''Om'' (or ''Aum'') (; sa, ॐ, ओम्, Ōṃ, translit-std=IAST) is a sacred sound, syllable, mantra, or an invocation in Hinduism. ''Om'' is the prime symbol of Hinduism.Krishna Sivaraman (2008), ''Hindu Spirituality Vedas Through Vedanta'', Motilal Banarsidass, , page 433 It is variously said to be the essence of the supreme Absolute, consciousness,James Lochtefeld (2002), "Om", ''The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism'', Vol. 2: N-Z, Rosen Publishing. , page 482Om
. ''Merriam-Webster'' (2013), Pronounced: \ˈōm\ '' Ātman,'' ''

Brahman In Hinduism, ''Brahman'' ( sa, ब्रह्मन्) connotes the highest universal principle, the ultimate reality in the universe.P. T. Raju (2006), ''Idealistic Thought of India'', Routledge, , page 426 and Conclusion chapter part X ...

,'' or the cosmic world.David Leeming (2005), ''The Oxford Companion to World Mythology'',

Oxford University Press Oxford University Press (OUP) is the university press of the University of Oxford. It is the largest university press in the world, and its printing history dates back to the 1480s. Having been officially granted the legal right to print books ...

, , page 54Hajime Nakamura, ''A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy'', Part 2, Motilal Banarsidass, , page 318Annette Wilke and Oliver Moebus (2011), ''Sound and Communication: An Aesthetic Cultural History of Sanskrit Hinduism'', De Gruyter, , pages 435–456 In Indic traditions, ''Om'' serves as a sonic representation of the divine, a standard of

Vedic upright=1.2, The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the '' Atharvaveda''. The Vedas (, , ) are a large body of religious texts originating in ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the ...

authority and a central aspect of soteriological doctrines and practices. The syllable is often found at the beginning and the end of chapters in the

Vedas upright=1.2, The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the '' Atharvaveda''. The Vedas (, , ) are a large body of religious texts originating in ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the ...

, the

Upanishads The Upanishads (; sa, उपनिषद् ) are late Vedic Sanskrit texts that supplied the basis of later Hindu philosophy.Wendy Doniger (1990), ''Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism'', 1st Edition, University of Chicago Press, , ...

, and other

Hindu text Hindu texts are manuscripts and voluminous historical literature which are related to any of the diverse traditions within Hinduism. A few of these texts are shared across these traditions and they are broadly considered Hindu scriptures. These ...

s. ''Om'' emerged in the Vedic corpus and is said to be an encapsulated form of ''Samavedic'' chants or songs. It is a sacred spiritual incantation made before and during the recitation of spiritual texts, during '' puja'' and private prayers, in ceremonies of rites of passage ('' sanskara'') such as weddings, and during meditative and spiritual activities such as

Pranava yoga Pranava yoga is meditation on the sacred mantra Om, as outlined in the Upanishads, the ''Bhagavad Gita'', and the ''Yoga Sutras of Patanjali''. It is also called ''Aum yoga'' and ''Aum yoga meditation''. It is, simply put, fixing the mind on the ...

.David White (2011), ''Yoga in Practice'', Princeton University Press, , pp. 104–111Alexander Studholme (2012), ''The Origins of Om Manipadme Hum: A Study of the Karandavyuha Sutra'', State University of New York Press, , pages 1–4 It is part of the iconography found in ancient and medieval era manuscripts, temples, monasteries, and spiritual retreats in

Hinduism Hinduism () is an Indian religion or '' dharma'', a religious and universal order or way of life by which followers abide. As a religion, it is the world's third-largest, with over 1.2–1.35 billion followers, or 15–16% of the global p ...

Buddhism Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and gra ...

Jainism Jainism ( ), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religions, Indian religion. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankaras (supreme preachers of ''Dharma''), with the first in the current ...

, and

Sikhism Sikhism (), also known as Sikhi ( pa, ਸਿੱਖੀ ', , from pa, ਸਿੱਖ, lit=disciple', 'seeker', or 'learner, translit=Sikh, label=none),''Sikhism'' (commonly known as ''Sikhī'') originated from the word ''Sikh'', which comes fro ...

. As a syllable, it is often chanted either independently or before a spiritual recitation and during

meditation Meditation is a practice in which an individual uses a technique – such as mindfulness, or focusing the mind on a particular object, thought, or activity – to train attention and awareness, and achieve a mentally clear and emotionally cal ...

, and

Jan Gonda Jan Gonda (14 April 1905 – 28 July 1991) was a Dutch Indologist and the first Utrecht professor of Sanskrit. He was born in Gouda, in the Netherlands, and died in Utrecht. He studied with Willem Caland at Rijksuniversiteit, Utrecht (since 1990 U ...

(1963), ''The Indian Mantra'', Oriens, Vol. 16, pp. 244–297

Julius Lipner Julius Lipner (born 11 August 1946), who is of Indo-Czech origin, is Professor of Hinduism and the Comparative Study of Religion at the University of Cambridge. Early life Lipner was born and brought up in India, for the most part in West Bengal. ...

(2010), ''Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices'', Routledge, , pp. 66–67 The syllable ''Om'' is also referred to as Onkara (Omkara) and Pranava among many other names.

Common names and synonyms

The syllable ''Om'' is referred to by many names, including: * ' (); literally, "fore-sound", referring to ''Om'' as the primeval sound. * ' () or ' (); literally, "''Om''-maker", denoting the first source of the sound ''Om'' and connoting the act of creation. ** ' (); literally, "one ''Om''-maker", and an epithet of God in

. (see

below Below may refer to: *Earth *Ground (disambiguation) *Soil *Floor *Bottom (disambiguation) Bottom may refer to: Anatomy and sex * Bottom (BDSM), the partner in a BDSM who takes the passive, receiving, or obedient role, to that of the top or ...

). * ' (); meaning "song, chant", a word found in

Samaveda The Samaveda (, from ' "song" and ' "knowledge"), is the Veda of melodies and chants. It is an ancient Vedic Sanskrit text, and part of the scriptures of Hinduism. One of the four Vedas, it is a liturgical text which consists of 1,875 verses. A ...

and ''bhasya'' (commentaries) based on it, which is also used as a name of the syllable. * ' (); literally, "imperishable, immutable", and also "letter of the alphabet" or "syllable". ** '; literally, "one letter of the alphabet", referring to its representation as a single

ligature Ligature may refer to: * Ligature (medicine), a piece of suture used to shut off a blood vessel or other anatomical structure ** Ligature (orthodontic), used in dentistry * Ligature (music), an element of musical notation used especially in the me ...

. (see

)

Origin and spiritual significance

The etymological origins of ''ōm''/''āum'' have long been discussed and disputed, with even the

having proposed multiple

Sanskrit Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...

etymologies for ''āum'', including: from "''ām''" (; "yes"), from "''ávam''" (; "that, thus, yes"), and from the Sanskrit roots "''āv-''" (; "to urge") or "''āp-''" (; "to attain"). In 1889, Maurice Blumfield proposed an origin from a

Proto-Indo-European Proto-Indo-European (PIE) is the reconstructed common ancestor of the Indo-European language family. Its proposed features have been derived by linguistic reconstruction from documented Indo-European languages. No direct record of Proto-Indo-E ...

introductory

particle In the Outline of physical science, physical sciences, a particle (or corpuscule in older texts) is a small wikt:local, localized physical body, object which can be described by several physical property, physical or chemical property, chemical ...

"''*au''" with a function similar to the Sanskrit particle "atha" (). However, contemporary

Indologist Indology, also known as South Asian studies, is the academic study of the history and cultures, languages, and literature of the Indian subcontinent, and as such is a subset of Asian studies. The term ''Indology'' (in German, ''Indologie'') is o ...

Asko Parpola Asko Parpola (born 12 July 1941, in Forssa) is a Finnish Indologist, current professor emeritus of South Asian studies at the University of Helsinki. He specializes in Sindhology, specifically the study of the Indus script. Biography Parpola is ...

proposes a borrowing from Dravidian "''*ām''" meaning "'it is so', 'let it be so', 'yes'", a contraction of "''*ākum''", cognate with modern

Tamil Tamil may refer to: * Tamils, an ethnic group native to India and some other parts of Asia **Sri Lankan Tamils, Tamil people native to Sri Lanka also called ilankai tamils **Tamil Malaysians, Tamil people native to Malaysia * Tamil language, nativ ...

"''ām''" () meaning "yes". Regardless of its original meaning, the syllable ''Om'' evolves to mean many abstract ideas even in the earliest Upanishads.

Max Müller Friedrich Max Müller (; 6 December 1823 – 28 October 1900) was a German-born philologist and Orientalist, who lived and studied in Britain for most of his life. He was one of the founders of the western academic disciplines of Indian ...

and other scholars state that these philosophical texts recommend ''Om'' as a "tool for meditation", explain various meanings that the syllable may be in the mind of one meditating, ranging from "artificial and senseless" to "highest concepts such as the cause of the Universe, essence of life,

Atman Atman or Ātman may refer to: Film * ''Ātman'' (1975 film), a Japanese experimental short film directed by Toshio Matsumoto * ''Atman'' (1997 film), a documentary film directed by Pirjo Honkasalo People * Pavel Atman (born 1987), Russian hand ...

