle" in which Bhanagupta participated is not detailed, and it is impossible to know what it was, or which way it ended, and interpretations vary. Mookerji and others consider, in view of the inscription as well as the '' Manjusri-mula-kalpa'', that Bhanugupta was, on the contrary, vanquished by Toramana at the 510 CE Eran battle, so that the western Gupta province of

fell into the hands of the Hunas at that point, so that Toramana could be mentioned in the

boar inscription, as the ruler of the region. Toramana was finally vanquished with certainty by an Indian ruler of the

Aulikara dynasty The Second Aulikara dynasty (Late Brahmi script: ''Au-li-ka-rā'') was a royal dynasty that ruled over the Malwa plateau, and at its peak under Yashodharman Vishnuvardhana controlled a vast area, consisting of almost all of Northern India and p ...

, after nearly 20 years in India. According to the Rīsthal stone-slab inscription, discovered in 1983, King Prakashadharma defeated Toramana in 515 CE. The First Hunnic War thus ended with a Hunnic defeat, and Hunnic troops apparently retreated to the area of

. The ''Manjusri-mula-kalpa'' simply states that Toramana died in

as he was returning westward from his battles with Narasimhagupta.

Second Hunnic War: to Malwa and retreat

The Second Hunnic War started in 520, when the Alchon king

Mihirakula Mihirakula (Gupta script: , ''Mi-hi-ra-ku-la'', Chinese: 摩酰逻矩罗 ''Mo-hi-lo-kiu-lo''), sometimes referred to as Mihiragula or Mahiragula, was the second and last Alchon Hun king of northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent between ...

, son of Toramana, is recorded in his military encampment on the borders of the

Jhelum Jhelum ( Punjabi and ur, ) is a city on the east bank of the Jhelum River, which is located in the district of Jhelum in the north of Punjab province, Pakistan. It is the 44th largest city of Pakistan by population. Jhelum is known for p ...

by Chinese monk

Song Yun Song Yun () was a Chinese Buddhist monk who was sent by the pious Buddhist Empress Hu (, ?-528 CE) of the Northern Wei Dynasty with other monastic companions including Hui Zheng, Fa Li and Zheng (or Wang) Fouze, to northwestern India to search ...

. At the head of the Alchon, Mihirakula is then recorded in

Gwalior Gwalior() is a major city in the central Indian state of Madhya Pradesh; it lies in northern part of Madhya Pradesh and is one of the Counter-magnet cities. Located south of Delhi, the capital city of India, from Agra and from Bhopal, the s ...

as "Lord of the Earth" in the

Gwalior inscription of Mihirakula The Gwalior Inscription of Mihirakula is a Sanskrit inscription recording the construction of a Surya temple from stone on the Gopa hill of Gwalior. Though now referred with the name of Mihirakula, the temple and the inscription was commissioned by ...

. According to some accounts, Mihirakula invaded India as far as the Gupta capital

Pataliputra Pataliputra (IAST: ), adjacent to modern-day Patna, was a city in ancient India, originally built by Magadha ruler Ajatashatru in 490 BCE as a small fort () near the Ganges river.. Udayin laid the foundation of the city of Pataliputra at the ...

, which was sacked and left in ruins. The destructions of Mihirakula are also recorded in the

Rajatarangini ''Rajatarangini'' ("The River of Kings") is a metrical legendary and historical chronicle of the north-western part of India, particularly the kings of Kashmir. It was written in Sanskrit by Kashmiri historian Kalhana in the 12th century CE. The ...

: Finally however, Mihirakula was defeated in 528 by an alliance of Indian principalities led by

Yasodharman Yashodharman (Gupta script: ''Ya-śo-dha-rmma'', ) (r. 515 – 545) was a ruler of Malwa, in central India, during the early part of the 6th century. He probably belonged to the Second Aulikara dynasty. He conquered much of the Indian subcon ...

, the

Aulikara The Aulikaras (Late Brahmi script: ''Au-li-ka-rā''), also referred to as Aulikara dynasty or Olikara dynasty, were an ancient Indian clan from the Maurya era, that emerged into a kingdom between the 4th-century CE and 6th-century CE. They w ...

king of

, in the

Battle of Sondani The Battle of Sondani was a large military encounter fought in 528 CE, between the Alchon Hun emperor Mihirakula and a confederation of Indian rulers led by king Yashodharman of Malwa. Background The Alchon Huns under their able leader Toramana ...

, which resulted in the loss of Alchon possessions in the Punjab and north India by 542. The

Sondani inscription The Mandasor Pillar Inscriptions of Yashodharman are a set of Sanskrit inscriptions from early 6th-century discovered at an archaeological site at the village of Sondani (सोंधनी), about 4 kilometers south of Mandsaur (Mandasor) in north ...

Sondani Sondani (सोंधनी), also Sondhni, is a small village at a distance of about 4 km from Mandsaur situated on Mahu-Nimach Highway towards Mahu. Victory monuments (525 CE) The spot is famous for a series of monuments with inscriptions ...

, near

Mandsaur Mandsaur is a city and a municipality in Mandsaur district located on Border of Mewar and Malwa Malwa is a historical region of west-central India occupying a plateau of volcanic origin. Geologically, the Malwa Plateau generally refers ...

, records the submission by force of the Hunas, and claims that Yasodharman had rescued the earth from rude and cruel kings,"The earth betook itself (for succour), when it was afflicted by kings of the present age, who manifested pride; who were cruel through want of proper training; who,from delusion, transgressed the path of good conduct; (and) who were destitute of virtuous delights " from and that he "had bent the head of Mihirakula". In a part of the Sondani inscription

thus praises himself for having defeated king

The

emperor

is also credited in helping repulse Mihirakula, after the latter had conquered most of India, according to the reports of Chinese monk

Xuanzang Xuanzang (, ; 602–664), born Chen Hui / Chen Yi (), also known as Hiuen Tsang, was a 7th-century Chinese Buddhist monk, scholar, traveler, and translator. He is known for the epoch-making contributions to Chinese Buddhism, the travelogue of ...

