An active suspension is a type of
automotive suspension on a vehicle. It uses an onboard system to control the vertical movement of the vehicle's wheels relative to the
chassis
A chassis (, ; plural ''chassis'' from French châssis ) is the load-bearing framework of an artificial object, which structurally supports the object in its construction and function. An example of a chassis is a vehicle frame, the underpart ...
or vehicle body rather than the passive suspension provided by large springs where the movement is determined entirely by the road surface. Active suspensions are divided into two classes: real active suspensions, and adaptive or semi-active suspensions. While semi-adaptive suspensions only vary
shock absorber
A shock absorber or damper is a mechanical or hydraulic device designed to absorb and damp shock impulses. It does this by converting the kinetic energy of the shock into another form of energy (typically heat) which is then dissipated. Most sh ...
firmness to match changing road or dynamic conditions, active suspensions use some type of
actuator
An actuator is a component of a machine that is responsible for moving and controlling a mechanism or system, for example by opening a valve. In simple terms, it is a "mover".
An actuator requires a control device (controlled by control signal) a ...
to raise and lower the chassis independently at each wheel.
These technologies allow car manufacturers to achieve a greater degree of
ride quality
Ride quality refers to a vehicle's effectiveness in insulating the occupants from undulations in the road surface (e.g., bumps or corrugations).
A vehicle with good ride quality provides a comfort for the driver and passengers.
Importance
Good r ...
and
car handling
Automobile handling and vehicle handling are descriptions of the way a wheeled vehicle responds and reacts to the inputs of a driver, as well as how it moves along a track or road. It is commonly judged by how a vehicle performs particularly durin ...
by keeping the tires perpendicular to the road in corners, allowing better
traction and control. An onboard computer detects body movement from sensors throughout the vehicle and, using that data, controls the action of the active and semi-active suspensions. The system virtually eliminates
body roll
Body roll is the axial rotation of a vehicle’s body towards the outside of a turn. Body roll occurs because the compliance in vehicle suspension allows the vehicle body, which sits upon the suspension, to lean in the direction of the perceived ...
and pitch variation in many driving situations including
cornering,
accelerating
In mechanics, acceleration is the rate of change of the velocity of an object with respect to time. Accelerations are vector quantities (in that they have magnitude and direction). The orientation of an object's acceleration is given by the ...
, and
braking
A brake is a mechanical device that inhibits motion by absorbing energy from a moving system. It is used for slowing or stopping a moving vehicle, wheel, axle, or to prevent its motion, most often accomplished by means of friction.
Background ...
.
Principle
![Active Suspension](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Active_Suspension.jpg)
Skyhook theory is that the ideal suspension would let the vehicle maintain a stable posture as if suspended by an imaginary hook in the sky, unaffected by road conditions.
Since an actual skyhook is obviously impractical, real active suspension systems are based on actuator operations. The imaginary line (of zero vertical acceleration) is calculated based on the value provided by an
acceleration sensor
An accelerometer is a tool that measures proper acceleration. Proper acceleration is the acceleration (the rate of change of velocity) of a body in its own instantaneous rest frame; this is different from coordinate acceleration, which is accele ...
installed on the body of the vehicle (see Figure 3). The dynamic elements comprise only the linear spring and the linear damper; therefore, no complicated calculations are necessary.
A vehicle contacts the ground through the spring and damper in a normal spring damper suspension, as in Figure 1. To achieve the same level of stability as the Skyhook theory, the vehicle must contact the ground through the spring, and the imaginary line with the damper, as in Figure 2.
Theoretically, in a case where the
damping coefficient
Damping is an influence within or upon an oscillatory system that has the effect of reducing or preventing its oscillation. In physical systems, damping is produced by processes that dissipate the energy stored in the oscillation. Examples inc ...
reaches an infinite value, the vehicle will be in a state where it is completely fixed to the imaginary line, thus the vehicle will not shake.
Active
Active suspensions, the first to be introduced, use separate
actuator
An actuator is a component of a machine that is responsible for moving and controlling a mechanism or system, for example by opening a valve. In simple terms, it is a "mover".
An actuator requires a control device (controlled by control signal) a ...
s which can exert an independent force on the suspension to improve the riding characteristics. The drawbacks of this design are high cost, added complication and mass of the apparatus, and the need for frequent maintenance on some implementations. Maintenance can require specialised tools, and some problems can be difficult to diagnose.
Hydraulic actuation
Hydraulically actuated suspensions are controlled with the use of
hydraulics
Hydraulics (from Greek: Υδραυλική) is a technology and applied science using engineering, chemistry, and other sciences involving the mechanical properties and use of liquids. At a very basic level, hydraulics is the liquid counter ...