, and Self-knowledge".Paul Deussen, ''Sixty Upanishads of the Veda'', Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 67-85, 227, 284, 308, 318, 361-366, 468, 600-601, 667, 772 The syllable ''Om'' is first mentioned in the Upanishads, the

mystical Mysticism is popularly known as becoming one with God or the Absolute, but may refer to any kind of ecstasy or altered state of consciousness which is given a religious or spiritual meaning. It may also refer to the attainment of insight in u ...

texts associated with the

Vedanta ''Vedanta'' (; sa, वेदान्त, ), also ''Uttara Mīmāṃsā'', is one of the six (''āstika'') schools of Hindu philosophy. Literally meaning "end of the Vedas", Vedanta reflects ideas that emerged from, or were aligned with, t ...

philosophy. It has variously been associated with concepts of "cosmic sound" or "mystical syllable" or "affirmation to something divine", or as symbolism for abstract spiritual concepts in the Upanishads. In the

Aranyaka The Aranyakas (; sa, आरण्यक; IAST: ' ) are the part of the ancient Indian Vedas concerned with the meaning of ritual sacrifice. They typically represent the later sections of the Vedas, and are one of many layers of the Vedic texts. ...

and the

Brahmana The Brahmanas (; Sanskrit: , ''Brāhmaṇam'') are Vedic śruti works attached to the Samhitas (hymns and mantras) of the Rig, Sama, Yajur, and Atharva Vedas. They are a secondary layer or classification of Sanskrit texts embedded within ea ...

layers of Vedic texts, the syllable is so widespread and linked to knowledge, that it stands for the "whole of Veda". The symbolic foundations of ''Om'' are repeatedly discussed in the oldest layers of the early Upanishads. The

Aitareya Brahmana The Aitareya Brahmana ( sa, ऐतरेय ब्राह्मण) is the Brahmana of the Shakala Shakha of the Rigveda, an ancient Indian collection of sacred hymns. This work, according to the tradition, is ascribed to Mahidasa Aitareya. Aut ...

of Rig Veda, in section 5.32, for example suggests that the three phonetic components of ''Om'' (''a'' + ''u'' + ''m'') correspond to the three stages of cosmic creation, and when it is read or said, it celebrates the creative powers of the universe. The Brahmana layer of Vedic texts equate ''Om'' with ''bhur-bhuvah-svah'', the latter symbolising "the whole Veda". They offer various shades of meaning to ''Om'', such as it being "the universe beyond the sun", or that which is "mysterious and inexhaustible", or "the infinite language, the infinite knowledge", or "essence of breath, life, everything that exists", or that "with which one is liberated". The

, the poetical Veda, orthographically maps ''Om'' to the audible, the musical truths in its numerous variations (''Oum'', ''Aum'', ''Ovā Ovā Ovā Um'', etc.) and then attempts to extract musical meters from it.

Pronunciation

When occurring within spoken

Classical Sanskrit Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...

, the syllable is subject to the normal rules of

sandhi Sandhi ( sa, सन्धि ' , "joining") is a cover term for a wide variety of sound changes that occur at morpheme or word boundaries. Examples include fusion of sounds across word boundaries and the alteration of one sound depending on near ...

Sanskrit grammar The grammar of the Sanskrit language has a complex verbal system, rich nominal declension, and extensive use of compound nouns. It was studied and codified by Sanskrit grammarians from the later Vedic period (roughly 8th century BCE), culminating ...

, with the additional peculiarity that the initial ''o'' of "''Om''" is the

guṇa ( sa, गुण) is a concept in Hinduism, Jainism and Sikhism, which can be translated as "quality, peculiarity, attribute, property".vowel grade of ''u'', not the

vṛddhi Vṛddhi (also rendered vr̥ddhi) is a technical term in morphophonology given to the strongest grade in the vowel gradation system of Sanskrit. The term is derived from Sanskrit ''vṛddhi'', , 'growth', from . Origins Vṛddhi itself has its ...

grade, and is therefore pronounced as a

monophthong A monophthong ( ; , ) is a pure vowel sound, one whose articulation at both beginning and end is relatively fixed, and which does not glide up or down towards a new position of articulation. The monophthongs can be contrasted with diphthongs, wh ...

with a

long vowel In linguistics, vowel length is the perceived length of a vowel sound: the corresponding physical measurement is duration. In some languages vowel length is an important phonemic factor, meaning vowel length can change the meaning of the word, f ...

(), ie. ''ōm'' not ''aum''. Furthermore, the final ''m'' is often assimilated into the preceding vowel as

nasalisation In phonetics, nasalization (or nasalisation) is the production of a sound while the velum is lowered, so that some air escapes through the nose during the production of the sound by the mouth. An archetypal nasal sound is . In the Internatio ...

(). As a result, ''Om'' is regularly pronounced in the context of Sanskrit. However, this ''o'' reflects the older

Vedic Sanskrit Vedic Sanskrit was an ancient language of the Indo-Aryan subgroup of the Indo-European language family. It is attested in the Vedas and related literature compiled over the period of the mid- 2nd to mid-1st millennium BCE. It was orally preser ...

diphthong A diphthong ( ; , ), also known as a gliding vowel, is a combination of two adjacent vowel sounds within the same syllable. Technically, a diphthong is a vowel with two different targets: that is, the tongue (and/or other parts of the speech o ...

''au'', which at that stage in the language's history had not yet

ised to ''o''. This being so, the syllable ''Om'' is often

archaically In language, an archaism (from the grc, ἀρχαϊκός, ''archaïkós'', 'old-fashioned, antiquated', ultimately , ''archaîos'', 'from the beginning, ancient') is a word, a sense of a word, or a style of speech or writing that belongs to a hi ...

considered as consisting of three

phoneme In phonology and linguistics, a phoneme () is a unit of sound that can distinguish one word from another in a particular language. For example, in most dialects of English, with the notable exception of the West Midlands and the north-west o ...

s: "a-u-m". Accordingly, some denominations maintain the archaic diphthong ''au'' viewing it to be more authentic and closer to the language of the

. In the context of the

, particularly the Vedic

s, the vowel is often '' pluta'' ("three times as long"), indicating a length of three

morae A mora (plural ''morae'' or ''moras''; often symbolized μ) is a basic timing unit in the phonology of some spoken languages, equal to or shorter than a syllable. For example, a short syllable such as ''ba'' consists of one mora (''monomoraic'') ...

(), that is, the time it takes to say three

light syllable In linguistics, syllable weight is the concept that syllables pattern together according to the number and/or duration of segments in the rime. In classical Indo-European verse, as developed in Greek, Sanskrit, and Latin, distinctions of syllable ...

s. Additionally, a diphthong becomes with the prolongation of its first vowel. When ''e'' and ''o'' undergo they typically revert to the original diphthongs with the initial ''a'' prolonged, realised as an overlong

open back unrounded vowel The open back unrounded vowel, or low back unrounded vowel, is a type of vowel sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is , and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is A. The l ...

(''ā̄um'' or ''a3um'' ). This extended duration is emphasised by denominations who regard it as more authentically Vedic, such as

Arya Samaj Arya Samaj ( hi, आर्य समाज, lit=Noble Society, ) is a monotheistic Indian Hindu reform movement that promotes values and practices based on the belief in the infallible authority of the Vedas. The samaj was founded by the sanny ...

. However, ''Om'' is also attested in the

without ''pluta'', and many languages related to or influenced by Classical Sanskrit, such as Hindustani, share its pronunciation of ''Om'' ( or ).

Written representations

South Asia

Nagari or

Devanagari Devanagari ( ; , , Sanskrit pronunciation: ), also called Nagari (),Kathleen Kuiper (2010), The Culture of India, New York: The Rosen Publishing Group, , page 83 is a left-to-right abugida (a type of segmental Writing systems#Segmental syste ...

representations are found epigraphically on sculpture dating from

Medieval India Medieval India refers to a long period of Post-classical history of the Indian subcontinent between the "ancient period" and "modern period". It is usually regarded as running approximately from the breakup of the Gupta Empire in the 6th cent ...

and on ancient coins in regional scripts throughout South Asia. ''Om'' is represented in

as , composed of four elements: the

vowel letter A vowel is a syllabic speech sound pronounced without any stricture in the vocal tract. Vowels are one of the two principal classes of speech sounds, the other being the consonant. Vowels vary in quality, in loudness and also in quantity (leng ...

(), the vowel diacritic (), the consonant letter (), and the ''

virama Virama ( ्) is a Sanskrit phonological concept to suppress the inherent vowel that otherwise occurs with every consonant letter, commonly used as a generic term for a codepoint in Unicode, representing either # halanta, hasanta or explicit virā ...

'' stroke which indicates the absence of an implied final vowel. The syllable is sometimes written , notably by

, where (i.e., the digit "3") explicitly indicates '' pluta'' ("three times as long"; see above) which is otherwise only implied. For this same reason ''Om'' may also be written in languages such as

Hindi Hindi (Devanāgarī: or , ), or more precisely Modern Standard Hindi (Devanagari: ), is an Indo-Aryan language spoken chiefly in the Hindi Belt region encompassing parts of northern, central, eastern, and western India. Hindi has been de ...