. In a fanciful account, Xuanzang, who wrote a century later in 630 CE, reported that Mihirakula had conquered all India except for an island where the king of

named Baladitya (who could be Gupta ruler

Narasimhagupta Baladitya Narasimhagupta ( Gupta script: ''Na-ra-si-ṅha-gu-pta'') Baladitya was an emperor of the Gupta Empire of North India. He was son of Purugupta and probably the successor of Budhagupta. Defeat of the Hunas According to the Chinese monk Xuanzan ...

) took refuge, but that was finally captured by the Indian king. He later spared Mihirakula's life on the intercession of his mother, as she perceived the Hun ruler "as a man of remarkable beauty and vast wisdom". Mihirakula is then said to have returned to

Kashmir Kashmir () is the northernmost geographical region of the Indian subcontinent. Until the mid-19th century, the term "Kashmir" denoted only the Kashmir Valley between the Great Himalayas and the Pir Panjal Range. Today, the term encompas ...

to retake the throne. This ended the Second Hunnic War in 534, after an occupation which lasted nearly 15 years.

Victories of the Maukharis

According to the

Aphsad inscription of Ādityasena The Aphsad inscription of Ādityasena is an Indian inscription from the reign of the Later Gupta dynasty king Aditya-sena (r. c. 655-680 CE). The inscription was found in 1880 by Markham Kittoe in the village of Apasadha, Bihar, and is now locate ...

, the

Maukharis The Maukhari dynasty (Gupta script: , ''Mau-kha-ri'') was a post-Gupta dynasty who controlled the vast plains of Ganga The Ganges ( ) (in India: Ganga ( ); in Bangladesh: Padma ( )). "The Ganges Basin, known in India as the Ganga and in Ban ...

also fought against the Hunas in the areas of the Gangetic Doab and

. The Aphsad inscription of Ādityasena mentions the military successes of kings of the

Later Gupta dynasty The Later Gupta dynasty ruled the Magadha region in eastern India between the 6th and 8th centuries CE. The Later Guptas succeeded the imperial Guptas as the rulers of Magadha, but there is no evidence connecting the two dynasties; these appear ...

against the Maukharis, and explains that the Maukharis were past victors of the Hunas: The Maukharis led by their king

Ishanavarman Iśanavarman ( Gupta script: , ''Ī-śā-na-va-rmmā'') was the first independent Maukhari ruler of Kannauj. He was a very powerful king, and adopted the title of ''Maharajadhiraja''. Early life Ishanavarman was the son of the powerful Maukhari ...

, rather than any of the

Guptas The Gupta Empire was an ancient Indian empire which existed from the early 4th century CE to late 6th century CE. At its zenith, from approximately 319 to 467 CE, it covered much of the Indian subcontinent. This period is considered as the Gol ...

, were therefore pivotal in repelling the Hunas.

Retreat to Gandhara and Kashmir (530 CE)

Post-Kushan Gandhara Kidara Shahis Sri Pravarasena Circa 6th-early 7th century CE

The Alchon Huns resettled in the area of

and

in northwestern

under the rule of

Sri Pravarasena Sri Pravarasena (reigned c. 530-590 CE), also sometimes Pravarasena II based on the regnal lists of the ''Rajatarangini'', was a 6th-century Huna king of the Alchon Huns in the area of Gandhara and Kashmir in northwestern India. His reign prob ...

(c.530-590 CE), thought to be the son of Toramana. His reign probably lasted about 60 years from circa 530 CE. According to

Kalhana Kalhana ( sa, कल्हण, translit=kalhaṇa) was the author of ''Rajatarangini'' (''River of Kings''), an account of the history of Kashmir. He wrote the work in Sanskrit between 1148 and 1149. All information regarding his life has to be d ...

's 12th century text ''

'', Pravarasena established a new capital named Pravarapura (also known as Pravarasena-pura). Based on topographical details, Pravarapura appears to be same as the modern city of

Srinagar Srinagar (English: , ) is the largest city and the summer capital of Jammu and Kashmir, India. It lies in the Kashmir Valley on the banks of the Jhelum River, a tributary of the Indus, and Dal and Anchar lakes. The city is known for its natu ...

. He also built a temple named "Pravaresha". Pravarasena was probably succeeded by a king named

Gokarna Gokarna may refer to: Places * Gokarna, Karnataka, a town in Karnataka, India * Gokarna, West Bengal, a village in West Bengal, India * Gokarnamatam, a village in Andhra Pradesh, India * Trincomalee, a city in Eastern Province, Sri Lanka also known ...

, a follower of

Shiva Shiva (; sa, शिव, lit=The Auspicious One, Śiva ), also known as Mahadeva (; ɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐ, or Hara, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the Supreme Being in Shaivism, one of the major traditions within Hindu ...

, and then by his son king

Narendraditya Khinkhila Toramana II (Gupta script: ''Sri, Śrī Toramāṇa'', "Lord Toramana") was a ruler of the Alchon Huns in the 6th century CE. Confrontation with the Nezaks Around the middle of the 6th century CE, the Alchon Huns, Alchons, after having extensi ...

. The son of Narendraditya was

Yudhishthira ''Yudhishthira'' (Sanskrit: युधिष्ठिर, IAST: ''Yudhiṣṭhira'') is the eldest among the five Pandava brothers. He is mentioned in the ancient epic Mahabharata. He was sired by King Pandu of the Kuru Dynasty and his first w ...

, who succeeded him as king, and was the last known king of the Alchon Huns. According to the ''

'' Yudhishthira ruled 40 years, probably until circa 625 CE, but he was dethroned by Pratapaditya, son of the founder of the

Karkoṭa Empire The Karkota Dynasty (c. 625 − 855 CE) ruled over the Kashmir valley and some northern parts of the Indian subcontinent during 7th and 8th centuries. Their rule saw a period of political expansion, economic prosperity and emergence of Kashmir ...

