''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a
genus
Genus ( plural genera ) is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms as well as viruses. In the hierarchy of biological classification, genus comes above species and below family. In binomial nom ...
of over 250
species
In biology, a species is the basic unit of classification and a taxonomic rank of an organism, as well as a unit of biodiversity. A species is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriate s ...
of flowering plants belonging to the
family
Family (from la, familia) is a group of people related either by consanguinity (by recognized birth) or affinity (by marriage or other relationship). The purpose of the family is to maintain the well-being of its members and of society. Idea ...
Ranunculaceae
Ranunculaceae (buttercup or crowfoot family; Latin "little frog", from "frog") is a family of over 2,000 known species of flowering plants in 43 genera, distributed worldwide.
The largest genera are ''Ranunculus'' (600 species), ''Delphinium' ...
. These herbaceous
perennial plant
A perennial plant or simply perennial is a plant that lives more than two years. The term ('' per-'' + '' -ennial'', "through the years") is often used to differentiate a plant from shorter-lived annuals and biennials. The term is also wide ...
s are chiefly
native
Native may refer to:
People
* Jus soli, citizenship by right of birth
* Indigenous peoples, peoples with a set of specific rights based on their historical ties to a particular territory
** Native Americans (disambiguation)
In arts and entert ...
to the mountainous parts of the
Northern Hemisphere in
North America,
Europe
Europe is a large peninsula conventionally considered a continent in its own right because of its great physical size and the weight of its history and traditions. Europe is also considered a subcontinent of Eurasia and it is located entirel ...
, and
Asia
Asia (, ) is one of the world's most notable geographical regions, which is either considered a continent in its own right or a subcontinent of Eurasia, which shares the continental landmass of Afro-Eurasia with Africa. Asia covers an are ...
;
growing in the moisture-retentive but well-draining
soil
Soil, also commonly referred to as earth or dirt
Dirt is an unclean matter, especially when in contact with a person's clothes, skin, or possessions. In such cases, they are said to become dirty.
Common types of dirt include:
* Debri ...
s of mountain meadows.
Most ''Aconitum'' species are extremely poisonous and must be handled very carefully. Several ''Aconitum''
hybrid
Hybrid may refer to:
Science
* Hybrid (biology), an offspring resulting from cross-breeding
** Hybrid grape, grape varieties produced by cross-breeding two ''Vitis'' species
** Hybridity, the property of a hybrid plant which is a union of two dif ...
s, such as the Arendsii form of ''
Aconitum carmichaelii
''Aconitum carmichaelii'' is a species of flowering plant of the genus ''Aconitum'', family Ranunculaceae. It is native to East Asia and eastern Russia. It is commonly known as Chinese aconite, Carmichael's monkshood or Chinese wolfsbane. In Ma ...
'', have won gardening awards—such as the
Royal Horticultural Society
The Royal Horticultural Society (RHS), founded in 1804 as the Horticultural Society of London, is the UK's leading gardening charity.
The RHS promotes horticulture through its five gardens at Wisley (Surrey), Hyde Hall (Essex), Harlow Carr (Nor ...
's
Award of Garden Merit.
Some are used by florists.
Etymology
![Aconitum-noveboracense01](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/Aconitum-noveboracense01.jpg)
The name ''aconitum'' comes from the Greek word , which may derive from the Greek ''akon'' for
dart
Dart or DART may refer to:
* Dart, the equipment in the game of darts
Arts, entertainment and media
* Dart (comics), an Image Comics superhero
* Dart, a character from ''G.I. Joe''
* Dart, a ''Thomas & Friends'' railway engine character
* Dar ...
or
javelin, the tips of which were poisoned with the substance, or from ''akonae'', because of the rocky ground on which the plant was thought to grow. The Greek name ''lycoctonum'', which translates literally to "wolf's
bane
Bane may refer to:
Fictional characters
* Bane (DC Comics), an adversary of Batman
* Bane (''Harry Potter''), a centaur in the ''Harry Potter'' series
* Bane (''The Matrix''), a character in the ''Matrix'' film trilogy
* Bane the Druid, a Gu ...
", is thought to indicate the use of its juice to poison arrows or baits used to kill wolves.
The English name monkshood refers to the cylindrical helmet, called the galea, distinguishing the flower.
Description
The dark green leaves of ''Aconitum'' species lack
stipules. They are
palmate or deeply palmately lobed with five to seven segments. Each segment again is trilobed with coarse sharp teeth. The leaves have a spiral (alternate) arrangement. The lower leaves have long
petioles.
![Aconitum vulparia opened flower](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Aconitum_vulparia_opened_flower.jpg)
The tall, erect stem is crowned by
racemes of large blue, purple, white, yellow, or pink
zygomorphic
Floral symmetry describes whether, and how, a flower, in particular its perianth, can be divided into two or more identical or mirror-image parts.
Uncommonly, flowers may have no axis of symmetry at all, typically because their parts are spirall ...
flowers with numerous
stamens. They are distinguishable by having one of the five
petaloid
Petals are modified leaves that surround the reproductive parts of flowers. They are often brightly colored or unusually shaped to attract pollinators. All of the petals of a flower are collectively known as the ''corolla''. Petals are usually ...
sepal
A sepal () is a part of the flower of angiosperms (flowering plants). Usually green, sepals typically function as protection for the flower in bud, and often as support for the petals when in bloom., p. 106 The term ''sepalum'' was coine ...
s (the posterior one), called the galea, in the form of a cylindrical helmet, hence the English name monkshood.
Two to 10
petals are present. The two upper petals are large and are placed under the hood of the calyx and are supported on long stalks. They have a hollow spur at their apex, containing the
nectar. The other petals are small and scale-like or nonforming. The three to five
carpel
Gynoecium (; ) is most commonly used as a collective term for the parts of a flower that produce ovules and ultimately develop into the fruit and seeds. The gynoecium is the innermost whorl of a flower; it consists of (one or more) '' pistils' ...
s are partially fused at the base.
The fruit is an
aggregate of
follicles, a follicle being a dry, many-seeded structure.
Unlike with many species from genera (and their hybrids) in ''
Ranunculaceae
Ranunculaceae (buttercup or crowfoot family; Latin "little frog", from "frog") is a family of over 2,000 known species of flowering plants in 43 genera, distributed worldwide.
The largest genera are ''Ranunculus'' (600 species), ''Delphinium' ...
'' (and the related ''
Papaveroideae
Papaveroideae is a subfamily of the family Papaveraceae (the poppy family).
Genera
* Subfamily Papaveroideae Eaton
:* Tribe Eschscholzieae Baill.
::* ''Dendromecon'' Benth. – California.
::* ''Eschscholzia'' Cham. – Western North America.
...
'' subfamily), there are no double-flowered forms.
Color range
A medium to dark semi-saturated blue-purple is the typical flower color for ''Aconitum'' species. ''Aconitum'' species tend to be variable enough in form and color in the wild to cause debate and confusion among experts when it comes to species classification boundaries. The overall color range of the genus is rather limited, although the palette has been extended a small amount with hybridization. In the wild, some ''Aconitum'' blue-purple shades can be very dark. In cultivation the shades do not reach this level of depth.