, with the () being used to indicate prolonging the vowel sound. (However, this differs from the usage of the in

, where it would instead indicate the

prodelision Prodelision is a form of elision where, in a string of two words, the latter word loses its initial vowel(s). Example: "Namqu(e) etsi nullum memorabile nomen femine(a) in poena (e)st, habet haec victoria laudem, exstinxisse nefas." (Aeneid 2.583- ...

of the initial vowel.) ''Om'' may also be written , with an reflecting the pronunciation of in languages such as Hindi. In languages such as

Urdu Urdu (;"Urdu"
''

Sindhi ''Om'' may be written in

Arabic script The Arabic script is the writing system used for Arabic and several other languages of Asia and Africa. It is the second-most widely used writing system in the world by number of countries using it or a script directly derived from it, and the ...

, although speakers of these languages may also use Devanagari representations. The commonly seen representation of the syllable ''Om,'' , is a

cursive Cursive (also known as script, among other names) is any style of penmanship in which characters are written joined in a flowing manner, generally for the purpose of making writing faster, in contrast to block letters. It varies in functionalit ...

, combining () with () and the chandrabindu (

ँ Chandrabindu ( IAST: , in Sanskrit) is a diacritic sign with the form of a dot inside the lower half of a circle. It is used in the Devanagari (ँ), Bengali-Assamese (), Gujarati (ઁ), Odia (ଁ), Telugu (ఁ), Javanese ( ꦀ) and other s ...

,). In

Unicode Unicode, formally The Unicode Standard,The formal version reference is is an information technology Technical standard, standard for the consistent character encoding, encoding, representation, and handling of Character (computing), text expre ...

, the symbol is encoded at and at as a "generic symbol independent of Devanagari font". In some South Asian

writing system A writing system is a method of visually representing verbal communication, based on a script and a set of rules regulating its use. While both writing and speech are useful in conveying messages, writing differs in also being a reliable form ...

s, the ''Om'' symbol has been simplified further. In Bengali and Assamese ''Om'' is written simply as without an additional curl. In languages such as

Bengali Bengali or Bengalee, or Bengalese may refer to: *something of, from, or related to Bengal, a large region in South Asia * Bengalis, an ethnic and linguistic group of the region * Bengali language, the language they speak ** Bengali alphabet, the w ...

differences in pronunciation compared to Sanskrit have made the addition of a curl for redundant. Although the spelling is simpler, the pronunciation remains . Similarly, in

Odia Odia, also spelled Oriya or Odiya, may refer to: * Odia people in Odisha, India * Odia language, an Indian language, belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European language family * Odia alphabet, a writing system used for the Odia languag ...

''Om'' is written as without an additional diacritic. In

, ''Om'' is written as , a ligature of (''ō'') and (''m''), while in

Kannada Kannada (; ಕನ್ನಡ, ), originally romanised Canarese, is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by the people of Karnataka in southwestern India, with minorities in all neighbouring states. It has around 47 million native s ...

Telugu Telugu may refer to: * Telugu language, a major Dravidian language of India *Telugu people, an ethno-linguistic group of India * Telugu script, used to write the Telugu language ** Telugu (Unicode block), a block of Telugu characters in Unicode S ...

, and

Malayalam Malayalam (; , ) is a Dravidian language spoken in the Indian state of Kerala and the union territories of Lakshadweep and Puducherry (Mahé district) by the Malayali people. It is one of 22 scheduled languages of India. Malayalam was des ...

, ''Om'' is written simply as the letter for ''ō'' followed by (, , and , respectively). There have been proposals that the ''Om'' syllable may already have had written representations in

Brahmi script Brahmi (; ; ISO: ''Brāhmī'') is a writing system of ancient South Asia. "Until the late nineteenth century, the script of the Aśokan (non-Kharosthi) inscriptions and its immediate derivatives was referred to by various names such as 'lath' o ...

, dating to before the

Common Era Common Era (CE) and Before the Common Era (BCE) are year notations for the Gregorian calendar (and its predecessor, the Julian calendar), the world's most widely used calendar era. Common Era and Before the Common Era are alternatives to the or ...

. A proposal by Deb (1921) held that the ''

swastika The swastika (卐 or 卍) is an ancient religious and cultural symbol, predominantly in various Eurasian, as well as some African and American cultures, now also widely recognized for its appropriation by the Nazi Party and by neo-Nazis. It ...

'' is a

monogram A monogram is a motif made by overlapping or combining two or more letters or other graphemes to form one symbol. Monograms are often made by combining the initials of an individual or a company, used as recognizable symbols or logos. A series o ...

matic representation of the syllable ''Om'', wherein two Brahmi /o/ characters () were superposed crosswise and the 'm' was represented by dot. A commentary in ''

Nature Nature, in the broadest sense, is the physics, physical world or universe. "Nature" can refer to the phenomenon, phenomena of the physical world, and also to life in general. The study of nature is a large, if not the only, part of science. ...

'' (1922) considers this theory questionable and unproven. A. B. Walawalkar (1951) proposed that ''Om'' was represented using the Brahmi symbols for "A", "U", and "M" (), and that this may have influenced the unusual

epigraphic Epigraphy () is the study of inscriptions, or epigraphs, as writing; it is the science of identifying graphemes, clarifying their meanings, classifying their uses according to dates and cultural contexts, and drawing conclusions about the wr ...

al features of the symbol for ''Om''.

Parker Parker may refer to: Persons * Parker (given name) * Parker (surname) Places Place names in the United States *Parker, Arizona *Parker, Colorado * Parker, Florida * Parker, Idaho * Parker, Kansas * Parker, Missouri * Parker, North Carolina *Park ...

(1909) wrote that an "Aum monogram", distinct from the swastika, is found among

Tamil-Brahmi Tamil-Brahmi, also known as Tamizhi or Damili, was a variant of the Brahmi script in southern India. It was used to write inscriptions in the early form of Old Tamil.Richard Salomon (1998) ''Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscription ...

inscriptions in Sri Lanka, including Anuradhapura era coins, dated from the 1st to 4th centuries CE, which are embossed with ''Om'' along with other symbols.

East and Southeast Asia

The ''Om'' symbol, with

al variations, is also found in many

Southeast Asia Southeast Asia, also spelled South East Asia and South-East Asia, and also known as Southeastern Asia, South-eastern Asia or SEA, is the geographical United Nations geoscheme for Asia#South-eastern Asia, south-eastern region of Asia, consistin ...

n countries. In

, the ''Om'' symbol is widely conflated with that of the

unalome Yantra tattooing or Sak Yant ( th, สักยันต์ ) is a form of tattooing using Indian yantra designs. It consists of sacred geometrical, animal and deity designs accompanied by Pali phrases that are said to offer power, protection, fo ...

; originally a representation of the Buddha's

urna In Buddhist art and culture, the Urna (more correctly ūrṇā or ūrṇākośa (Pāli uṇṇa), and known as in Chinese) is a spiral or circular dot placed on the forehead of Buddhist images as an auspicious mark. It symbolizes a third eye, w ...

curl and later a symbol of the path to

nirvana ( , , ; sa, निर्वाण} ''nirvāṇa'' ; Pali: ''nibbāna''; Prakrit: ''ṇivvāṇa''; literally, "blown out", as in an oil lampRichard Gombrich, ''Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benāres to Modern Colombo.' ...

, it is a popular

yantra Yantra () (literally "machine, contraption") is a geometrical diagram, mainly from the Tantric traditions of the Indian religions. Yantras are used for the worship of deities in temples or at home; as an aid in meditation; used for the benefits ...

in Southest Asia, particularly in

Cambodia Cambodia (; also Kampuchea ; km, កម្ពុជា, UNGEGN: ), officially the Kingdom of Cambodia, is a country located in the southern portion of the Indochinese Peninsula in Southeast Asia, spanning an area of , bordered by Thailand t ...

and

Thailand Thailand ( ), historically known as Siam () and officially the Kingdom of Thailand, is a country in Southeast Asia, located at the centre of the Indochinese Peninsula, spanning , with a population of almost 70 million. The country is bo ...

. It frequently appears in ''sak yant'' religious tattoos, and has been a part of various flags and official emblems such as in the Thong Chom Klao of

King Rama IV Mongkut ( th, มงกุฏ; 18 October 18041 October 1868) was the fourth monarch of Siam (Thailand) under the House of Chakri, titled Rama IV. He ruled from 1851 to 1868. His full title in Thai was ''Phra Bat Somdet Phra Menthora Ramathibod ...

() and the present-day

royal arms of Cambodia The royal arms of Cambodia is the symbol of the Cambodian monarchy. They have existed in some form close to the one depicted since the establishment of the independent Kingdom of Cambodia in 1953. It is the symbol on the royal standard of ...

. The Khmer adopted the symbol since the 1st century during the

Kingdom of Funan Funan (; km, ហ៊្វូណន, ; vi, Phù Nam, Chữ Hán: ) was the name given by Chinese cartographers, geographers and writers to an ancient Indianized state—or, rather a loose network of states ''(Mandala)''—located in mainla ...