, Durlabhavardhana.

Kashmir descendents of the Alchon Huns

Several rulers with Alchon names appear in

's ''

''. Although the chronology of the ''Rajatarangini'' is largely deficient, several of the names of these rulers, especially those belonging to the so-called

Gonanda dynasty (II) The Second Gonanda dynasty (or Restored Gonanda dynasty), was a Kashmiri Hindu dynasty. According to Kalhana, this dynasty ruled Kashmir just before the Karkotas. Sources Literature No contemporary literature exists. The sole mentions a ...

, have been confirmed by coin finds in Kashmir and dated to the 7th century CE. They were "very likely" descendents of the Alchon Huns in the Kashmir area.

Retreat to Kabulistan and displacement of the Nezak Huns

Around the end of the 6th century CE, the Alchons withdrew to

and, pulling back from

and

, moved west across the

Khyber pass The Khyber Pass (خیبر درہ) is a mountain pass in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan, on the border with the Nangarhar Province of Afghanistan. It connects the town of Landi Kotal to the Valley of Peshawar at Jamrud by traversing pa ...

where they resettled in

Kabulistan Kabulistan (Pashto: کابلستان) is a historical regional name referring to the territory that is centered on present-day Kabul Province of Afghanistan. In many Greek and Latin sources, particularly editions of Ptolemy's ''Geography'', the ...

under the leadership of

Toramana II Toramana II (Gupta script: ''Sri, Śrī Toramāṇa'', "Lord Toramana") was a ruler of the Alchon Huns in the 6th century CE. Confrontation with the Nezaks Around the middle of the 6th century CE, the Alchon Huns, Alchons, after having extensi ...

. There, their coinage suggests that they merged with the

Nezak The Nezak Huns ( Pahlavi: 𐭭𐭩𐭰𐭪𐭩 ''nycky''), also Nezak Shahs, formed a major principality in the south of the Hindu Kush region, active from circa 484 to 665 CE. Despite being traditionally identified as the last of the Hunnic stat ...

– as coins in Nezak style now bear the Alchon ''

tamga A tamga or tamgha (from otk, 𐱃𐰢𐰍𐰀, tamga, lit=stamp, seal; tr, damga; mn, tamga; ; ); an abstract Seal (emblem), seal or Seal (emblem), stamp used by Eurasian nomads and by cultures influenced by them. The tamga was normally the e ...

'' mark.

Alkhan-Nezak Crossover coin circa 580 590 to 650 680

During the 7th century, continued military encounters are reported between the Hunas and the northern Indian states which followed the disappearance of the Gupta Empire. For example,

Prabhakaravardhana Prabhakaravardhana (also known as Prabhakara Vardhana) was a king of Thanesar in northern India around the time of the decline of the Gupta Empire. According to the historian R. C. Majumdar, he was the first notable king of the Vardhana dynast ...

, the

Vardhana dynasty The Pushyabhuti dynasty (IAST: Puṣyabhūti), also known as the Vardhana dynasty ruled in northern India during 6th and 7th centuries. The dynasty reached its zenith under its last ruler Harsha Vardhana (c. 590–647 CE), and the Empire of Hars ...

king of

Thanesar Thanesar city or old Kurukshetra city is a historic town and an important Hindu pilgrimage sites, Hindu pilgrimage centre in Kurukshetra district of the States and territories of India, state of Haryana in North India, northern India. It is loca ...

in northern India and father of

Harsha Harshavardhana ( IAST Harṣa-vardhana; c. 590–647 CE) was a Pushyabhuti emperor who ruled northern India from 606 to 647 CE. He was the son of Prabhakaravardhana who had defeated the Alchon Huna invaders, and the younger brother of Rajyav ...

, is reported to have been "A lion to the Huna deer, a burning fever to the king of the

Indus The Indus ( ) is a transboundary river of Asia and a trans-Himalayan river of South and Central Asia. The river rises in mountain springs northeast of Mount Kailash in Western Tibet, flows northwest through the disputed region of Kashmir, ...

land". The Alchons in India declined rapidly around the same time that the

, a related group to the north, were defeated by an alliance between the Sassanians and the

Western Turkic Kaghanate The Western Turkic Khaganate () or Onoq Khaganate ( otk, 𐰆𐰣:𐰸:𐰉𐰆𐰑𐰣, On oq budun, Ten arrow people) was a Turkic khaganate in Eurasia, formed as a result of the wars in the beginning of the 7th century (593–603 CE) after t ...

in 557–565 CE. The areas of

Khuttal Khuttal, frequently also in the plural form Khuttalan (and variants such as ''Khutlan'', ''Khatlan'', in Chinese sources ''K'o-tut-lo'') was a medieval region and principality on the north bank of the river Oxus (modern Amu Darya), lying between i ...

and Kapisa-

had remained independent kingdoms under the Alchon Huns, under kings such as Narendra, but in 625 CE they were taken over by the expanding

Western Turks The Western Turkic Khaganate () or Onoq Khaganate ( otk, 𐰆𐰣:𐰸:𐰉𐰆𐰑𐰣, On oq budun, Ten arrow people) was a Turkic khaganate in Eurasia, formed as a result of the wars in the beginning of the 7th century (593–603 CE) after t ...

when they established the

Yabghus of Tokharistan The Tokhara Yabghus or Yabghus of Tokharistan () were a dynasty of Western Turk– Hephtalite sub-kings with the title " Yabghus", who ruled from 625 CE in the area of Tokharistan north and south of the Oxus River, with some smaller remnants sur ...