Aside from blue-purple—white, very pale greenish-white, creamy white, and pale greenish-yellow are also somewhat common in nature. Wine red (or red-purple) occurs in a hybrid of the climber ''Aconitum hemsleyanum''. There is a pale semi-saturated pink produced by cultivation as well as bicolor hybrids (e.g. white centers with blue-purple edges). Purplish shades range from very dark blue-purple to a very pale lavender that is quite greyish. The latter occurs in the "Stainless Steel" hybrid.
Neutral blue (rather than purplish or greenish), greenish-blue, and intense blues, available in some related ''
Delphinium
''Delphinium'' is a genus of about 300 species of annual and perennial flowering plants in the family Ranunculaceae, native throughout the Northern Hemisphere and also on the high mountains of tropical Africa. The genus was erected by Carl Linn ...
'' plants—particularly ''
Delphinium grandiflorum
''Delphinium grandiflorum'' is a species of ''Delphinium'' known by the common names Siberian larkspur and Chinese Delphinium. It is native to Russia and China. There are several popular cultivars in several colours which are grown as ornamental ...
''—do not occur in this genus. ''Aconitum'' plants that have purplish-blue flowers are often inaccurately referred to as having blue flowers, even though the purple tone dominates. If there are species with true (neutral) blue or greenish-blue flowers they are rare and do not occur in cultivation. Also unlike the genus ''Delphinium'', there are no bright red nor intense pink ''Aconitum'' flowers, as none known are pollinated by
hummingbirds
Hummingbirds are birds native to the Americas and comprise the biological family Trochilidae. With about 361 species and 113 genera, they occur from Alaska to Tierra del Fuego, but the vast majority of the species are found in the tropics aro ...
. There are no orange-flowered varieties nor any that are green. ''Aconitum'' is typically more intense in color than ''Helleborus'' but less intense than ''Delphinium''. There are no blackish flowers in ''Aconitum'', unlike with ''Helleborus''.
Monkshood (''Aconitum napellus'') produces light indigo-blue flowers, while Wolf's Bane (''Aconitum vulparia'') produces whitish or straw-yellow flowers.
Horticultural trade morphology
The lack of double-flowered forms in the horticultural trade stands in contrast with the other genera of ''
Ranunculaceae
Ranunculaceae (buttercup or crowfoot family; Latin "little frog", from "frog") is a family of over 2,000 known species of flowering plants in 43 genera, distributed worldwide.
The largest genera are ''Ranunculus'' (600 species), ''Delphinium' ...
'' used regularly in gardens. This includes one major genus that is known solely by most gardeners for a double-flowered form of one species—''
Ranunculus asiaticus'', known colloquially in the trade as "Ranunculus". The Ranunculus genus contains approximately 500 species. One other species of Ranunculus has seen minor use in gardens, the 'Flore Pleno' (doubled) form of ''
Ranunculus acris
''Ranunculus acris'' is a species of flowering plant in the family Ranunculaceae, and is one of the more common buttercups across Europe and temperate Eurasia. Common names include meadow buttercup, tall buttercup, common buttercup and giant but ...
''. Doubled forms of ''
Consolida
''Consolida'' is a genus of about 40 species of annual flowering plants in the family Ranunculaceae, native to western Europe, the Mediterranean and Asia. Phylogenetic studies show that ''Consolida'' is actually an annual clade nested within the ...
'' and ''
Delphinium
''Delphinium'' is a genus of about 300 species of annual and perennial flowering plants in the family Ranunculaceae, native throughout the Northern Hemisphere and also on the high mountains of tropical Africa. The genus was erected by Carl Linn ...
'' dominate the horticultural trade while single forms of ''
Anemone
''Anemone'' () is a genus of flowering plants in the buttercup family Ranunculaceae. Plants of the genus are commonly called windflowers. They are native to the temperate and subtropical regions of all continents except Australia, New Zealand an ...
'', ''
Aquilegia
''Aquilegia'' (common names: granny's bonnet, columbine) is a genus of about 60–70 species of perennial plants that are found in meadows, woodlands, and at higher altitudes throughout the Northern Hemisphere, known for the spurred petals Pu ...
'', ''
Clematis
''Clematis'' is a genus of about 300 species within the buttercup family, Ranunculaceae. Their garden hybrids have been popular among gardeners, beginning with ''Clematis'' × ''jackmanii'', a garden standby since 1862; more hybrid cultivars ...
'', ''
Helleborus
Commonly known as hellebores (), the Eurasian genus ''Helleborus'' consists of approximately 20 species of herbaceous or evergreen perennial flowering plants in the family Ranunculaceae, within which it gave its name to the tribe of Helleboreae. ...
'', ''
Pulsatilla
The genus ''Pulsatilla'' contains about 40 species of herbaceous perennial plants native to meadows and prairies of North America, Europe, and Asia. Derived from the Hebrew word for Passover, "pasakh", the common name pasque flower refers to the ...
''—and the related ''
Papaver
''Papaver'' is a genus of 70–100 species of frost-tolerant annuals, biennials, and perennials native to temperate and cold regions of Eurasia, Africa and North America. It is the type genus of the poppy family, Papaveraceae.
Description
The ...
''—retain some popularity. No doubled forms of ''Aconitum'' are known.
Ecology
''Aconitum'' species have been recorded as food plant of the caterpillars of several
moths. The yellow tiger moth ''
Arctia flavia
''Arctia flavia'', the yellow tiger moth, is a moth of the family Erebidae. The species was first described by Johann Kaspar Füssli in 1779. It is found in the Alps above the tree level. It also occurs in Balkan mountains (Rila), European Russ ...
'', and the purple-shaded gem ''
Euchalcia variabilis'' are at home on ''A. vulparia''.
The engrailed ''
Ectropis crepuscularia
The engrailed and small engrailed (''Ectropis crepuscularia'') are moths of the family Geometridae found from the British Isles through central and eastern Europe to the Russian Far East and Kazakhstan. The western Mediterranean and Asia Minor ...
'', yellow-tail ''
Euproctis similis'', mouse moth ''
Amphipyra tragopoginis
The mouse moth (''Amphipyra tragopoginis'') is a moth of the family Noctuidae. It is a widespread species with a Holarctic distribution.
Distribution
Europe (except the extreme north, and not occurring in the south of Spain, Sicily, or the Balka ...
'', pease blossom ''
Periphanes delphinii'', and ''
Mniotype bathensis'', have been observed feeding on ''A. napellus''. The purple-lined sallow ''
Pyrrhia exprimens
''Pyrrhia exprimens'', the purple-lined sallow, is a moth of the family Noctuidae. The species was first described by Francis Walker (entomologist) in 1857. In North America it is found from Newfoundland and Labrador west across southern Canada ...
'', and ''
Blepharita amica'' were found eating from ''A. septentrionale''. The dot moth ''
Melanchra persicariae
The dot moth (''Melanchra persicariae'') is a moth of the family Noctuidae. The species was first described by Carl Linnaeus in 1761. It is a very distinctive species with very dark brown, almost black, forewings marked with a large white stigm ...