, where it is also seen on artefacts from

Angkor Borei Angkor Borei ( km, អង្គរបូរី, ) is a district located in Takéo Province, in southern Cambodia. According to the 1998 census of Cambodia, it had a population of 44,980. Administration The district has 6 communes, 34 villages ( ...

, once the capital of Funan. The symbol is seen on numerous Khmer statues from

Chenla Chenla or Zhenla (; km, ចេនឡា, ; vi, Chân Lạp) is the Chinese designation for the successor polity of the kingdom of Funan preceding the Khmer Empire that existed from around the late sixth to the early ninth century in Indoc ...

to Khmer Empire periods and still in used until the present day. In

Chinese characters Chinese characters () are logograms developed for the writing of Chinese. In addition, they have been adapted to write other East Asian languages, and remain a key component of the Japanese writing system where they are known as ''kanji' ...

, ''Om'' is typically

transliterated Transliteration is a type of conversion of a text from one script to another that involves swapping letters (thus '' trans-'' + '' liter-'') in predictable ways, such as Greek → , Cyrillic → , Greek → the digraph , Armenian → or ...

as either 唵 () or 嗡 ().

Representation in various scripts

Northern Brahmic

Southern Brahmic

East Asian

Other

Hinduism

, ''Om'' is one of the most important spiritual sounds. The syllable is often found at the beginning and the end of chapters in the

, the

, and other

s, and is often chanted either independently or before a mantra, as a sacred spiritual incantation made before and during the recitation of spiritual texts, during puja and private prayers, in ceremonies of rites of passages ( sanskara) such as weddings, and during meditative and spiritual activities such as

yoga Yoga (; sa, योग, lit=yoke' or 'union ) is a group of physical, mental, and spiritual practices or disciplines which originated in ancient India and aim to control (yoke) and still the mind, recognizing a detached witness-consciou ...

. It is the most sacred syllable symbol and

mantra A mantra (Pali: ''manta'') or mantram (मन्त्रम्) is a sacred utterance, a numinous sound, a syllable, word or phonemes, or group of words in Sanskrit, Pali and other languages believed by practitioners to have religious, ma ...

, which is the ultimate reality, consciousness or

(Self within). It is called the ''

Shabda ''Shabda'' ( sa, शब्द, ), is the Sanskrit word for "speech sound". In Sanskrit grammar, the term refers to an utterance in the sense of linguistic performance. History In classical Indian philosophy of language, the grammarian Katyayan ...

Brahman'' (Brahman as sound) and believed to be the primordial sound (''Pranava'') of the universe.

Vedas

''Om'' came to be used as a standard utterance at the beginning of mantras, chants or citations taken from the

Veda FIle:Atharva-Veda samhita page 471 illustration.png, upright=1.2, The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the ''Atharvaveda''. The Vedas (, , ) are a large body of religious texts originating in ancient India. Co ...

s. For example, the

Gayatri mantra The Gāyatrī Mantra, also known as the Sāvitri Mantra, is a highly revered mantra from the '' Rig Veda'' ( Mandala 3.62.10), dedicated to the Vedic deity Savitr. is the name of the Goddess of the Vedic meter in which the verse is composed. ...

, which consists of a verse from the

Rigveda The ''Rigveda'' or ''Rig Veda'' ( ', from ' "praise" and ' "knowledge") is an ancient Indian collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns (''sūktas''). It is one of the four sacred canonical Hindu texts (''śruti'') known as the Vedas. Only one Sh ...

Samhita ( RV 3.62.10), is prefixed not just by ''Om'' but by ''Om'' followed by the formula ''bhūr bhuvaḥ svaḥ''.

Monier Monier-Williams Sir Monier Monier-Williams (; né Williams; 12 November 1819 – 11 April 1899) was a British scholar who was the second Boden Professor of Sanskrit at University of Oxford, Oxford University, England. He studied, documented and taught Languag ...

(1893), ''Indian Wisdom'', Luzac & Co., London, page 17 Such recitations continue to be in use in Hinduism, with many major incantations and ceremonial functions beginning and ending with ''Om''.

Brahmanas

= Aitareya Brahmana

= The

(7.18.13) explains ''Om'' as "an acknowledgment, melodic confirmation, something that gives momentum and energy to a hymn".

Upanishads

= Chandogya Upanishad

= The

Chandogya Upanishad The ''Chandogya Upanishad'' (Sanskrit: , IAST: ''Chāndogyopaniṣad'') is a Sanskrit text embedded in the Chandogya Brahmana of the Sama Veda of Hinduism.Patrick Olivelle (2014), ''The Early Upanishads'', Oxford University Press; , pp. 166-16 ...

is one of the oldest Upanishads of Hinduism. It opens with the recommendation that "let a man meditate on Om".

Max Muller Max or MAX may refer to: Animals * Max (dog) (1983–2013), at one time purported to be the world's oldest living dog * Max (English Springer Spaniel), the first pet dog to win the PDSA Order of Merit (animal equivalent of OBE) * Max (gorilla) (1 ...

Chandogya Upanishad
''The Upanishads'', Part I, Oxford University Press, pages 1-3 with footnotes It calls the syllable ''Om'' as ''udgitha'' (; song, chant), and asserts that the significance of the syllable is thus: the essence of all beings is earth, the essence of earth is water, the essence of water are the plants, the essence of plants is man, the essence of man is speech, the essence of speech is the

, the essence of the Rigveda is the Samaveda, and the essence of Samaveda is the ''udgitha'' (song, ''Om''). () is speech, states the text, and () is breath; they are pairs, and because they have love for each other, speech and breath find themselves together and mate to produce a song. The highest song is ''Om'', asserts section 1.1 of Chandogya Upanishad. It is the symbol of awe, of reverence, of threefold knowledge because ''Adhvaryu'' invokes it, the ''Hotr'' recites it, and ''Udgatr'' sings it.Paul Deussen, ''Sixty Upanishads of the Veda'', Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 68-70Patrick Olivelle (2014), ''The Early Upanishads'', Oxford University Press, , page 171-185 The second volume of the first chapter continues its discussion of syllable ''Om'', explaining its use as a struggle between ''

Devas Devas may refer to: * Devas Club, a club in south London * Anthony Devas (1911–1958), British portrait painter * Charles Stanton Devas (1848–1906), political economist * Jocelyn Devas (died 1886), founder of the Devas Club * Devas (band), ...

'' (gods) and ''

Asuras Asuras (Sanskrit: असुर) are a class of beings in Indic religions. They are described as power-seeking clans related to the more benevolent Devas (also known as Suras) in Hinduism. In its Buddhist context, the word is sometimes translated ...

'' (demons).Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 70-71 with footnotes Max Muller states that this struggle between gods and demons is considered allegorical by ancient

Indian Indian or Indians may refer to: Peoples South Asia * Indian people, people of Indian nationality, or people who have an Indian ancestor ** Non-resident Indian, a citizen of India who has temporarily emigrated to another country * South Asia ...

scholars, as good and evil inclinations within man, respectively.

Chandogya Upanishad
''The Upanishads'', Part I, Oxford University Press, pages 4-6 with footnotes The legend in section 1.2 of Chandogya Upanishad states that gods took the ''Udgitha'' (song of ''Om'') unto themselves, thinking, "with this ''song'' we shall overcome the demons".Robert Hume
Chandogya Upanishad
''The Thirteen Principal Upanishads'', Oxford University Press, pages 178-180 The syllable ''Om'' is thus implied as that which inspires the good inclinations within each person. Chandogya Upanishad's exposition of syllable ''Om'' in its opening chapter combines etymological speculations, symbolism, metric structure and philosophical themes. In the second chapter of the Chandogya Upanishad, the meaning and significance of ''Om'' evolves into a philosophical discourse, such as in section 2.10 where ''Om'' is linked to the Highest Self, and section 2.23 where the text asserts ''Om'' is the essence of three forms of knowledge, ''Om'' is

and "Om is all this bserved world.

= Katha Upanishad

= The

Katha Upanishad The ''Katha Upanishad'' (Sanskrit: कठोपनिषद् or कठ उपनिषद्) (') is one of the ''mukhya'' (primary) Upanishads, embedded in the last eight short sections of the ' school of the Krishna Yajurveda.Paul Deussen. ...

is the legendary story of a little boy,

Nachiketa Nachiketa (), also rendered Nachiketas and Nachiketan, is a character in Hindu literature. He is the son of the sage Vājashravas, or Uddalaki, in some traditions. He is the child protagonist of an ancient Indian, dialogical narrative, about th ...

, the son of sage , who meets

Yama Yama (Devanagari: यम) or Yamarāja (यमराज), is a deity of death, dharma, the south direction, and the underworld who predominantly features in Hindu and Buddhist religion, belonging to an early stratum of Rigvedic Hindu deities ...

, the Vedic deity of death. Their conversation evolves to a discussion of the nature of man, knowledge,

(Self) and

moksha ''Moksha'' (; sa, मोक्ष, '), also called ''vimoksha'', ''vimukti'' and ''mukti'', is a term in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism for various forms of emancipation, enlightenment, liberation, and release. In its soteriology, ...