."The definitive annexation of Tokharistan and Gandhara to the Western Türk Empire was to take place some years later, in c. 625, when Sasanian Iran became involved in the war against Byzantium that ultimately led to its eclipse." in Eventually, the Nezak-Alchons were replaced by the

Turk Shahi The Turk Shahis or Kabul Shahis were a dynasty of Western Turk, or mixed Turko- Hephthalite, origin, that ruled from Kabul and Kapisa to Gandhara in the 7th to 9th centuries AD. They may have been of Khalaj ethnicity."The new rulers of Kabu ...

dynasty around 665 CE.

Religion and ethics

Alchon devotee, Butkara I (construction phase 4), 5th century CE

The four Alchon kings

, Javukha, and

are mentioned as donors to a Buddhist stupa in the

Talagan copper scroll The Talagan copper scroll, also known as Schøyen Copper Scroll (58 x 26 cm), was discovered and published in 2006 by Gudrun Melzer and Lore Sander. The scroll, dated to 492/3, mentions the four Alchon Huns kings Khingila, Toramana, Javukha, and ...

inscription dated to 492 or 493 CE, that is, at a time before the Hunnic wars in India started. This corresponds to a time when the Alchons had recently taken control of

(around 460 CE), at the center of the Buddhist regions of northwestern India. Numerous Alchon coins were found in the dedication compartment of the "Tope Kalān" stupa in Hadda. Mural with paintings of probable Alchon devotees can be seen in the Buddhist complex of the

Butkara Stupa The Butkara Stupa (Pashto: بت کړه سټوپا) is an important Buddhist stupa near Mingora, in the area of Swat, Pakistan. It may have been built by the Mauryan emperor Ashoka, but it is generally dated slightly later to the 2nd century BCE ...

(Butkara I, construction phase 4). Dated to the 5th century CE, they suggest that the Alchon Huns may have been participants to the local Buddhist culture.

Persecution of Buddhism

Later, however, the attitude of the Alchons towards Buddhism is reported to have been negative. Mihirakula in particular is remembered by

Buddhist Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and ...

sources to have been a "terrible persecutor of their religion" in

in northern (modern day)

Pakistan Pakistan ( ur, ), officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan ( ur, , label=none), is a country in South Asia. It is the world's List of countries and dependencies by population, fifth-most populous country, with a population of almost 24 ...

. During his reign, over one thousand Buddhist monasteries throughout Gandhara are said to have been destroyed. In particular, the writings of Chinese monk

from 630 CE explained that Mihirakula ordered the destruction of

Buddhism Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and gra ...

and the expulsion of monks. Indeed, the Buddhist art of Gandhara, in particular

Greco-Buddhist art The Greco-Buddhist art or Gandhara art of the north Indian subcontinent is the artistic manifestation of Greco-Buddhism, a cultural syncretism between Ancient Greek art and Buddhism. It had mainly evolved in the ancient region of Gandhara. The s ...

, becomes essentially extinct around that period. When Xuanzang visited northwestern India in CE, he reported that Buddhism had drastically declined, and that most of the monasteries were deserted and left in ruins. Although the Guptas were traditionally a

Hindu Hindus (; ) are people who religiously adhere to Hinduism.Jeffery D. Long (2007), A Vision for Hinduism, IB Tauris, , pages 35–37 Historically, the term has also been used as a geographical, cultural, and later religious identifier for ...

dynasty, around the period of the invasions of the Alchon the Gupta rulers had apparently been favouring Buddhism. According to contemporary writer

Paramartha Paramārtha (Sanskrit, Devanagari: परमार्थ; ) (499-569 CE) was an Indian monk from Ujjain, who is best known for his prolific Chinese translations of Buddhist texts during the Six Dynasties era.Toru Funayama. The work of Paramār ...

's supposed nemesis

was brought up under the influence of the

Mahayanist ''Mahāyāna'' (; "Great Vehicle") is a term for a broad group of Buddhist traditions, texts, philosophies, and practices. Mahāyāna Buddhism developed in India (c. 1st century BCE onwards) and is considered one of the three main existing bra ...

philosopher

Vasubandhu Vasubandhu (; Tibetan: དབྱིག་གཉེན་ ; floruit, fl. 4th to 5th century CE) was an influential bhikkhu, Buddhist monk and scholar from ''Puruṣapura'' in ancient India, modern day Peshawar, Pakistan. He was a philosopher who ...

. He built a

sangharama Sangharama (Sanskrit: संघराम ''Saṃgharāma'') refers to a "temple" or "monastery." It is the place, including its garden or grove, where the Sangha, the Buddhist monastic community dwells. A famous sangharāma was that of Kukkutara ...

Nalanda Nalanda (, ) was a renowned ''mahavihara'' (Buddhist monastic university) in ancient Magadha (modern-day Bihar), India.vihara with a Buddha statue within which, according to Xuanzang, resembled the "great Vihara built under the Bodhi tree". According to the '' Manjushrimulakalpa'' (c. 800 CE), king Narasimhsagupta became a Buddhist monk, and left the world through meditation (

Dhyana Dhyana may refer to: Meditative practices in Indian religions * Dhyana in Buddhism (Pāli: ''jhāna'') * Dhyana in Hinduism * Jain Dhyāna, see Jain meditation Other *''Dhyana'', a work by British composer John Tavener (1944-2013) * ''Dhyana'' ...

). Xuanzang also noted that Narasimhagupta Baladitya's son Vajra, who also commissioned a sangharama, "possessed a heart firm in faith". The 12th century

i historian

also painted a dreary picture of Mihirakula's cruelty, as well as his persecution of the Buddhist faith:

Sun cult, Vaishnavism and Shivaism

The Alchons are generally described as sun worshipers, a traditional cult of steppe nomads. This stems from the appearance of sun symbols on some of their coins, combined with the probable influence they received from the worship of

Surya Surya (; sa, सूर्य, ) is the sun as well as the solar deity in Hinduism. He is traditionally one of the major five deities in the Smarta tradition, all of whom are considered as equivalent deities in the Panchayatana puja and a m ...

in India. The Hindu

Vaishnavite Vaishnavism ( sa, वैष्णवसम्प्रदायः, Vaiṣṇavasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu denominations along with Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. It is also called Vishnuism since it considers Vishnu as the ...

goddess

Lakshmi Lakshmi (; , sometimes spelled Laxmi, ), also known as Shri (, ), is one of the principal goddesses in Hinduism. She is the goddess of wealth, fortune, power, beauty, fertility and prosperity, and associated with ''Maya'' ("Illusion"). Alo ...