'' occurs both on ''A. septentrionale'' and ''A. intermedium''. The golden plusia ''
Polychrysia moneta'' is hosted by ''A. vulparia'', ''A. napellus'', ''A. septentrionale'', and ''A. intermedium''. Other moths associated with ''Aconitum'' species include the wormwood pug ''
Eupithecia absinthiata
The wormwood pug (''Eupithecia absinthiata'') is a moth of the family Geometridae. The species was first described by Carl Alexander Clerck in 1759. It is a common species across the Palearctic region as well as North America.
The wingspan is ...
'', satyr pug ''
E. satyrata'', ''
Aterpia
''Aterpia'' is a genus of moths belonging to the subfamily Olethreutinae of the family Tortricidae.
Species
*'' Aterpia anderreggana'' ( Guenée, 1845)
*'' Aterpia approximana'' (Heinrich, 1919)
*'' Aterpia asema'' ( Diakonoff, 1973)
*'' Aterpi ...
charpentierana'', and ''
A. corticana''. It is also the primary food source for the Old World bumblebees ''
Bombus consobrinus'' and ''Bombus gerstaeckeri''.
Aconitum flowers are pollinated by long-tongued bumblebees.
Bumblebees have the strength to open the flowers and reach the single nectary at the top of the flower on its inside.
Some short-tongued bees will bore holes into the tops of the flowers to steal nectar.
However, alkaloids in the nectar function as a deterrent for species unsuited to pollination. The effect is greater in certain species, such as ''
Aconitum napellus'', than in others, such as ''
Aconitum lycoctonum
''Aconitum lycoctonum'' (wolf's-bane or northern wolf's-bane) is a species of flowering plant in the genus '' Aconitum'', of the family Ranunculaceae, native to much of Europe and northern Asia.Flora Europaea''Aconitum lycoctonum''/ref> It is fo ...
''.
Unlike the species with blue-purple flowers such as ''A. napellus'', ''A. lycoctonum''—which has off-white to pale yellow flowers, has been found to be a nectar source for butterflies.
This is likely due to the nectary flowers of the latter being more easily reachable by the butterflies; however, the differing alkaloid character of the two plants may also play a significant role or be the primary influence.
Cultivation
![Aconitum in its natural habitat](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/33/Aconitum_in_its_natural_habitat.png)
The species typically utilized by gardeners fare well in well-drained evenly moist "humus-rich" garden soils like many in the related
Helleborus
Commonly known as hellebores (), the Eurasian genus ''Helleborus'' consists of approximately 20 species of herbaceous or evergreen perennial flowering plants in the family Ranunculaceae, within which it gave its name to the tribe of Helleboreae. ...
and
Delphinium
''Delphinium'' is a genus of about 300 species of annual and perennial flowering plants in the family Ranunculaceae, native throughout the Northern Hemisphere and also on the high mountains of tropical Africa. The genus was erected by Carl Linn ...
genera, and can grow in the partial shade. Species not used in gardens tend to require more exacting conditions (e.g. ''
Aconitum noveboracense
''Aconitum noveboracense'', also known as northern blue monkshood or northern wild monkshood, is a flowering plant belonging to the buttercup family (Ranunculaceae). Members of its genus ('' Aconitum'') are also known as wolfsbane.
The United ...
''). Most ''Aconitum'' species prefer to have their roots cool and moist, with the majority of the leaves exposed to sun, like the related ''
Clematis
''Clematis'' is a genus of about 300 species within the buttercup family, Ranunculaceae. Their garden hybrids have been popular among gardeners, beginning with ''Clematis'' × ''jackmanii'', a garden standby since 1862; more hybrid cultivars ...
''. ''Aconitum'' species can be propagated by divisions of the root or by seeds, with care taken to avoid leaving pieces of the root where livestock might be poisoned. All parts of these plants should be handled while wearing protective disposable gloves.
''Aconitum'' plants are typically much longer-lived than the closely related delphinium plants, putting less energy into floral reproduction. As a result, they are not described as being "heavy feeders" (needing a higher quantity of fertilizer versus most other flowering plants)—unlike gardeners' delphiniums. As with most in the ''
Ranunculaceae
Ranunculaceae (buttercup or crowfoot family; Latin "little frog", from "frog") is a family of over 2,000 known species of flowering plants in 43 genera, distributed worldwide.
The largest genera are ''Ranunculus'' (600 species), ''Delphinium' ...
'' and ''
Papaveraceae
The Papaveraceae are an economically important family of about 42 genera and approximately 775 known species of flowering plants in the order Ranunculales, informally known as the poppy family. The family is cosmopolitan, occurring in temperat ...
'' families, they dislike root disturbance. As with most in Ranunculaceae, seeds that are not planted soon after harvesting should be stored moist-packed in
vermiculite
Vermiculite is a hydrous phyllosilicate mineral which undergoes significant expansion when heated. Exfoliation occurs when the mineral is heated sufficiently, and commercial furnaces can routinely produce this effect. Vermiculite forms by the we ...
to avoid dormancy and viability issues. The German seed company Jelitto offers "Gold Nugget" seeds that are advertised as utilizing a coating that enables the seed to germinate immediately, bypassing the double dormancy defect (from a typical gardener's point of view) ''Aconitum''—and many other species in Ranunculaceae genera—use as a reproductive strategy. By contrast, seeds that are not immediately planted or moist-packed are described as perhaps taking as long as two years to germinate, being prone to very erratic germination (in terms of time required per seed), and comparatively quick seed viability loss (e.g. ''
Adonis
In Greek mythology, Adonis, ; derived from the Canaanite word ''ʼadōn'', meaning "lord". R. S. P. Beekes, ''Etymological Dictionary of Greek'', Brill, 2009, p. 23. was the mortal lover of the goddess Aphrodite.
One day, Adonis was gored by ...
''). These issues are typical for many species in Ranunculaceae, such as ''
Pulsatilla
The genus ''Pulsatilla'' contains about 40 species of herbaceous perennial plants native to meadows and prairies of North America, Europe, and Asia. Derived from the Hebrew word for Passover, "pasakh", the common name pasque flower refers to the ...
'' (
pasqueflower
The genus ''Pulsatilla'' contains about 40 species of herbaceous perennial plants native to meadows and prairies of North America, Europe, and Asia. Derived from the Hebrew word for Passover, "pasakh", the common name pasque flower refers to the ...
).
Award-winning hybrids
In the UK, the following have gained the
Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:
* ''A.'' × ''cammarum'' 'Bicolor'
* ''A. carmichaelii'' 'Arendsii'
* ''A. carmichaelii'' 'Kelmscott'
* ''A.'' 'Bressingham Spire'
* ''A.'' 'Spark's Variety'
* ''A.'' 'Stainless Steel'
Toxicology
![Monkshood](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Monkshood.jpg)
Monkshood and other members of the genus ''Aconitum'' contain substantial amounts of the highly toxic
aconitine
Aconitine is an alkaloid toxin produced by various plant species belonging to the genus ''Aconitum'' (family Ranunculaceae), known also commonly by the names wolfsbane and monkshood. Monkshood is notorious for its toxic properties. Aconitine is ...
and related alkaloids, especially in their roots and tubers. Aconitine is a potent neurotoxin and cardiotoxin that causes persistent depolarization of neuronal
sodium channel
Sodium channels are integral membrane proteins that form ion channels, conducting sodium ions (Na+) through a cell's membrane. They belong to the superfamily of cation channels and can be classified according to the trigger that opens the chann ...
s in
tetrodotoxin
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a potent neurotoxin. Its name derives from Tetraodontiformes, an order that includes pufferfish, porcupinefish, ocean sunfish, and triggerfish; several of these species carry the toxin. Although tetrodotoxin was discovere ...