(liberation).Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 269-273 In section 1.2, Katha Upanishad characterises knowledge () as the pursuit of the good, and ignorance () as the pursuit of the pleasant.Max Muller (1962), Katha Upanishad, in The Upanishads – Part II, Dover Publications, , page 8 It teaches that the essence of the Veda is to make man liberated and free, look past what has happened and what has not happened, free from the past and the future, beyond good and evil, and one word for this essence is the word ''Om''.Paul Deussen, ''Sixty Upanishads of the Veda'', Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 284-286

= Maitri Upanishad

A Pahari painting of an OM containing deities, c

The

Maitrayaniya Upanishad The ''Maitrayaniya Upanishad'' ( sa, मैत्रायणीय उपनिषद्, ) is an ancient Sanskrit text that is embedded inside the Yajurveda.Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages ...

in sixth ''Prapathakas'' (lesson) discusses the meaning and significance of ''Om''. The text asserts that ''Om'' represents Brahman-Atman. The three roots of the syllable, states the Maitri Upanishad, are ''A'' + ''U'' + ''M''. The sound is the body of Self, and it repeatedly manifests in three: * as gender-endowed body – feminine, masculine, neuter; * as light-endowed body –

Agni Agni (English: , sa, अग्नि, translit=Agni) is a Sanskrit word meaning fire and connotes the Vedic fire deity of Hinduism. He is also the guardian deity of the southeast direction and is typically found in southeast corners of Hindu ...

Vayu Vayu (, sa, वायु, ), also known as Vata and Pavana, is the Hindu god of the winds as well as the divine massenger of the gods. In the ''Vedic scriptures'', Vayu is an important deity and is closely associated with Indra, the king of ...

, and

Aditya Surya (; sa, सूर्य, ) is the sun as well as the solar deity in Hinduism. He is traditionally one of the major five deities in the Smarta tradition, all of whom are considered as equivalent deities in the Panchayatana puja and a ...

; * as deity-endowed body – Brahma, Rudra, and Vishnu; * as mouth-endowed body – ''garhapatya'', ''dakshinagni'', and ''ahavaniya''; * as knowledge-endowed body – Rig, Saman, and Yajur; * as world-endowed body – , , and ; * as time-endowed body – past, present, and future; * as heat-endowed body –

breath Breathing (or ventilation) is the process of moving air into and from the lungs to facilitate gas exchange with the internal environment, mostly to flush out carbon dioxide and bring in oxygen. All aerobic creatures need oxygen for cellular ...

fire Fire is the rapid oxidation of a material (the fuel) in the exothermic chemical process of combustion, releasing heat, light, and various reaction Product (chemistry), products. At a certain point in the combustion reaction, called the ignition ...

, and

Sun The Sun is the star at the center of the Solar System. It is a nearly perfect ball of hot plasma, heated to incandescence by nuclear fusion reactions in its core. The Sun radiates this energy mainly as light, ultraviolet, and infrared radi ...

; * as growth-endowed body – food, water, and

Moon The Moon is Earth's only natural satellite. It is the fifth largest satellite in the Solar System and the largest and most massive relative to its parent planet, with a diameter about one-quarter that of Earth (comparable to the width of ...

; * as thought-endowed body –

intellect In the study of the human mind, intellect refers to, describes, and identifies the ability of the human mind to reach correct conclusions about what is true and what is false in reality; and how to solve problems. Derived from the Ancient Gree ...

mind The mind is the set of faculties responsible for all mental phenomena. Often the term is also identified with the phenomena themselves. These faculties include thought, imagination, memory, will, and sensation. They are responsible for various m ...

, and

psyche Psyche (''Psyché'' in French) is the Greek term for "soul" (ψυχή). Psyche may also refer to: Psychology * Psyche (psychology), the totality of the human mind, conscious and unconscious * ''Psyche'', an 1846 book about the unconscious by Car ...

.Maitri Upanishad – Sanskrit Text with English Translation
EB Cowell (Translator), Cambridge University, ''Bibliotheca Indica'', page 258-260 Brahman exists in two forms – the material form, and the immaterial formless. The material form is changing, unreal. The immaterial formless isn't changing, real. The immortal formless is truth, the truth is the Brahman, the Brahman is the light, the light is the Sun which is the syllable ''Om'' as the Self. The world is ''Om'', its light is Sun, and the Sun is also the light of the syllable ''Om'', asserts the Upanishad. Meditating on ''Om'', is acknowledging and meditating on the Brahman-Atman (Self).

= Mundaka Upanishad

A Yantra with Tamil Om symbol in center, at a Mariamman Temple

The

Mundaka Upanishad The Mundaka Upanishad ( sa, मुण्डक-उपनिषद्, ) is an ancient Sanskrit Vedic text, embedded inside Atharva Veda. It is a Mukhya (primary) Upanishad, and is listed as number 5 in the Muktika canon of 108 Upanishads of Hin ...

in the second ''Mundakam'' (part), suggests the means to knowing the Atman and the Brahman are meditation, self-reflection, and introspection and that they can be aided by the symbol ''Om''.

Adi Shankara Adi Shankara ("first Shankara," to distinguish him from other Shankaras)(8th cent. CE), also called Adi Shankaracharya ( sa, आदि शङ्कर, आदि शङ्कराचार्य, Ādi Śaṅkarācāryaḥ, lit=First Shanka ...

, in his review of the Mundaka Upanishad, states ''Om'' as a symbolism for

(Self).

= Mandukya Upanishad

= The

Mandukya Upanishad The Māṇḍūkya Upaniṣad ( sa, माण्डूक्य उपनिषद्, ) is the shortest of all the Upanishads, and is assigned to Atharvaveda. It is listed as number 6 in the Muktikā canon of 108 Upanishads. It is in prose, c ...

opens by declaring, "''Om''!, this syllable is this whole world". Thereafter, it presents various explanations and theories on what it means and signifies. This discussion is built on a structure of "four fourths" or "fourfold", derived from ''A'' + ''U'' + ''M'' + "silence" (or without an element).Paul Deussen, ''Sixty Upanishads of the Veda'', Volume 2, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 605-637 * ''Om'' as all states of

Time Time is the continued sequence of existence and events that occurs in an apparently irreversible succession from the past, through the present, into the future. It is a component quantity of various measurements used to sequence events, to ...

. *: In verse 1, the Upanishad states that time is threefold: the past, the present and the future, that these three are ''Om''. The four fourth of time is that which transcends time, that too is ''Om'' expressed. * ''Om'' as all states of Ātman . *: In verse 2, states the Upanishad, everything is Brahman, but Brahman is Atman (the Self), and that the Atman is fourfold. Johnston summarizes these four states of Self, respectively, as seeking the physical, seeking inner thought, seeking the causes and spiritual consciousness, and the fourth state is realizing oneness with the Self, the Eternal.Charles Johnston
The Measures of the Eternal – Mandukya Upanishad
Theosophical Quarterly, October, 1923, pages 158-162 * ''Om'' as all states of

Consciousness Consciousness, at its simplest, is sentience and awareness of internal and external existence. However, the lack of definitions has led to millennia of analyses, explanations and debates by philosophers, theologians, linguisticians, and scien ...

. *: In verses 3 to 6, the Mandukya Upanishad enumerates four states of consciousness: wakeful, dream, deep sleep, and the state of ''ekatma'' (being one with Self, the oneness of Self). These four are ''A'' + ''U'' + ''M'' + "without an element" respectively. * ''Om'' as all of

Knowledge Knowledge can be defined as awareness of facts or as practical skills, and may also refer to familiarity with objects or situations. Knowledge of facts, also called propositional knowledge, is often defined as true belief that is distinc ...

. *: In verses 9 to 12, the Mandukya Upanishad enumerates fourfold etymological roots of the syllable ''Om''. It states that the first element of ''Om'' is ''A'', which is from ''Apti'' (obtaining, reaching) or from ''Adimatva'' (being first). The second element is ''U'', which is from ''Utkarsa'' (exaltation) or from ''Ubhayatva'' (intermediateness). The third element is ''M'', from ''Miti'' (erecting, constructing) or from ''Mi Minati, or apīti'' (annihilation). The fourth is without an element, without development, beyond the expanse of universe. In this way, states the Upanishad, the syllable Om is indeed the Atman (the self).

= Shvetashvatara Upanishad

= The

Shvetashvatara Upanishad The ''Shvetashvatara Upanishad'' ( sa, श्वेताश्वतरोपनिषद् or or , IAST: ' or ') is an ancient Sanskrit text embedded in the Yajurveda. It is listed as number 14 in the Muktika canon of 108 Upanishads. The Upa ...

, in verses 1.14 to 1.16, suggests meditating with the help of syllable ''Om'', where one's perishable body is like one fuel-stick and the syllable ''Om'' is the second fuel-stick, which with discipline and diligent rubbing of the sticks unleashes the concealed fire of thought and awareness within. Such knowledge, asserts the Upanishad, is the goal of Upanishads.Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 308 The text asserts that ''Om'' is a tool of meditation empowering one to know the God within oneself, to realize one's Atman (Self). Ganesha-aum

= Ganapati Upanishad

= The Ganapati Upanishad asserts that Ganesha is same as Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva, all deities, the universe, and ''Om''.