, goddess of wealth, fortune, power, beauty, fertility and prosperity and also an ancient goddess of

, also appears on the coinage of some rulers, especially

, and

. Mihirakula is also said to have been an ardent worshiper of

, although he may have been selectively attracted to the destructive powers of the Indian deity. Mihirakula is said to have been the founder of the

Shankaracharya Temple Shankaracharya Temple or Jyeshteshwara Temple is a Hindu temple situated on top of the Shankaracharya Hill on the Zabarwan Range in Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir, India. It is dedicated to Lord Shiva. The temple is at a height of above the val ...

, a shrine dedicated to

, a shrine to Shiva named Mihiresvara in Halada, and a large city called Mihirapura.

Consequences on India

The Alchon invasions, although only spanning a few decades, had long term effects on India, and in a sense brought an end to the

middle kingdoms of India The middle kingdoms of India were the political entities in the Indian subcontinent from 200 BCE to 1200 CE. The period begins after the decline of the Maurya Empire and the corresponding rise of the Satavahana dynasty, starting with Simuka, ...

Destructions

Indian urban culture was left in decline. Major traditional cities, such as

and probably

Ujjain Ujjain (, Hindustani language, Hindustani pronunciation: Help:IPA/Hindi and Urdu, �d͡ːʒɛːn is a city in Ujjain district of the States and territories of India, Indian state of Madhya Pradesh. It is the fifth-largest city in Madhya Prad ...

were in ruins,

Vidisha Vidisha (विदिशा, formerly known as Bhelsa and known as Besnagar in ancient times) is a city in central Madhya Pradesh, India. It is located 62.5 km northeast of the state capital, Bhopal. The name "Vidisha" is derived from th ...

and

Mathura Mathura () is a city and the administrative headquarters of Mathura district in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. It is located approximately north of Agra, and south-east of Delhi; about from the town of Vrindavan, and from Govardhan. ...

fell into decline.

, gravely weakened by the destruction of monasteries and the killing of monks, started to collapse. Great centers of learning were destroyed, such as the city of

, bringing cultural regression. The

art of Mathura The Art of Mathura refers to a particular school of Indian art, almost entirely surviving in the form of sculpture, starting in the 2nd century BCE, which centered on the city of Mathura, in central northern India, during a period in which Bu ...

suffered greatly from the destructions brought by the Hunas, as did the

art of Gandhara The Greco-Buddhist art or Gandhara art of the north Indian subcontinent is the artistic manifestation of Greco-Buddhism, a cultural syncretism between Ancient Greek art and Buddhism. It had mainly evolved in the ancient region of Gandhara. The s ...

in the northwest, and both schools of art were nearly wiped out under the rule of the ''Huna''

. New cities arose from these destructions, such as

Dashapura Mandsaur is a city and a municipality in Mandsaur district located on Border of Mewar and Malwa region of Madhya Pradesh state of central India. It is the administrative headquarters of Mandsaur District. The ancient Pashupatinath Temple is l ...

Kanyakubja Kannauj ( Hindustani pronunciation: ənːɔːd͡ʒ is a city, administrative headquarters and a municipal board or Nagar Palika Parishad in Kannauj district in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. The city's name is a corrupted form of the class ...

, Sthaneshvara,

Valabhi Vallabhi (or Valabhi or Valabhipur, modern Vala; Devanāgarī: वल्लभी) is an ancient city located in the Saurashtra peninsula of Gujarat, near Bhavnagar in western India. It is also known as Vallabhipura and was the capital of the ...

and Shripura.

Political fragmentation

Soon after the invasions, the

, already weakened by these invasions and the rise of local rulers, ended as well. Following the invasions, northern India was left in disarray, with numerous smaller Indian powers emerging after the crumbling of the Guptas. Many autonomous regional states rose to prominence following the dislocation of Gupta power: the

Aulikaras The Aulikaras (Late Brahmi script: ''Au-li-ka-rā''), also referred to as Aulikara dynasty or Olikara dynasty, were an ancient Indian clan from the Maurya era, that emerged into a kingdom between the 4th-century CE and 6th-century CE. They w ...

, the

Maitrakas The Maitraka dynasty ruled western India (now Gujarat) from approximately 475 to approximately 776 CE from their capital at Vallabhi. With the sole exception of Dharapaṭṭa (the fifth king in the dynasty), who followed the Mithraic mysteries, ...

, the

Kalacuris The Kalachuris ( IAST: Kalacuri), also known as Kalachuris of Mahishmati, were an Indian dynasty that ruled in west-central India between 6th and 7th centuries. They are also known as the Haihayas or as the Early Kalachuris to distinguish them ...

or the

Vardhanas The Pushyabhuti dynasty (IAST: Puṣyabhūti), also known as the Vardhana dynasty ruled in northern India during 6th and 7th centuries. The dynasty reached its zenith under its last ruler Harsha Vardhana (c. 590–647 CE), and the Empire of Har ...