-sensitive tissues. The influx of sodium through these channels and the delay in their repolarization increases their excitability and may lead to diarrhea, convulsions,
ventricular arrhythmia
Arrhythmias, also known as cardiac arrhythmias, heart arrhythmias, or dysrhythmias, are irregularities in the heartbeat, including when it is too fast or too slow. A resting heart rate that is too fast – above 100 beats per minute in adults ...
and death.
Marked symptoms may appear almost immediately, usually not later than one hour, and "with large doses death is almost instantaneous". Death usually occurs within two to six hours in fatal poisoning (20 to 40 mL of
tincture
A tincture is typically an extract of plant or animal material dissolved in ethanol (ethyl alcohol). Solvent concentrations of 25–60% are common, but may run as high as 90%.Groot Handboek Geneeskrachtige Planten by Geert Verhelst In chemistr ...
may prove fatal).
[''The Extra Pharmacopoeia Martindale''. Vol. 1, 24th edition. London: The Pharmaceutical Press, 1958, page 38.] The initial signs are
gastrointestinal
The gastrointestinal tract (GI tract, digestive tract, alimentary canal) is the tract or passageway of the digestive system that leads from the mouth to the anus. The GI tract contains all the major organs of the digestive system, in humans and ...
, including
nausea
Nausea is a diffuse sensation of unease and discomfort, sometimes perceived as an urge to vomit. While not painful, it can be a debilitating symptom if prolonged and has been described as placing discomfort on the chest, abdomen, or back of the ...
,
vomiting
Vomiting (also known as emesis and throwing up) is the involuntary, forceful expulsion of the contents of one's stomach through the mouth and sometimes the nose.
Vomiting can be the result of ailments like food poisoning, gastroenteri ...
, and
diarrhea
Diarrhea, also spelled diarrhoea, is the condition of having at least three loose, liquid, or watery bowel movements each day. It often lasts for a few days and can result in dehydration due to fluid loss. Signs of dehydration often begin w ...
. This is followed by a sensation of burning, tingling, and numbness in the mouth and face, and of burning in the abdomen.
In severe poisonings, pronounced motor weakness occurs and cutaneous sensations of tingling and numbness spread to the limbs.
Cardiovascular
The blood circulatory system is a system of organs that includes the heart, blood vessels, and blood which is circulated throughout the entire body of a human or other vertebrate. It includes the cardiovascular system, or vascular system, tha ...
features include
hypotension
Hypotension is low blood pressure. Blood pressure is the force of blood pushing against the walls of the arteries as the heart pumps out blood. Blood pressure is indicated by two numbers, the systolic blood pressure (the top number) and the dia ...
,
sinus bradycardia
Sinus bradycardia is a sinus node dysfunction giving a heart rate that is lower than the normal 60–100 beats per minute (bpm) in humans. Bradycardia is generally defined to be a heart rate of under 60 bpm.
Signs and symptoms
The decreased hea ...
, and ventricular
arrhythmias. Other features may include sweating, dizziness, difficulty in breathing, headache, and confusion. The main causes of death are ventricular arrhythmias and asystole, or paralysis of the heart or respiratory center.
The only ''post mortem'' signs are those of
asphyxia
Asphyxia or asphyxiation is a condition of deficient supply of oxygen to the body which arises from abnormal breathing. Asphyxia causes generalized hypoxia, which affects primarily the tissues and organs. There are many circumstances that ca ...
.
Treatment of poisoning is mainly supportive. All patients require close monitoring of
blood pressure and
cardiac rhythm. Gastrointestinal decontamination with
activated charcoal can be used if given within one hour of ingestion.
The major physiological antidote is
atropine, which is used to treat bradycardia. Other drugs used for ventricular arrhythmia include
lidocaine,
amiodarone
Amiodarone is an antiarrhythmic medication used to treat and prevent a number of types of cardiac dysrhythmias. This includes ventricular tachycardia (VT), ventricular fibrillation (VF), and wide complex tachycardia, as well as atrial fibril ...
,
bretylium
Bretylium (also bretylium tosylate) is an antiarrhythmic agent. It blocks the release of noradrenaline from nerve terminals. In effect, it decreases output from the peripheral sympathetic nervous system. It also acts by blocking K+ channels and is ...
,
flecainide
Flecainide is a medication used to prevent and treat abnormally fast heart rates. This includes ventricular and supraventricular tachycardias. Its use is only recommended in those with dangerous arrhythmias or when significant symptoms cannot ...
,
procainamide
Procainamide (PCA) is a medication of the antiarrhythmic class used for the treatment of cardiac arrhythmias. It is classified by the Vaughan Williams classification system as class Ia; thus it is a sodium channel blocker of cardiomyocytes. In add ...
, and
mexiletine
Mexiletine ( INN) (sold under the brand names Mexitil and Namuscla) is a medication used to treat abnormal heart rhythms, chronic pain, and some causes of muscle stiffness. Common side effects include abdominal pain, chest discomfort, drowsiness ...
.
Cardiopulmonary bypass
Cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) is a technique in which a machine temporarily takes over the function of the heart and lungs during surgery, maintaining the circulation of blood and oxygen to the body. The CPB pump itself is often referred to as a ...
is used if symptoms are refractory to treatment with these drugs.
Successful use of charcoal
hemoperfusion
Hemoperfusion or hæmoperfusion (see spelling differences) is a method of filtering the blood extracorporeally (that is, outside the body) to remove a toxin. As with other extracorporeal methods, such as hemodialysis (HD), hemofiltration (HF), ...
has been claimed in patients with severe aconitine poisoning.
Mild toxicity (headache, nausea and palpitations) as well as severe toxicity may be experienced from skin contact.
Paraesthesia
Paresthesia is an abnormal sensation of the skin (tingling, pricking, chilling, burning, numbness) with no apparent physical cause. Paresthesia may be transient or chronic, and may have any of dozens of possible underlying causes. Paresthesias ar ...
, including tingling and feelings of coldness in the face and extremities, is common in reports of toxicity.
Uses
Medicinal
![Bushi2012](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/Bushi2012.jpg)
Aconite has long been used in
Ayurveda
Ayurveda () is an alternative medicine system with historical roots in the Indian subcontinent. The theory and practice of Ayurveda is pseudoscientific. Ayurveda is heavily practiced in India and Nepal, where around 80% of the population rep ...
and
traditional Chinese medicine
Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is an alternative medical practice drawn from traditional medicine in China. It has been described as "fraught with pseudoscience", with the majority of its treatments having no logical mechanism of acti ...
. Aconite was also described in Greek and Roman medicine by
Theophrastus
Theophrastus (; grc-gre, Θεόφραστος ; c. 371c. 287 BC), a Greek philosopher and the successor to Aristotle in the Peripatetic school. He was a native of Eresos in Lesbos.Gavin Hardy and Laurence Totelin, ''Ancient Botany'', Routle ...