Ramayana

Valmiki Valmiki (; Sanskrit: वाल्मीकि, ) is celebrated as the wikt:harbinger, harbinger-poet in Sanskrit literature. The epic ''Ramayana'', dated variously from the 5th century BCE to first century BCE, is attributed to him, based on ...

Ramayana The ''Rāmāyana'' (; sa, रामायणम्, ) is a Sanskrit literature, Sanskrit Indian epic poetry, epic composed over a period of nearly a millennium, with scholars' estimates for the earliest stage of the text ranging from the 8th ...

Rama Rama (; ), Ram, Raman or Ramar, also known as Ramachandra (; , ), is a major deity in Hinduism. He is the seventh and one of the most popular '' avatars'' of Vishnu. In Rama-centric traditions of Hinduism, he is considered the Supreme Bein ...

is identified with ''Om'', with

Brahma Brahma ( sa, ब्रह्मा, Brahmā) is a Hindu god, referred to as "the Creator" within the Trimurti, the trinity of supreme divinity that includes Vishnu, and Shiva.Jan Gonda (1969)The Hindu Trinity Anthropos, Bd 63/64, H 1/2, pp. 21 ...

saying to Rama:

Bhagavad Gita

The

Bhagavad Gita The Bhagavad Gita (; sa, श्रीमद्भगवद्गीता, lit=The Song by God, translit=śrīmadbhagavadgītā;), often referred to as the Gita (), is a 700- verse Hindu scripture that is part of the epic ''Mahabharata'' (c ...

, in the Epic

Mahabharata The ''Mahābhārata'' ( ; sa, महाभारतम्, ', ) is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India in Hinduism, the other being the ''Rāmāyaṇa''. It narrates the struggle between two groups of cousins in the Kuruk ...

, mentions the meaning and significance of ''Om'' in several verses. According to Jeaneane Fowler, verse 9.17 of the Bhagavad Gita synthesizes the competing dualistic and monist streams of thought in Hinduism, by using "''Om'' which is the symbol for the indescribable, impersonal

". The significance of the sacred syllable in the Hindu traditions, is similarly highlighted in other verses of the ''Gita'', such as verse 17.24 where the importance of ''Om'' during prayers, charity and meditative practices is explained as follows:

Puranas

The medieval era texts of Hinduism, such as the

Puranas Purana (; sa, , '; literally meaning "ancient, old"Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of Literature (1995 Edition), Article on Puranas, , page 915) is a vast genre of Indian literature about a wide range of topics, particularly about legends an ...

adopt and expand the concept of ''Om'' in their own ways, and to their own theistic sects.

Vaishnava traditions

The

Vaishnava Vaishnavism ( sa, वैष्णवसम्प्रदायः, Vaiṣṇavasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu denominations along with Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. It is also called Vishnuism since it considers Vishnu as the ...

Garuda Purana The ''Garuda Purana'' is one of 18 ''Mahāpurāṇa'' texts in Hinduism. It is a part of Vaishnavism literature corpus, primarily centering around Hindu god Vishnu. Composed in Sanskrit and also available in various languages like Gujarati an ...

'' equates the recitation of ''Om'' with obeisance to Vishnu. According to the ''

Vayu Purana The ''Vayu Purana'' ( sa, वायुपुराण, ) is a Sanskrit text and one of the eighteen major Puranas of Hinduism. ''Vayu Purana'' is mentioned in the manuscripts of the Mahabharata and other Hindu texts, which has led scholars to pr ...

'', ''Om'' is the representation of the Hindu

Trimurti The Trimūrti (; Sanskrit: त्रिमूर्ति ', "three forms" or "trinity") are the trinity of supreme divinity in Hinduism, in which the cosmic functions of creation, maintenance, and destruction are personified as a triad of de ...

, and represents the union of the three gods, viz. ''A'' for

, ''U'' for

Vishnu Vishnu ( ; , ), also known as Narayana and Hari, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme being within Vaishnavism, one of the major traditions within contemporary Hinduism. Vishnu is known as "The Preserver" within t ...

and ''M'' for

Shiva Shiva (; sa, शिव, lit=The Auspicious One, Śiva ), also known as Mahadeva (; ɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐ, or Hara, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the Supreme Being in Shaivism, one of the major traditions within Hindu ...

. The ''

Bhagavata Purana The ''Bhagavata Purana'' ( sa, भागवतपुराण; ), also known as the ''Srimad Bhagavatam'', ''Srimad Bhagavata Mahapurana'' or simply ''Bhagavata'', is one of Hinduism's eighteen great Puranas (''Mahapuranas''). Composed in Sa ...

'' (9.14.46-48) identifies the ''Pranava'' as the root of all Vedic mantras, and describes the combined letters of ''a-u-m'' as an invocation of seminal birth,

initiation Initiation is a rite of passage marking entrance or acceptance into a group or society. It could also be a formal admission to adulthood in a community or one of its formal components. In an extended sense, it can also signify a transformation ...

, and the performance of sacrifice (

yajña Yajna ( sa, यज्ञ, yajña, translit-std=IAST, sacrifice, devotion, worship, offering) refers in Hinduism to any ritual done in front of a sacred fire, often with mantras.SG Nigal (1986), Axiological Approach to the Vedas, Northern Book ...

Shaiva traditions

Shaiva Shaivism (; sa, शैवसम्प्रदायः, Śaivasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu traditions, which worships Shiva as the Supreme Being. One of the largest Hindu denominations, it incorporates many sub-traditions rangin ...

traditions, the ''

Shiva Purana The ''Shiva Purana'' is one of eighteen major texts of the ''Purana'' genre of Sanskrit texts in Hinduism, and part of the Shaivism literature corpus. It primarily revolves around the Hindu god Shiva and goddess Parvati, but references and reve ...

'' highlights the relation between deity

and the ''Pranava'' or ''Om''. Shiva is declared to be ''Om'', and that ''Om'' is Shiva.

Shakta traditions

In the

thealogy Thealogy views divine matters with feminine perspectives including but not only feminism. Valerie Saiving, Isaac Bonewits (1976) and Naomi Goldenberg (1979) introduced the concept as a neologism (new word) in feminist terms. Its use then wid ...

Shakta Shaktism ( sa, शाक्त, , ) is one of several major Hindu denominations, wherein the metaphysical reality is considered metaphorically a woman and Shakti (Mahadevi) is regarded as the supreme godhead. It includes many goddesses, all ...

traditions, ''Om'' connotes the female divine energy,

Adi Parashakti Mahadevi ( sa, महादेवी, ), also referred to as Adi Parashakti, Adi Shakti, and Abhaya Shakti, is the supreme goddess in the Shaktism sect of Hinduism. According to this tradition, all Hindu goddesses are considered to be manifesta ...

, represented in the

Tridevi The Tridevi () are a trinity of supreme divinity in Hinduism, joining a triad of eminent goddesses either as a feminine version of the Trimurti, or as consorts of a masculine Trimurti, depending on the denomination. This triad is typically pers ...

: ''A'' for the creative energy (the

Shakti In Hinduism, especially Shaktism (a theological tradition of Hinduism), Shakti (Devanagari: शक्ति, IAST: Śakti; lit. "Energy, ability, strength, effort, power, capability") is the primordial cosmic energy, female in aspect, and rep ...

of Brahma),

Mahasaraswati Saraswati ( sa, सरस्वती, ) is the Hindu goddess of knowledge, music, art, speech, wisdom, and learning. She is one of the Tridevi, along with the goddesses Lakshmi and Parvati. The earliest known mention of Saraswati as a god ...

, ''U'' for the preservative energy (the Shakti of Vishnu),

Mahalakshmi Lakshmi (; , sometimes spelled Laxmi, ), also known as Shri (, ), is one of the principal goddesses in Hinduism. She is the goddess of wealth, fortune, power, beauty, fertility and prosperity, and associated with '' Maya'' ("Illusion"). Al ...

, and ''M'' for the destructive energy (the Shakti of Shiva),

Mahakali Mahakali () is the Hindu goddess of time and death in the goddess-centric tradition of Shaktism. Similar to Kali, Mahakali is a fierce goddess associated with universal power, time, life, death, and both rebirth and liberation. She is the cons ...

. The 12th book of the ''

Devi-Bhagavata Purana The Devi Bhagavata Purana ( sa, देवी भागवतपुराणम्, '), also known as the Srimad Devi Bhagavatam, Srimad Bhagavatam, Bhagavata Purana or simply ''Devi Bhagavatam'', is one of the eighteen Mahapuranas of Hindui ...

'' describes the

Goddess A goddess is a female deity. In many known cultures, goddesses are often linked with literal or metaphorical pregnancy or imagined feminine roles associated with how women and girls are perceived or expected to behave. This includes themes of s ...

as the mother of the Vedas, the ''Adya Shakti'' (primal energy, primordial power), and the essence of the

Other texts

Yoga Sutra

The aphoristic verse 1.27 of Pantanjali's ''

Yogasutra The ''Yoga Sutras of Patañjali'' is a collection of Sanskrit sutras (aphorisms) on the theory and practice of yoga – 195 sutras (according to Vyāsa and Krishnamacharya) and 196 sutras (according to others, including BKS Iyengar). The ''Y ...