, all in a constant flux of rivalry. With the end of Hunnic power, some India polities, such as the

Maukhari dynasty The Maukhari dynasty ( Gupta script: , ''Mau-kha-ri'') was a post-Gupta dynasty who controlled the vast plains of Ganga-Yamuna for over six generations from their capital at Kannauj. They earlier served as vassals of the Guptas and later of Hars ...

were able to establish direct contacts with

and the

: the Maukhari King Śarvavarman of

Kannauj Kannauj ( Hindustani pronunciation: ənːɔːd͡ʒ is a city, administrative headquarters and a municipal board or Nagar Palika Parishad in Kannauj district in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. The city's name is a corrupted form of the class ...

is said to have introduced the game of

chess Chess is a board game for two players, called White and Black, each controlling an army of chess pieces in their color, with the objective to checkmate the opponent's king. It is sometimes called international chess or Western chess to disti ...

to the Sasanian court of

Khosrow I Khosrow I (also spelled Khosrau, Khusro or Chosroes; pal, 𐭧𐭥𐭮𐭫𐭥𐭣𐭩; New Persian: []), traditionally known by his epithet of Anushirvan ( [] "the Immortal Soul"), was the Sasanian Empire, Sasanian King of Kings of Iran from ...

, between the beginning of Śarvavarman's reign in 560/565 and the end of Khosrow's reign in 579.

Rise of Saivism

Vaisnavism Vaishnavism ( sa, वैष्णवसम्प्रदायः, Vaiṣṇavasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu denominations along with Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. It is also called Vishnuism since it considers Vishnu as the ...

, which had been strongly supported by the Gupta Empire, was discredited by the decline and the ultimate failure of the Empire. All the newly arising regional powers preferred adopting

Saivism Shaivism (; sa, शैवसम्प्रदायः, Śaivasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu traditions, which worships Shiva as the Supreme Being. One of the largest Hindu denominations, it incorporates many sub-traditions rangin ...

instead, as did the Alchon Huns under Mihirakula, giving a strong impetus to the development of the worship of

, and its ideology of power. Vaisnavism only remained strong in the territories which had not been affected by these events:

South India South India, also known as Dakshina Bharata or Peninsular India, consists of the peninsular southern part of India. It encompasses the Indian states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Telangana, as well as the union territo ...

and

International trade

The Huna invasions are said to have seriously damaged India's trade with

Europe Europe is a large peninsula conventionally considered a continent in its own right because of its great physical size and the weight of its history and traditions. Europe is also considered a Continent#Subcontinents, subcontinent of Eurasia ...

and

, particularly

Indo-Roman trade relations Indo-Roman trade relations (see also the spice trade and incense road) was trade between the Indian subcontinent and the Roman Empire in Europe and the Mediterranean Sea. Trade through the overland caravan routes via Asia Minor and the Middl ...

, which the Gupta Empire had greatly benefited from. The Guptas had been exporting numerous luxury products such as

silk Silk is a natural protein fiber, some forms of which can be woven into textiles. The protein fiber of silk is composed mainly of fibroin and is produced by certain insect larvae to form cocoons. The best-known silk is obtained from the coc ...

, leather goods, fur, iron products,

ivory Ivory is a hard, white material from the tusks (traditionally from elephants) and teeth of animals, that consists mainly of dentine, one of the physical structures of teeth and tusks. The chemical structure of the teeth and tusks of mammals is ...

pearl A pearl is a hard, glistening object produced within the soft tissue (specifically the mantle) of a living shelled mollusk or another animal, such as fossil conulariids. Just like the shell of a mollusk, a pearl is composed of calcium carb ...

and pepper from centers such as

Nasik Nashik (, Marathi: aːʃik, also called as Nasik ) is a city in the northern region of the Indian state of Maharashtra. Situated on the banks of river Godavari, Nashik is the third largest city in Maharashtra, after Mumbai and Pune. Nashik ...

Paithan Paithan pəɪ.ʈʰaɳ(), historically Pratiṣṭhāna ɾə'tɪʂʈʰana is a town with municipal council in Aurangabad district, Maharashtra, India. Paithan is located south of present-day Aurangabad on the Godavari River. It was the cap ...

and

. The Huna invasion probably disrupted these trade relations and the tax revenues that came with them. During their rule of 60 years, the Alchons are said to have altered the hierarchy of ruling families and the Indian

caste system Caste is a form of social stratification characterised by endogamy, hereditary transmission of a style of life which often includes an occupation, ritual status in a hierarchy, and customary social interaction and exclusion based on cultura ...

. For example, the Hunas are often said to have become the precursors of the

Rajputs Rajput (from Sanskrit ''raja-putra'' 'son of a king') is a large multi-component cluster of castes, kin bodies, and local groups, sharing social status and ideology of genealogical descent originating from the Indian subcontinent. The term Ra ...

. On the artistic side however, the Alchon Huns may have played a role, just like the

Western Satraps The Western Satraps, or Western Kshatrapas (Brahmi:, ''Mahakṣatrapa'', "Great Satraps") were Indo-Scythian (Saka) rulers of the western and central part of India ( Saurashtra and Malwa: modern Gujarat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh ...

centuries before them, in helping spread the

to the western

Deccan The large Deccan Plateau in South India, southern India is located between the Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats, and is loosely defined as the peninsular region between these ranges that is south of the Narmada river. To the north, it is bou ...

region.

Artistic syncretism: "A Nomadic Interlude in Indian Art"

The advances of the Alchon Huns in India seems to have fostered a type of syncretic art in Gandhara during the 5th-6th century, mixing

Gupta art Gupta art is the art of the Gupta Empire, which ruled most of northern India, with its peak between about 300 and 480 CE, surviving in much reduced form until c. 550. The Gupta period is generally regarded as a classic peak and golden age of North ...

with

and Hunish inspiration and themes. Particularly significant are a type of decorated lids from

which display courtly or hunting scenes, mixing them with Gupta decorative designs. File:Lid with Combat between a Man and a Lion. Cleavealand Museum of Art.jpg, Lid with Combat between a Man and a Lion. Cleveland Museum of Art. File:Box Lid with a Winged Lion and Remnant of an Iron Hinge, Gandhara, 5th century CE.jpg, Box Lid with a Winged Lion, Gandhara, 5th century CE File:Box Lid with a Lion Attacking an Elephant, Gandhara, 5th century CE.jpg, Box Lid with a Lion Attacking an Elephant, Gandhara, 5th century CE. File:Box Lid with a Phoenix, Gandhara, 5th century CE.jpg, Box Lid with a Phoenix, Gandhara, 5th century CE.