,
Dioscorides
Pedanius Dioscorides ( grc-gre, Πεδάνιος Διοσκουρίδης, ; 40–90 AD), “the father of pharmacognosy”, was a Greek physician, pharmacologist, botanist, and author of '' De materia medica'' (, On Medical Material) —a 5-vo ...
, and
Pliny the Elder
Gaius Plinius Secundus (AD 23/2479), called Pliny the Elder (), was a Roman author, naturalist and natural philosopher, and naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and a friend of the emperor Vespasian. He wrote the encyclopedic ' ...
, who most likely prescribed the Alpine species ''
Aconitum lycoctonum
''Aconitum lycoctonum'' (wolf's-bane or northern wolf's-bane) is a species of flowering plant in the genus '' Aconitum'', of the family Ranunculaceae, native to much of Europe and northern Asia.Flora Europaea''Aconitum lycoctonum''/ref> It is fo ...
''. Folk medicinal use of ''Aconitum'' species is still practiced in some parts of
Slovenia
Slovenia ( ; sl, Slovenija ), officially the Republic of Slovenia (Slovene: , abbr.: ''RS''), is a country in Central Europe. It is bordered by Italy to the west, Austria to the north, Hungary to the northeast, Croatia to the southeast, an ...
.
''Aconitum chasmanthum'' is listed as critically endangered, ''Aconitum heterophyllum'' as endangered, and ''Aconitum violaceum'' as vulnerable due to overcollection for
Ayurvedic use.
As a poison
The roots of ''A. ferox'' supply the
Nepal
Nepal (; ne, :ne:नेपाल, नेपाल ), formerly the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal ( ne,
सङ्घीय लोकतान्त्रिक गणतन्त्र नेपाल ), is a landlocked country in S ...
ese poison called ''bikh'', ''bish'', or ''nabee''. It contains large quantities of the alkaloid
pseudaconitine
Pseudaconitine, also known as nepaline (C36H51NO12), is an extremely toxic alkaloid found in high quantities in the roots of '' Aconitum ferox'', also known as Indian Monkshood, which belongs to the family Ranunculaceae. The plant is found in East ...
, which is a deadly
poison. The root of ''A. luridum'', of the
Himalaya
The Himalayas, or Himalaya (; ; ), is a mountain range in Asia, separating the plains of the Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau. The range has some of the planet's highest peaks, including the very highest, Mount Everest. Over 100 ...
, is said to be as poisonous as that of ''A. ferox'' or ''A. napellus''.
Several species of ''Aconitum'' have been used as arrow poisons. The
Minaro in
Ladakh
Ladakh () is a region administered by India as a union territory which constitutes a part of the larger Kashmir region and has been the subject of dispute between India, Pakistan, and China since 1947. (subscription required) Quote: "Jammu ...
use ''A. napellus'' on their arrows to hunt
ibex
An ibex (plural ibex, ibexes or ibices) is any of several species of wild goat (genus ''Capra''), distinguished by the male's large recurved horns, which are transversely ridged in front. Ibex are found in Eurasia, North Africa and East Africa ...
, while the
Ainu in Japan used a species of ''Aconitum'' to hunt
bear as did the
Matagi hunters of the same region before their adoption of firearms. The Chinese also used ''Aconitum'' poisons both for hunting and for warfare. ''Aconitum'' poisons were used by the
Aleut
The Aleuts ( ; russian: Алеуты, Aleuty) are the indigenous people of the Aleutian Islands, which are located between the North Pacific Ocean and the Bering Sea. Both the Aleut people and the islands are politically divided between the ...
s of
Alaska
Alaska ( ; russian: Аляска, Alyaska; ale, Alax̂sxax̂; ; ems, Alas'kaaq; Yup'ik: ''Alaskaq''; tli, Anáaski) is a state located in the Western United States on the northwest extremity of North America. A semi-exclave of the U.S. ...
's
Aleutian Islands
The Aleutian Islands (; ; ale, Unangam Tanangin,”Land of the Aleuts", possibly from Chukchi ''aliat'', "island"), also called the Aleut Islands or Aleutic Islands and known before 1867 as the Catherine Archipelago, are a chain of 14 large v ...
for hunting whales. Usually, one man in a
kayak armed with a poison-tipped lance would hunt the whale, paralyzing
it with the poison and causing it to drown.
''Aconitum'' tipped arrows are also described in the
Rig Veda.
It has, albeit rarely, been hypothesized that
Socrates
Socrates (; ; –399 BC) was a Greek philosopher from Athens who is credited as the founder of Western philosophy and among the first moral philosophers of the ethical tradition of thought. An enigmatic figure, Socrates authored no te ...
was executed via an extract from an ''Aconitum'' species, such as ''
Aconitum napellus'', rather than via hemlock, ''
Conium maculatum''. ''Aconitum'' was commonly used by the ancient Greeks as an arrow poison but can be used for other forms of poisoning. It has been hypothesized that
Alexander the Great
Alexander III of Macedon ( grc, Ἀλέξανδρος, Alexandros; 20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC), commonly known as Alexander the Great, was a king of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon. He succeeded his father Philip II to ...
and
Ptolemy XIV Philopator
Ptolemy XIV Philopator ( grc-gre, Πτολεμαῖος Φιλοπάτωρ, ; c. 59 – 44 BC) was a Pharaoh of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt, who reigned from 47 until his death in 44 BC.
Biography
Following the death of his older brother Pto ...
were murdered via aconite.
In 1524, in the first recorded
human trial of poison since the ancient Greeks,
Pope
The pope ( la, papa, from el, πάππας, translit=pappas, 'father'), also known as supreme pontiff ( or ), Roman pontiff () or sovereign pontiff, is the bishop of Rome (or historically the patriarch of Rome), head of the worldwide Cathol ...
Clement VII
Pope Clement VII ( la, Clemens VII; it, Clemente VII; born Giulio de' Medici; 26 May 1478 – 25 September 1534) was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 19 November 1523 to his death on 25 September 1534. Deemed "the ...
is said to have intentionally poisoned prisoners with aconite laced
marzipan to test the effects of an antidote. The treated prisoner survived, while the untreated prisoner suffered a painful death.
In April 2021, the president of
Kyrgyzstan
Kyrgyzstan,, pronounced or the Kyrgyz Republic, is a landlocked country in Central Asia. Kyrgyzstan is bordered by Kazakhstan to the north, Uzbekistan to the west, Tajikistan to the south, and the People's Republic of China to the ea ...
,
Sadyr Japarov
Sadyr Nurgojoyevich Japarov (sometimes Zhaparov) (; ky, Садыр Нургожо уулу Жапаров, translit=Sadyr Nurghozho uulu Zhaparov; born 6 December 1968) is a Kyrgyz politician who has served as the president of Kyrgyzstan sinc ...
, promoted aconite root as a treatment for
COVID-19
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a contagious disease caused by a virus, the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). The first known case was identified in Wuhan, China, in December 2019. The disease quickly ...
. Subsequently, at least four people were admitted to hospital suffering from poisoning.