'' links ''Om'' to

Yoga Yoga (; sa, योग, lit=yoke' or 'union ) is a group of physical, mental, and spiritual practices or disciplines which originated in ancient India and aim to control (yoke) and still the mind, recognizing a detached witness-consciou ...

practice, as follows: Johnston states this verse highlights the importance of ''Om'' in the meditative practice of yoga, where it symbolises the three worlds in the Self; the three times – past, present, and future eternity; the three divine powers – creation, preservation, and transformation in one Being; and three essences in one Spirit – immortality, omniscience, and joy. It is, asserts Johnston, a symbol for the perfected Spiritual Man.

Chaitanya Charitamrita

In Krishnava traditions,

Krishna Krishna (; sa, कृष्ण ) is a major deity in Hinduism. He is worshipped as the eighth avatar of Vishnu and also as the Supreme god in his own right. He is the god of protection, compassion, tenderness, and love; and is one ...

is revered as Svayam Bhagavan, the Supreme Lord himself, and ''Om'' is interpreted in light of this. According to the ''

Chaitanya Charitamrita The ''Chaitanya Charitamrita'' (; bn, চৈতন্যচরিতামৃত, Côitônyôcôritamṛtô), composed by Krishnadasa Kaviraja in 1557, is written in Bengali with a great number of Sanskrit verses in its devotional, poetic const ...

'', ''Om'' is the sound representation of the Supreme Lord. ''A'' is said to represent

Bhagavan Bhagavan ( sa, भगवान्, Bhagavān; pi, Bhagavā, italics=yes), also spelt Bhagwan (sometimes translated in English as "Lord"), is an epithet within Indian religions used to denote figures of religious worship. In Hinduism it is us ...

(Vishnu), ''U'' represents Srimati

Radharani Radha ( sa, राधा, ), also called Radhika, is a Hindu goddess and the chief consort of the god Krishna. She is worshiped as the goddess of love, tenderness, compassion, and devotion. She is the avatar of goddess Lakshmi and is also de ...

(

), and ''M'' represents

jiva ''Jiva'' ( sa, जीव, IAST: ) is a living being or any entity imbued with a life force in Hinduism and Jīva (Jainism), Jainism. The word itself originates from the Sanskrit verb-root ''jīv'', which translates as 'to breathe' or 'to live'. ...

, the Self of the devotee.

Jainism

, ''Om'' is considered a condensed form of reference to the

Pañca-Parameṣṭhi The (Sanskrit: पञ्च परमेष्ठी for "five supreme beings") in Jainism are a fivefold hierarchy of religious authorities worthy of veneration. Overview The five supreme beings are: #'' Arihant'': The awakened souls wh ...

by their initials ''A+A+A+U+M'' ('). The

Dravyasamgraha ' (Devnagari: द्रव्यसंग्रह) (Compendium of substances) is a 10th-century Jain text in Jain Sauraseni Prakrit by Acharya Nemicandra belonging to the Digambara Jain tradition. It is a composition of 58 ''gathas'' (verses) ...

quotes a

Prakrit The Prakrits (; sa, prākṛta; psu, 𑀧𑀸𑀉𑀤, ; pka, ) are a group of vernacular Middle Indo-Aryan languages that were used in the Indian subcontinent from around the 3rd century BCE to the 8th century CE. The term Prakrit is usu ...

line: By extension, the Om symbol is also used in Jainism to represent the first five lines of the

Namokar mantra The Ṇamōkāra mantra or Navkar Mantra is the most significant mantra in Jainism, and one of the oldest mantras in continuous practice. This is the first prayer recited by the Jains while meditating. The mantra is also variously referred to ...

, the most important part of the daily prayer in the Jain religion, which honours the ''Pañca-Parameṣṭhi''. These five lines are (in English): "(1.) veneration to the Arhats, (2.) veneration to the perfect ones, (3.) veneration to the masters, (4.) veneration to the teachers, (5.) veneration to all the monks in the world".

Buddhism

''Om'' is often used in some later schools of Buddhism, for example Tibetan Buddhism, which was influenced by Indian Hinduism and Tantra. In

East Asian Buddhism East Asian Buddhism or East Asian Mahayana is a collective term for the schools of Mahāyāna Buddhism that developed across East Asia which follow the Chinese Buddhist canon. These include the various forms of Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and Vi ...

, ''Om'' is often

as the

Chinese character Chinese characters () are logograms developed for the Written Chinese, writing of Chinese. In addition, they have been adapted to write other East Asian languages, and remain a key component of the Japanese writing system where they are k ...

(

pinyin Hanyu Pinyin (), often shortened to just pinyin, is the official romanization system for Standard Mandarin Chinese in China, and to some extent, in Singapore and Malaysia. It is often used to teach Mandarin, normally written in Chinese for ...

') or (

').

Tibetan Buddhism and Vajrayana

In Tibetan

, ''Om'' is often placed at the beginning of mantras and

dharani Dharanis (IAST: ), also known as ''Parittas'', are Buddhist chants, mnemonic codes, incantations, or recitations, usually the mantras consisting of Sanskrit or Pali phrases. Believed to be protective and with powers to generate merit for the Bud ...

s. Probably the most well known mantra is "

Om mani padme hum ' ( sa, ॐ मणि पद्मे हूँ, ) is the six-syllabled Sanskrit mantra particularly associated with the four-armed Shadakshari form of Avalokiteshvara, the bodhisattva of compassion. It first appeared in the Mahayana ''Kāraṇ ...

", the six syllable mantra of the

Bodhisattva In Buddhism, a bodhisattva ( ; sa, 𑀩𑁄𑀥𑀺𑀲𑀢𑁆𑀢𑁆𑀯 (Brahmī), translit=bodhisattva, label=Sanskrit) or bodhisatva is a person who is on the path towards bodhi ('awakening') or Buddhahood. In the Early Buddhist schools ...

of compassion,

Avalokiteśvara In Buddhism, Avalokiteśvara (Sanskrit: अवलोकितेश्वर, IPA: ) is a bodhisattva who embodies the compassion of all Buddhas. He has 108 avatars, one notable avatar being Padmapāṇi (lotus bearer). He is variably depicted, ...

. This mantra is particularly associated with the four-armed form of Avalokiteśvara. Moreover, as a seed syllable (''

Bīja In Hinduism and Buddhism, the Sanskrit term Bīja () ( Jp. 種子 shuji) (Chinese 种子 zhǒng zǐ), literally seed, is used as a metaphor for the origin or cause of things and cognate with bindu. Buddhist theory of karmic seeds Various schools ...

mantra''), ''Om'' is considered sacred and holy in

Esoteric Buddhism Vajrayāna ( sa, वज्रयान, "thunderbolt vehicle", "diamond vehicle", or "indestructible vehicle"), along with Mantrayāna, Guhyamantrayāna, Tantrayāna, Secret Mantra, Tantric Buddhism, and Esoteric Buddhism, are names referring t ...

. Some scholars interpret the first word of the mantra to be , with a meaning similar to Hinduism – the totality of sound, existence, and consciousness. has been described by the

14th Dalai Lama The 14th Dalai Lama (spiritual name Jetsun Jamphel Ngawang Lobsang Yeshe Tenzin Gyatso, known as Tenzin Gyatso (Tibetan: བསྟན་འཛིན་རྒྱ་མཚོ་, Wylie: ''bsTan-'dzin rgya-mtsho''); né Lhamo Thondup), known as ...

as "composed of three pure letters, A, U, and M. These symbolize the impure body, speech, and mind of everyday unenlightened life of a practitioner; they also symbolize the pure exalted body, speech and mind of an enlightened Buddha". According to Simpkins, ''Om'' is a part of many mantras in Tibetan Buddhism and is a symbolism for wholeness, perfection, and the infinite.

Japanese Buddhism

''A-un''

The term is the transliteration in Japanese of the two syllables "''a''" and "", written in

as . In Japanese, it is often

conflated Conflation is the merging of two or more sets of information, texts, ideas, opinions, etc., into one, often in error. Conflation is often misunderstood. It originally meant to fuse or blend, but has since come to mean the same as equate, treati ...

with the syllable ''Om''. The original Sanskrit term is composed of two letters, the first () and the last () letters of the Devanagari

abugida An abugida (, from Ge'ez language, Ge'ez: ), sometimes known as alphasyllabary, neosyllabary or pseudo-alphabet, is a segmental Writing systems#Segmental writing system, writing system in which consonant-vowel sequences are written as units; ...

, with

diacritics A diacritic (also diacritical mark, diacritical point, diacritical sign, or accent) is a glyph added to a letter or to a basic glyph. The term derives from the Ancient Greek (, "distinguishing"), from (, "to distinguish"). The word ''diacritic ...

(including

anusvara Anusvara (Sanskrit: ') is a symbol used in many Indic scripts to mark a type of nasal sound, typically transliterated . Depending on its location in the word and the language for which it is used, its exact pronunciation can vary. In the context ...