The Chilek silver bowl

Several silver bowls related to the Alchons have been found in the area of

Samarkand fa, سمرقند , native_name_lang = , settlement_type = City , image_skyline = , image_caption = Clockwise from the top:Registan square, Shah-i-Zinda necropolis, Bibi-Khanym Mosque, view inside Shah-i-Zinda, ...

, including the "Chilek bowl" ("Čilek bowl"), which is considered as the "best known specimen of Hephthalite art", and is similar in composition with the Hephthalite silver bowl, but represents "six dancers in Indian costume with Iranian ribbons and Hephthalite-short heads". Each of the dancers is positionned under a pointed arch in Indian style, ans seems to be derived from contemporary

. This bowl, too, is considered as an Alchon object, but was possibly manufactured in India at the request of the Alchons. It is now in the Samarkand Museum. The man in the medallion at the bottom of the Chilek bowl has a clearly elongated skull, characteristic of the Alchons Huns at that time and place.

Coinage legacy (6th-12th century CE)

As they invaded northern and central India circa 500 CE, the Alchon Huns issued several types of coinage on the model of the

, with ruler in profile on the obverse and sacred fire with attendants on the reverse. It is thought that in the process of minting coins in occupied lands, they transmitted Sasanian coin designs to northern and western India. This created a major type of

Indian coinage The Coinage of India began anywhere between early 1st millennium BCE to the 6th century BCE, and consisted mainly of copper and silver coins in its initial stage.Allan & Stern (2008) The coins of this period were ''Karshapanas'' or ''Pana''. A ...

called "

Indo-Sasanian coinage Indo-Sasanian coinage was major type of coinage of the post-Gupta Empire period, in the areas of Gujarat and Rajasthan in western India and in the Gangetic region, from the 6th century to the 12th century CE. These coins were derived from the Sasan ...

", which lasted in degraded form until the 12th century CE as far as the Gangetic region.

Ethnic legacy

The

Gurjaras Gurjaradesa ("Gurjara country") or Gurjaratra is a historical region in India comprising the eastern Rajasthan and northern Gujarat during the period of 6th -12th century CE. The predominant power of the region, the Gurjara-Pratiharas eventual ...

and

Gurjara-Pratiharas The Gurjara-Pratihara was a dynasty that ruled much of Northern India from the mid-8th to the 11th century. They ruled first at Ujjain and later at Kannauj. The Gurjara-Pratiharas were instrumental in containing Arab armies moving east of the ...

suddenly emerged as a political power in north India around sixth century CE, shortly after the

invasion of that region. The Gujara-Pratihara were "likely" formed from a fusion of the Alchon Huns ("White Huns") and native Indian element, and can probably be considered as a Hunnic state, although its precise origins remain unclear. In Bana's ''

Harshacharita The ''Harshacharita'' ( sa, हर्षचरित, ) (''The deeds of Harsha''), is the biography of Indian emperor Harsha by Banabhatta, also known as Bana, who was a Sanskrit writer of seventh-century CE India. He was the ''Asthana Kavi'', ...

'' (7th century CE), the Gurjaras are associated with the Hunas. Some of the Hunas may also have contributed to the formation of the warlike

Sources

Ancient sources refer to the Alchons and associated groups ambiguously with various names, such as Huna in Indian texts, and

in Greek texts.

chronicled some of the later history of the Alchons. Modern archeology has provided valuable insights into the history of the Alchons. The most significant cataloguing of the Alchon dynasty came in 1967 with Robert Göbl's analysis of the coinage of the "

Iranian Huns The term Iranian Huns is sometimes used for a group of different tribes that lived in Afghanistan and neighboring areas between the fourth and seventh centuries and expanded into northwest India. They are roughly equivalent to the Hunas. They als ...

". This work documented the names of a partial chronology of Alchon kings, beginning with Khingila. In 2012, the

Kunsthistorisches Museum The Kunsthistorisches Museum ( "Museum of Art History", often referred to as the "Museum of Fine Arts") is an art museum in Vienna, Austria. Housed in its festive palatial building on the Vienna Ring Road, it is crowned with an octagonal do ...

completed
reanalysis
of previous finds together with a large number of new coins that appeared on the antiquities market during the Second Afghan Civil War, redefining the timeline and narrative of the Alchons and related peoples.

Talagan copper scroll

A significant contribution to our understanding of Alchon history came in 2006 when Gudrun Melzer and Lore Sander published their finding of the "

", also known as the "Schøyen Copper Scroll", dated to 492 or 493, that mentions the four Alchon kings Khingila, Toramana, Javukha, and Mehama (who was reigning at the time) as donors to a Buddhist reliquary

stupa A stupa ( sa, स्तूप, lit=heap, ) is a mound-like or hemispherical structure containing relics (such as ''śarīra'' – typically the remains of Buddhist monks or nuns) that is used as a place of meditation. In Buddhism, circumamb ...

."Together with the great sahi Khingila, together with the god-king Toramana, together with the mistress of a great monastery Sasa, together with the great sahi Mehama, together with Sadavikha, together with the great king Javukha, the son of Sadavikha, during the reign of Mehama."from For an image of the copper scroll: Coin Cabinet of the Kunsthistorisches Museum Vienn
Showcase 8
/ref>

Rulers

The rulers of the Alchons practiced skull deformation, as evidenced from their coins, a practice shared with the

that migrated into Europe. The names of the first Alchon rulers do not survive. Starting from 430 CE, names of Alchon kings survive on coins and religious inscriptions: * anonymous kings (400 - 430 CE) *

(c. 430 – 490 CE) *

Javukha Javukha (Brahmi: ''Ja-vu-kha'', Bactrian: ''Zabocho'', or ''Zabokho'') was the third known king of the Alchon Huns, in the 5th century CE. He is described as such in the Talagan copper scroll inscription, where he is also said to be Maharaja ("G ...