Facebook
Facebook is an online social media and social networking service owned by American company Meta Platforms. Founded in 2004 by Mark Zuckerberg with fellow Harvard College students and roommates Eduardo Saverin, Andrew McCollum, Dustin Mosk ...
had previously removed the President's posts advocating use of the substance, saying "We've removed this post as we do not allow anyone, including elected officials, to share
misinformation
Misinformation is incorrect or misleading information. It differs from disinformation, which is ''deliberately'' deceptive. Rumors are information not attributed to any particular source, and so are unreliable and often unverified, but can turn ...
that could lead to imminent physical harm or spread false claims about how to cure or prevent COVID-19".
Taxonomy
![Delphinieae cladogram](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f7/Delphinieae_cladogram.png)
Genetic analysis suggests that ''Aconitum'' as it was delineated before the 21st century is nested within ''
Delphinium
''Delphinium'' is a genus of about 300 species of annual and perennial flowering plants in the family Ranunculaceae, native throughout the Northern Hemisphere and also on the high mountains of tropical Africa. The genus was erected by Carl Linn ...
''
''sensu lato'', that also includes ''Aconitella'', ''Consolida'', ''Delphinium staphisagria'', ''D. requini'', and ''D. pictum''.
Further genetic analysis has shown that the only species of the subgenus "''Aconitum (Gymnaconitum)'', "''A. gymnandrum'', is sister to the group that consists of ''Delphinium (Delphinium)'', ''Delphinium (Delphinastrum)'', and "''Consolida'' plus "''Aconitella''. To make ''Aconitum''
monophyletic, "''A. gymnandrum'' has now been reassigned to a new genus, ''
Gymnaconitum''. To make ''Delphinium'' monophyletic, the new genus ''Staphisagria'' was erected containing ''S. staphisagria'', ''S. requini'', and ''S. pictum''.
Species
* ''
Aconitum ajanense''
* ''
Aconitum albo-violaceum''
* ''
Aconitum altaicum''
* ''
Aconitum ambiguum''
* ''
Aconitum angusticassidatum''
* ''
Aconitum anthora'' (yellow monkshood)
* ''
Aconitum anthoroideum''
* ''
Aconitum album''
* ''
Aconitum axilliflorum''
* ''
Aconitum baburinii''
* ''
Aconitum baicalense''
* ''
Aconitum barbatum''
* ''
Aconitum besserianum
''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
''
* ''
Aconitum biflorum''
* ''
Aconitum bucovinense''
* ''
Aconitum burnatii''
* ''
Aconitum carmichaelii
''Aconitum carmichaelii'' is a species of flowering plant of the genus ''Aconitum'', family Ranunculaceae. It is native to East Asia and eastern Russia. It is commonly known as Chinese aconite, Carmichael's monkshood or Chinese wolfsbane. In Ma ...
'' (Carmichael's monkshood)
* ''
Aconitum charkeviczii''
* ''
Aconitum chasmanthum''
* ''
Aconitum chinense'' Siebold.&Zucc. aka ''
Aconitum carmichaelii
''Aconitum carmichaelii'' is a species of flowering plant of the genus ''Aconitum'', family Ranunculaceae. It is native to East Asia and eastern Russia. It is commonly known as Chinese aconite, Carmichael's monkshood or Chinese wolfsbane. In Ma ...
'' var. ''truppelianum''
* ''
Aconitum cochleare''
* ''
Aconitum columbianum'' (western monkshood)
* ''
Aconitum confertiflorum''
* ''
Aconitum consanguineum''
* ''
Aconitum coreanum''
* ''
Aconitum crassifolium''
* ''
Aconitum cymbulatum''
* ''
Aconitum czekanovskyi''
* ''
Aconitum decipiens''
* ''
Aconitum degenii'' (syn. ''
A. variegatum'' ssp. ''paniculatum'')
* ''
Aconitum delphinifolium'' (larkspurleaf monkshood)
* ''
Aconitum desoulavyi''
* ''
Aconitum ferox
''Aconitum ferox'' (syn. ''A. virorum'') is a member of the monkshood genus Aconitum of the Ranunculaceae. The common name by which it is most often known in English is Indian Aconite, while the Hindi names used by practitioners of Ayurveda inclu ...
'' (Indian aconite)
* ''
Aconitum firmum''
* ''
Aconitum fischeri'' (Fischer monkshood)
* ''
Aconitum flavum'' (Fluff iron hammer)
* ''
Aconitum flerovii''
* ''
Aconitum gigas''
* ''
Aconitum gracile'' (synonym of ''
A. variegatum'' ssp. ''variegatum'')
* ''
Aconitum helenae''
* ''
Aconitum hemsleyanum'' (climbing monkshood)
* ''
Aconitum henryi'' (Sparks variety monkshood)
* ''
Aconitum heterophyllum''
* ''
Aconitum hosteanum''
* ''
Aconitum infectum'' (Arizona monkshood)
* ''
Aconitum jacquinii'' (synonym of ''
A. anthora'')
* ''
Aconitum jaluense''
* ''
Aconitum japonicum
''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family (biology), fami ...
''
* ''
Aconitum jenisseense''
* ''
Aconitum karafutense''
* ''
Aconitum karakolicum''
* ''
Aconitum kirinense''
* ''
Aconitum koreanum''
* ''
Aconitum krylovii''
* ''
Aconitum kunasilense''
* ''
Aconitum kurilense''
* ''
Aconitum kusnezoffii'' (Kusnezoff monkshood)
* ''
Aconitum kuzenevae''
*''
Aconitum lamarckii''
* ''
Aconitum lasiostomum''
* ''
Aconitum lethale'' (formerly ''A. balfourii'')
* ''
Aconitum leucostomum''
* ''
Aconitum longiracemosum''
* ''
Aconitum lycoctonum
''Aconitum lycoctonum'' (wolf's-bane or northern wolf's-bane) is a species of flowering plant in the genus '' Aconitum'', of the family Ranunculaceae, native to much of Europe and northern Asia.Flora Europaea''Aconitum lycoctonum''/ref> It is fo ...
'' (northern wolfsbane)
* ''
Aconitum macrorhynchum''
* ''
Aconitum maximum'' (Kamchatka aconite)
* ''
Aconitum miyabei''
* ''
Aconitum moldavicum''
* ''
Aconitum montibaicalense''
* ''
Aconitum nanum''
* ''
Aconitum napellus'' (monkshood; type species)
* ''
Aconitum nasutum''
* ''
Aconitum nemorum''
* ''
Aconitum neosachalinense''
* ''
Aconitum noveboracense
''Aconitum noveboracense'', also known as northern blue monkshood or northern wild monkshood, is a flowering plant belonging to the buttercup family (Ranunculaceae). Members of its genus ('' Aconitum'') are also known as wolfsbane.
The United ...