) on the latter indicating the "-" of "". Together, they symbolically represent the beginning and the end of all things. In Japanese ''

Mikkyō is a Japanese term for the Vajrayana practices of Shingon Buddhism and the related practices that make up part of the Tendai and Kegon schools. There are also Shingon and Tendai influenced practices of Shugendō. Mikkyō is a "lineage traditio ...

'' Buddhism, the letters represent the beginning and the end of the universe. This is comparable to

Alpha and Omega Alpha (Α or α) and omega (Ω or ω) are the first and last letters of the Greek alphabet, and a title of Christ and God in the Book of Revelation. This pair of letters is used as a Christian symbol, and is often combined with the Cross, Chi-rh ...

, the first and last letters of the

Greek alphabet The Greek alphabet has been used to write the Greek language since the late 9th or early 8th century BCE. It is derived from the earlier Phoenician alphabet, and was the earliest known alphabetic script to have distinct letters for vowels as we ...

, similarly adopted by

Christianity Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. It is the world's largest and most widespread religion with roughly 2.38 billion followers representing one-third of the global pop ...

to symbolise Christ as the beginning and end of all. The term ''a-un'' is used figuratively in some Japanese expressions as or , indicating an inherently harmonious relationship or

nonverbal communication Nonverbal communication (NVC) is the transmission of messages or signals through a nonverbal platform such as eye contact, facial expressions, gestures, Posture (psychology), posture, and body language. It includes the use of social cues, kinesi ...

''Niō'' guardian kings and ''komainu'' lion-dogs

The term is also used in

Buddhist architecture Buddhist religious architecture developed in the Indian subcontinent. Three types of structures are associated with the religious architecture of early Buddhism: monasteries ( viharas), places to venerate relics (stupas), and shrines or prayer ha ...

and

Shinto Shinto () is a religion from Japan. Classified as an East Asian religion by scholars of religion, its practitioners often regard it as Japan's indigenous religion and as a nature religion. Scholars sometimes call its practitioners ''Shintois ...

to describe the paired statues common in Japanese religious settings, most notably the

Niō are two wrathful and muscular guardians of the Buddha standing today at the entrance of many Buddhist temples in East Asian Buddhism in the form of frightening wrestler-like statues. They are dharmapala manifestations of the bodhisattva Vajra ...

() and the ''

komainu , often called lion-dogs in English, are statue pairs of lion-like creatures either guarding the entrance or the ''honden'', or inner shrine of many Japanese Shinto shrines or kept inside the inner shrine itself, where they are not visible to the ...

'' (). One (usually on the right) has an open mouth regarded by Buddhists as symbolically speaking the "A" syllable; the other (usually on the left) has a closed mouth, symbolically speaking the "Un" syllable. The two together are regarded as saying "''A-un''". The general name for statues with an open mouth is , that for those with a closed mouth .

statues in Japan, and their equivalent in East Asia, appear in pairs in front of Buddhist temple gates and

stupa A stupa ( sa, स्तूप, lit=heap, ) is a mound-like or hemispherical structure containing relics (such as ''śarīra'' – typically the remains of Buddhist monks or nuns) that is used as a place of meditation. In Buddhism, circumamb ...

s, in the form of two fierce looking guardian kings (''

Vajrapani (Sanskrit; Pali: Vajirapāṇi, meaning, "Vajra in ishand") is one of the earliest-appearing bodhisattvas in Mahayana Buddhism. He is the protector and guide of Gautama Buddha and rose to symbolize the Buddha's power. Vajrapāni is also c ...

'').

Komainu , often called lion-dogs in English, are statue pairs of lion-like creatures either guarding the entrance or the ''honden'', or inner shrine of many Japanese Shinto shrines or kept inside the inner shrine itself, where they are not visible to the ...

, also called lion-dogs, found in Japan, Korea and China, also occur in pairs before Buddhist temples and public spaces, and again, one has an open mouth (''Agyō''), the other closed (''Ungyō'').

Sikhism

''Ik Onkar'' ( pa, ਇੱਕ ਓਅੰਕਾਰ; iconically represented as ) are the first words of the

Mul Mantar The Mūl Mantar ( pa, ਮੂਲ ਮੰਤਰ, ) is the opening verse of the Sikh scripture, the ''Guru Granth Sahib''. It consists of thirteen words in the Punjabi language, written in Gurmukhi script, and are the most widely known among the Si ...

, which is the opening verse of the

Guru Granth Sahib The Guru Granth Sahib ( pa, ਗੁਰੂ ਗ੍ਰੰਥ ਸਾਹਿਬ, ) is the central holy religious scripture of Sikhism, regarded by Sikhs as the final, sovereign and Guru Maneyo Granth, eternal Guru following the lineage of the Sikh gur ...

, the Sikh scripture. Combining the numeral one ("''Ik''") and "''Onkar''", ''Ik Onkar'' literally means "one ''Om ''";Mahinder Gulati (2008), Comparative Religious And Philosophies : Anthropomorphlsm And Divinity, Atlantic, , pages 284-285 these words are a statement that there is "one God", understood to refer to the "absolute

monotheistic Monotheism is the belief that there is only one deity, an all-supreme being that is universally referred to as God. Cross, F.L.; Livingstone, E.A., eds. (1974). "Monotheism". The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 ed.). Oxford: Oxford ...

unity of God" and implying "singularity in spite of the seeming multiplicity of existence". According to Pashaura Singh, ''Onkar'' is used frequently as invocation in Sikh scripture; it is the foundational word ('' shabad''), the seed of Sikh scripture, and the basis of the "whole creation of time and space". ''Ik Onkar'' is a significant

name of God There are various names of God, many of which enumerate the various qualities of a Supreme Being. The English word ''god'' (and its equivalent in other languages) is used by multiple religions as a noun to refer to different deities, or speci ...

in the Guru Granth Sahib and Gurbani, states Kohli, and occurs as "''Aum''" in the

and where it is understood as the abstract representation of three worlds (''Trailokya'') of Creationism, creation. According to Wazir Singh, ''Onkar'' is a "variation of ''Om'' (''Aum'') of the ancient Indian scriptures (with a change in its orthography), implying the unifying ''seed-force'' that evolves as the universe". However, in

, ''Onkar'' is interpreted differently than in other Indian religions; ''Onkar'' refers directly to the creator of ultimate reality and consciousness, and not to the creation. Guru Nanak wrote a poem entitled ''Onkar'' in which, states Doniger, he "attributed the origin and sense of speech to the Divinity, who is thus the Om-maker".

Thelema

For both symbolic and English Qabalah, numerological reasons, Aleister Crowley adapted ''aum'' into a Thelema, Thelemic magical formula, ''AUMGN'', adding a silent 'g' (as in the word 'gnosis') and a nasal 'n' to the ''m'' to form the Trigraph (orthography), compound letter 'MGN'; the 'g' makes explicit the silence previously only implied by the terminal 'm' while the 'n' indicates nasal vocalisation connoting the breath of life and together they connote knowledge and generation. Together these letters, ''MGN'', have a numerological value of Thelema#93, 93, a number with Polysemy, polysemic significance in Thelema. ''Om'' appears in this extended form throughout Crowley's Ceremonial magic, magical and philosophical writings, notably appearing in the ''Liber XV, The Gnostic Mass, Gnostic Mass''. Crowley discusses its symbolism briefly in section F of ''Liber Samekh'' and in detail in chapter 7 of ''Magick (Book 4)''.

Modern reception

The Brahmic script ''Om''-ligature has become widely recognized in Western counterculture since the 1960s, mostly in its standard

form (), but the Tibetan alphabet ''Om'' () has also gained limited currency in popular culture.

In meditation

Meditating and chanting of ''Om'' can be done by first concentrating on a picture of ''Om'' and then effortlessly mentally chanting the mantra. Meditating and mental chanting have been said to improve the physiological state of the person by increasing alertness and sensory sensitivity.

Notes

References

Bibliography

* * * * * * * * * {{sister bar, auto=yes, wikt=ॐ Brahmic graphemes Hindu philosophical concepts Buddhist symbols Hindu symbols Jain symbols Sikh symbols Buddhist mantras Hindu mantras Jain mantras Thelema Om mantras

Common names and synonyms

Origin and spiritual significance

Pronunciation

Written representations

South Asia

East and Southeast Asia

Representation in various scripts

Northern Brahmic

Southern Brahmic

East Asian

Other

Hinduism

Vedas

Brahmanas

= Aitareya Brahmana

Upanishads

= Chandogya Upanishad

= Katha Upanishad

= Maitri Upanishad

= Mundaka Upanishad

= Mandukya Upanishad

= Shvetashvatara Upanishad

= Ganapati Upanishad

Ramayana

Bhagavad Gita

Puranas

Vaishnava traditions

Shaiva traditions

Shakta traditions

Other texts

Yoga Sutra

Chaitanya Charitamrita

Jainism

Buddhism

Tibetan Buddhism and Vajrayana

Japanese Buddhism

''A-un''

''Niō'' guardian kings and ''komainu'' lion-dogs

Sikhism

Thelema

Modern reception

In meditation

See also

Notes

References

Bibliography