/Zabocho (c. mid 5th – early 6th CE) *

(c. 461 – 493 CE) * Lakhana Udayaditya (c. 490's CE) * Aduman *

(c. 490 – 515 CE) *

(c. 515 – 540 CE) *

(c. 530 – 570 CE) * Pravarasena (c. 530 – 590 CE) * Gokarna (c. 570 – 590 CE) *

(c. 590 – 630 CE) *

(630-670 CE)

Coinage

;Early Bactrian coinage based on Sasanian designs The earliest Alchon Hun coins were based on

designs, often with the simple addition of the Alchon ''

'' and a mention of "Alchon" or "Alkhan". Various coins minted in

and based on Sasanian designs are known, often with busts imitating Sasanian kings

(r.309 to 379 CE) and

(r.383 to 388 CE), with attendants to a

on the reverse. It is thought that the Sasanids lost control of

to the

during the reign of Shapur II circa 370 CE, followed by the

, and subsequently by the Alchon. ;Later original coinage Later Alchon coinage became original and differed from predecessors in that it was devoid of Iranian (Sasanian) symbolism. The rulers are depicted with elongated skulls, apparently a result of

artificial cranial deformation Artificial cranial deformation or modification, head flattening, or head binding is a form of body alteration in which the skull of a human being is deformed intentionally. It is done by distorting the normal growth of a child's skull by applying ...

. After their invasion of India the coins of the Alchon were numerous and varied, as they issued copper, silver and gold coins, sometimes roughly following the Gupta pattern. The Alchon empire in India must have been quite significant and rich, with the ability to issue a significant volume of gold coins.

Coinage

File:Toramana coin in Western Gupta style.jpg, Silver coin of

in Western

Gupta Gupta () is a common surname or last name of Indian origin. It is based on the Sanskrit word गोप्तृ ''goptṛ'', which means 'guardian' or 'protector'. According to historian R. C. Majumdar, the surname ''Gupta'' was adopted by se ...

style, with the Gupta peacock and

Brahmi Brahmi (; ; ISO 15919, ISO: ''Brāhmī'') is a writing system of ancient South Asia. "Until the late nineteenth century, the script of the Aśokan (non-Kharosthi) inscriptions and its immediate derivatives was referred to by various names such ...

legend on the reverse. Similar to the silver coin type of

. On the obverse the date "52" is also inscribed. A modern Imag

File:Alchon Tamgha on a coin of Khingila.jpg, Alchon

symbol on a coin of Khingila. File:Khingila Alchono inscription.jpg,

with the word "Alchono" in

(αλχονο) and the

symbol on his coins.CNG Coins
/ref> File:Khingila of the Alchon Huns Circa 440-490 CE.jpg, Silver drachm of

(early portrait) without headdress, mid-late 5th century.For equivalent coin, se
CNG Coins
/ref> File:HunCoinDerivedFromSassanianDesign5thCE.JPG, Silver drachm of Khingila (mature portrait), Bactrian script, Bactrian legend: χιγγιλο αλχοννο "Khiggilo Alchono".This coin is in the collection of the

. For equivalent coin, se
CNG Coins
/ref> File:Javukha of the Alchon Huns Mid-late 5th century.jpg, Silver drachm of Javukha, mid-late 5th century. File:Mehama_silver-drachm.png, Silver drachm of

legend: “ṣāhi mehama", mid-late 5th century. File:Lakhana of the Alchon Huns Late 5th-early 6th centuries.jpg, Silver drachm of Lakhana, late 5th-early 6th centuries. File:Adomano of the Alchon Huns Mid-late 5th century.jpg, Gold dinar of Adomano,

Kushano-Sasanian Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom (also called Kushanshahs, KΟÞANΟ ÞAΟ ''or Koshano Shao'' in Bactrian, or Indo-Sasanians) is a historiographic term used by modern scholars to refer to a branch of the Sasanian Persians who established their rule in ...

style, mid-late 5th century. File:Mihirakula Coin.jpg, Silver drachm of

, early-mid 6th century. File:Toramana_II_bronze_coin.png, Bronze drachm of Toramana II wearing trident crown, late-phase Gandharan style. mid 6th century. File:Alchon Huns Toramana II Circa AD 540-570.jpg, Silver stater of Toramana II,

style, mid-late 6th century. File:Narana-Narenda of the Alchon Huns late 4th-early 5th century CE.jpg, Bronze drachm of Narana-Narenda (possibly Toramana II) wearing trident crown, late 6th century. File:Khingila of the Alchon Huns young circa AD 440-490.jpg, Khingila as a young king, without headdress.

Artificial cranial deformation Artificial cranial deformation or modification, head flattening, or head binding is a form of body alteration in which the skull of a human being is deformed intentionally. It is done by distorting the normal growth of a child's skull by applying ...

clearly visible. File:VishnuGandhara.JPG,

Vishnu Nicolo Seal The Vishnu Nicolo Seal is a "finely engraved" oval agate seal (1.4 inches by 1.05 inch) from the Gandhara region, dated to the 4th century CE. Since 1892 it has been in the British Museum. The seal depicts a four-armed deity, probably Vishnu or ...

representing

Vishnu Vishnu ( ; , ), also known as Narayana and Hari, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme being within Vaishnavism, one of the major traditions within contemporary Hinduism. Vishnu is known as "The Preserver" within t ...

with a worshipper (probably

), 4th–6th century CE. The inscription in cursive Bactrian reads: " Mihira,

and

Notes

References

Sources

External links

Nezak Kings in Zabulistan and Kabulistan
Coin Cabinet of the Kunsthistorisches Museum Vienna

Grifterrec {{Afghanistan topics Dynasties of Afghanistan History of Ghazni Province Nomadic groups in Eurasia Historical Iranian peoples Huns Ancient history of Afghanistan Ancient history of Pakistan Former countries in Asia