'' (northern blue monkshood)
* ''
Aconitum ochotense''
* ''
Aconitum orientale''
* ''
Aconitum paniculatum''
* ''
Aconitum paradoxum''
* ''
Aconitum pascoi''
* ''
Aconitum pavlovae''
* ''
Aconitum pilipes''
* ''
Aconitum plicatum''
* ''
Aconitum podolicum''
* ''
Aconitum productum''
* ''
Aconitum pseudokusnezowii''
* ''
Aconitum puchonroenicum''
* ''
Aconitum raddeanum''
* ''
Aconitum ranunculoides''
* ''
Aconitum reclinatum'' (trailing white monkshood)
* ''
Aconitum rogoviczii''
* ''
Aconitum romanicum''
* ''
Aconitum rotundifolium''
* ''
Aconitum rubicundum''
* ''
Aconitum sachalinense''
* ''
Aconitum sajanense''
* ''
Aconitum saxatile''
* ''
Aconitum sczukinii''
* ''
Aconitum septentrionale''
* ''
Aconitum seravschanicum''
* ''
Aconitum sichotense''
* ''
Aconitum smirnovii''
* ''
Aconitum soongaricum''
* ''
Aconitum stoloniferum''
* ''
Aconitum stubendorffii''
* ''
Aconitum subalpinum''
* ''
Aconitum subglandulosum''
* ''
Aconitum subvillosum''
* ''
Aconitum sukaczevii''
* ''
Aconitum taigicola''
* ''
Aconitum talassicum''
* ''
Aconitum tanguticum''
* ''
Aconitum tauricum''
* ''
Aconitum turczaninowii''
* ''
Aconitum umbrosum''
* ''
Aconitum uncinatum
''Aconitum uncinatum'', commonly known as wild monkshood or southern blue monkshood, is a species of flowering plant in the buttercup family, Ranunculaceae. It grows in moist to wet habitats along streams and in woods and clearings. It grows in ...
'' (southern blue monkshood)
* ''
Aconitum variegatum''
* ''
Aconitum violaceum''
* ''
Aconitum volubile''
* ''
Aconitum vulparia'' (wolf's bane)
* ''
Aconitum woroschilovii''
Natural hybrids
* ''Aconitum ''×'' austriacum''
* ''Aconitum ''×'' cammarum''
* ''Aconitum ''×'' hebegynum''
* ''Aconitum ''×'' oenipontanum'' (''A. variegatum'' ssp. ''variegatum'' × ssp. ''paniculatum'')
* ''Aconitum ''×'' pilosiusculum''
* ''Aconitum ''×'' platanifolium'' (''A. lycoctonum'' ssp. ''neapolitanum'' × ssp. ''vulparia'')
* ''Aconitum ''×'' zahlbruckneri'' (''A. napellus'' ssp. ''vulgare'' × ''A. variegatum'' ssp. ''variegatum'')
As a poison
Aconite has been understood as a poison from ancient times, and is frequently represented as such in fiction. In
Greek mythology
A major branch of classical mythology, Greek mythology is the body of myths originally told by the ancient Greeks, and a genre of Ancient Greek folklore. These stories concern the origin and nature of the world, the lives and activities ...
, the goddess
Hecate
Hecate or Hekate, , ; grc-dor, Ἑκάτᾱ, Hekátā, ; la, Hecatē or . is a goddess in ancient Greek religion and mythology, most often shown holding a pair of torches, a key, snakes, or accompanied by dogs, and in later periods depict ...
is said to have invented aconite, which
Athena
Athena or Athene, often given the epithet Pallas, is an ancient Greek religion, ancient Greek goddess associated with wisdom, warfare, and handicraft who was later syncretism, syncretized with the Roman goddess Minerva. Athena was regarded ...
used to transform
Arachne
Arachne (; from , cognate with Latin ) is the protagonist of a tale in Greek mythology known primarily from the version told by the Roman poet Ovid (43 BCE–17 CE), which is the earliest extant source for the story. In Book Six of his ...
into a spider. Also,
Medea
In Greek mythology, Medea (; grc, Μήδεια, ''Mēdeia'', perhaps implying "planner / schemer") is the daughter of King Aeëtes of Colchis, a niece of Circe and the granddaughter of the sun god Helios. Medea figures in the myth of Jason an ...
attempted to poison
Theseus
Theseus (, ; grc-gre, Θησεύς ) was the mythical king and founder-hero of Athens. The myths surrounding Theseus his journeys, exploits, and friends have provided material for fiction throughout the ages.
Theseus is sometimes describ ...
with a cup of wine poisoned with wolf's bane.
The
kyōgen
is a form of traditional Japanese comic theater. It developed alongside '' Noh'', was performed along with ''Noh'' as an intermission of sorts between ''Noh'' acts on the same stage, and retains close links to ''Noh'' in the modern day; therefo ...
(traditional Japanese comedy) play , which is well-known and frequently taught in Japan, is centered on dried aconite root used for traditional Chinese medicine. Taken from
Shasekishu, a 13th-century anthology collected by
Mujū, the story describes servants who decide that the dried aconite root is really sugar, and suffer unpleasant though nonlethal symptoms after eating it. Shakespeare, in ''Henry IV Part II'' Act 4 Scene 4, refers to aconite, alongside rash gunpowder, working as strongly as the "venom of suggestion" to break up close relationships. In BBC drama ''Shakespeare and Hatherway'', series 2, episode 9, a tennis player is poisoned through the skin of his palm by aconite smeared on the handle of his racquet.
As a well-known poison from ancient times, aconite is well-suited for historical fiction. It is the poison used by a murderer in the third of
the Cadfael Chronicles
''The Cadfael Chronicles'' is a series of historical murder mysteries written by the linguist-scholar Edith Pargeter (1913–1995) under the name "Ellis Peters".
Set in the 12th century during the Anarchy in England, the novels focus on a Bene ...
, ''
Monk's Hood
''Monk's Hood'' is a medieval mystery novel by Ellis Peters, set in December 1138. It is the third novel in The Cadfael Chronicles. It was first published in 1980 (1980 in literature).
It was adapted for television in 1994 by Central for IT ...
'' by
Ellis Peters
Edith Mary Pargeter (28 September 1913 – 14 October 1995), also known by her ''nom de plume'' Ellis Peters, was an English author of works in many categories, especially history and historical fiction, and was also honoured for her transla ...
, published in 1980 and set in 1138 in Shrewsbury. In ''
I, Claudius
''I, Claudius'' is a historical novel by English writer Robert Graves, published in 1934. Written in the form of an autobiography of the Roman Emperor Claudius, it tells the history of the Julio-Claudian dynasty and the early years of the Ro ...
'', Livia, wife of Augustus, was portrayed discussing the merits, antidotes, and use of aconite with a poisoner. It also makes a showing in alternate history novels and historical fantasy, such as S. M. Stirling's, ''
On the Oceans of Eternity'', where a renegade warlord is poisoned with aconite-laced food by his own chief of internal security, and in the television show ''
Merlin'', the lead character, Merlin, attempts to poison Arthur with aconite while under a spell. In the 2003 Korean television series ''
Dae Jang Geum
''Dae Jang Geum'' (; literally "The Great Jang-geum"), also known as ''Jewel in the Palace'', is a 2003 South Korean historical drama television series directed by Lee Byung-hoon. It first aired on MBC from September 15, 2003 to March 23, 2 ...
'', set in the 15th and 16th centuries, Choi put wolf's bane in the previous queen's food.
Aconite also lends itself to use as a fictional poison in modern settings. An overdose of aconite was the method by which Rudolph Bloom, father of
Leopold Bloom
Leopold Bloom is the fictional protagonist and hero of James Joyce's 1922 novel '' Ulysses''. His peregrinations and encounters in Dublin on 16 June 1904 mirror, on a more mundane and intimate scale, those of Ulysses/ Odysseus in Homer's epic ...
in
James Joyce
James Augustine Aloysius Joyce (2 February 1882 – 13 January 1941) was an Irish novelist, poet, and literary critic. He contributed to the modernist avant-garde movement and is regarded as one of the most influential and important writers of ...
's ''
Ulysses
Ulysses is one form of the Roman name for Odysseus, a hero in ancient Greek literature.
Ulysses may also refer to:
People
* Ulysses (given name), including a list of people with this name
Places in the United States
* Ulysses, Kansas
* Ulysse ...
'', committed suicide.
Wolf's bane
In his mythological poem ''
Metamorphoses
The ''Metamorphoses'' ( la, Metamorphōsēs, from grc, μεταμορφώσεις: "Transformations") is a Latin narrative poem from 8 CE by the Roman poet Ovid. It is considered his ''magnum opus''. The poem chronicles the history of the ...
'',
Ovid
Pūblius Ovidius Nāsō (; 20 March 43 BC – 17/18 AD), known in English as Ovid ( ), was a Roman poet who lived during the reign of Augustus. He was a contemporary of the older Virgil and Horace, with whom he is often ranked as one of the th ...
tells how the herb comes from the slavering mouth of
Cerberus
In Greek mythology, Cerberus (; grc-gre, Κέρβερος ''Kérberos'' ), often referred to as the hound of Hades, is a multi-headed dog that guards the gates of the Underworld to prevent the dead from leaving. He was the offspring of the ...
, the three-headed dog that guarded the gates of Hades. As the veterinary historian John Blaisdell has noted, symptoms of
aconite
Aconite may refer to:
*'' Aconitum'', a plant genus containing the monkshoods
*Aconitine
Aconitine is an alkaloid toxin produced by various plant species belonging to the genus ''Aconitum'' (family Ranunculaceae), known also commonly by the na ...
poisoning in humans bear some passing similarity to those of rabies: frothy saliva, impaired vision, vertigo, and finally a coma. Thus, some ancient Greeks possibly would have believed that this poison, mythically born of Cerberus's lips, was literally the same as that to be found inside the mouth of a rabid dog.
In
John Keats's poem ''Ode to Melancholy'', wolf's bane is mentioned in the first verse as the source of "poisonous wine", possibly referring to
Medea
In Greek mythology, Medea (; grc, Μήδεια, ''Mēdeia'', perhaps implying "planner / schemer") is the daughter of King Aeëtes of Colchis, a niece of Circe and the granddaughter of the sun god Helios. Medea figures in the myth of Jason an ...
.
In the 1931 classic horror film ''
Dracula'' starring Bela Lugosi as Count Dracula and Helen Chandler as Mina Seward, reference is made to wolf's bane (''aconitum''). Towards the end of the film, "Van Helsing holds up a sprig of wolf's bane". Van Helsing educates the nurse protecting Mina from Count Dracula to place sprigs of wolf's bane around Mina's neck for protection. Furthermore, he instructs that wolf's bane is a plant that grows in central Europe. There, the natives use it to protect themselves against vampires. As long as the wolf's bane is present in Mina's bedroom, she will be safe from Count Dracula. During the night, Count Dracula desires to visit Mina. He appears outside her window in the form of a flying bat. He causes the nurse to become drowsy, and when she awakes from his spell, she removes the sprigs of wolf's bane, placing it in a hallway chest of drawers. With the removal of the wolf's bane from Mina's room, Count Dracula mysteriously appears and transports Mina to the dungeon of the castle.
In the 1941 film ''
The Wolf Man'' starring Lon Chaney Jr. and Claude Rains, the following poem is recited several times ''Even a man who is pure in heart and says his prayers by night, may become a wolf when the wolf-bane blooms and the autumn moon is bright.''
In the 1943 French novel ''
Our Lady of the Flowers
''Our Lady of the Flowers'' (''Notre-Dame-des-Fleurs'') is the debut novel of French writer Jean Genet, first published in 1943. The free-flowing, poetic novel is a largely autobiographical account of a man's journey through the Parisian underwo ...
'', the boy Culafroy eats "Napel aconite", so that the "Renaissance would take possession of the child through the mouth."
[p. 136, Our Lady of the Flowers by Jean Genet, tr. Bernard Frechtman, Grove Press, NYC, 1961]
In the TV-show ''
Game of Thrones'', one of Tywin Lannister's commanders is assassinated by a dart, identified by Tywin as Wolf's Bane, due to its scent.
In the early 1980s, famed Spanish horror film star
Paul Naschy
Paul Naschy (born Jacinto Molina Álvarez, September 6, 1934 – November 30, 2009) was a Spanish film actor, screenwriter, and director working primarily in horror films. His portrayals of numerous classic horror figures— The Wolfman, ...
named his production company "Aconito Films", an in-joke relating to the large number of werewolf movies he produced.
In mysticism
Wolf's bane is used as an analogy for the power of divine communion in ''Liber 65'' 1:13–16, one of
Aleister Crowley
Aleister Crowley (; born Edward Alexander Crowley; 12 October 1875 – 1 December 1947) was an English occultist, ceremonial magician, poet, painter, novelist, and mountaineer. He founded the religion of Thelema, identifying himself as the pr ...
's ''
Holy Books of Thelema''. Wolf's bane is mentioned in one verse of
Lady Gwen Thompson
Lady Gwen Thompson (September 16, 1928 – May 22, 1986) was the pseudonym of Phyllis Thompson, author and teacher of traditionalist initiatory witchcraft through her own organisation, the New England Covens of Traditionalist Witches.
Lady ...
's 1974 poem "Rede of the Wiccae", a long version of the
Wiccan Rede
The Wiccan Rede is a statement that provides the key moral system in the neopagan religion of Wicca and certain other related witchcraft-based faiths. A common form of the Rede is ''An ye harm none, do what ye will'' which was taken from a long ...
: "Widdershins go when Moon doth wane, And the werewolves howl by the dread wolfsbane."
Gallery
File:Aconitum napellus01.jpg, '' Aconitum napellus''
File:Aconitum-reclinatum01.jpg, Trailing white monkshood (''A. reclinatum)''
File:Aconitum-uncinatum01.jpg, Southern blue monkshood (''A. uncinatum'')
File:Alaskan Monkshood Leaf.jpg, Wild Alaskan monkshood (''A. delphinifolium'') is a flowering species that belongs to the family Ranunculaceae. The picture was taken in Kenai National Wildlife Refuge
The Kenai National Wildlife Refuge is a wildlife habitat preserve located on the Kenai Peninsula of Alaska, United States. It is adjacent to Kenai Fjords National Park. This refuge was created in 1941 as the Kenai National Moose Range, but in 198 ...
in Alaska.
See also
*
Rufus T. Bush, industrial tycoon who died of accidental aconite poisoning
References
External links
James Grout: ''Aconite Poisoning'' part of the ''Encyclopædia Romana''
Photographs of Aconite plantsJepson Eflora entry for Aconitum
{{Taxonbar, from=Q155904
Delphinieae
Neurotoxins
Plant toxins
Ranunculaceae genera
Werewolves
Poisonous plants