. The first example appeared in 1954, with the
hydropneumatic suspension
Hydropneumatic suspension is a type of motor vehicle suspension system, designed by Paul Magès, invented by Citroën, and fitted to Citroën cars, as well as being used under licence by other car manufacturers, notably Rolls-Royce ( Silver Shado ...
developed by
Paul Magès Paul Ernest Mary Magès (1908–1999) is known for his invention of the first self-leveling automobile suspension, known as hydro-pneumatic suspension. This system replaced conventional steel springs with an adaptive system of hydraulic struts, r ...
at
Citroën
Citroën () is a French automobile brand. The "Automobiles Citroën" manufacturing company was founded in March 1919 by André Citroën. Citroën is owned by Stellantis since 2021 and previously was part of the PSA Group after Peugeot acquired ...
. The hydraulic pressure is supplied by a high pressure
radial piston hydraulic pump. Sensors continually monitor body movement and vehicle ride level, constantly supplying the hydraulic height correctors with new data. In a matter of a few milliseconds, the suspension generates counter forces to raise or lower the body. During driving maneuvers, the encased nitrogen compresses instantly, offering six times the compressibility of the steel
spring
Spring(s) may refer to:
Common uses
* Spring (season), a season of the year
* Spring (device), a mechanical device that stores energy
* Spring (hydrology), a natural source of water
* Spring (mathematics), a geometric surface in the shape of a ...
s used by vehicles up to this time.
In practice, the system has always incorporated the desirable
self-levelling suspension Self-levelling refers to an automobile suspension system that maintains a constant ride height of the vehicle above the road, regardless of load.
Purpose
Many vehicle systems on a conventional vehicle are negatively affected by the change in attit ...
and
height adjustable suspension
Height adjustable suspension is a feature of certain automobile suspension systems that allow the motorist to vary the ride height or ground clearance. This can be done for various reasons including giving better ground clearance over rough terrain ...
features, with the latter now tied to vehicle speed for improved
aerodynamic
Aerodynamics, from grc, ἀήρ ''aero'' (air) + grc, δυναμική (dynamics), is the study of the motion of air, particularly when affected by a solid object, such as an airplane wing. It involves topics covered in the field of fluid dyn ...
performance, as the vehicle lowers itself at high speed.
This system performed remarkably well in straight ahead driving, including over uneven surfaces, but had little control over roll stiffness.
Millions of production vehicles have been built with variations on this system.
Electronic actuation of hydraulic suspension
Colin Chapman
Anthony Colin Bruce Chapman (19 May 1928 – 16 December 1982) was an English design engineer, inventor, and builder in the automotive industry, and founder of Lotus Cars.
In 1952 he founded the sports car company Lotus Cars. Chapman ...
developed the original concept of computer management of hydraulic suspension in the 1980s to improve cornering in racing cars. Lotus fitted and developed a prototype system to a 1985
Excel
ExCeL London (an abbreviation for Exhibition Centre London) is an exhibition centre, international convention centre and former hospital in the Custom House area of Newham, East London. It is situated on a site on the northern quay of the ...
with electro-hydraulic active suspension, but never offered it for sale to the public, although many demonstration cars were built for other manufacturers.
Sensors continually monitor body movement and vehicle ride level, constantly supplying the computer with new data. As the computer receives and processes data, it operates the hydraulic servos, mounted beside each wheel. Almost instantly, the servo-regulated suspension generates counter forces to body lean, dive, and squat during driving maneuvers.
Williams Grand Prix Engineering
Williams Grand Prix Engineering Limited, currently racing in Formula One as Williams Racing, is a British Formula One motor racing team and constructor. It was founded by former team owner Frank Williams and automotive engineer Patrick Hea ...
prepared an active suspension, devised by designer-aerodynamicist
Frank Dernie
Frank William Dernie (born 3 April 1950) to James Harold Dernie and Monica Dernie (née Pacey) is a veteran British Formula One engineer with extensive Formula One motorsport experience.
Career
Dernie was brought up in Lancashire and educated at ...
, for the team's Formula 1 cars in 1992, creating such successful cars that the
Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile
The Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA; en, International Automobile Federation) is an association established on 20 June 1904 to represent the interests of motoring organisations and motor car users. It is the governing body for ...
decided to ban the technology to decrease the gap between Williams F1 team and its competitors.
Computer Active Technology Suspension (CATS) co-ordinates the best possible balance between
ride quality
Ride quality refers to a vehicle's effectiveness in insulating the occupants from undulations in the road surface (e.g., bumps or corrugations).
A vehicle with good ride quality provides a comfort for the driver and passengers.
Importance
Good r ...
and handling by analysing road conditions and making up to 3,000 adjustments every second to the
suspension
Suspension or suspended may refer to:
Science and engineering
* Suspension (topology), in mathematics
* Suspension (dynamical systems), in mathematics
* Suspension of a ring, in mathematics
* Suspension (chemistry), small solid particles suspend ...
settings via electronically controlled
damper
A damper is a device that deadens, restrains, or depresses. It may refer to:
Music
* Damper pedal, a device that mutes musical tones, particularly in stringed instruments
* A mute for various brass instruments
Structure
* Damper (flow), a mechan ...
s.
The 1999
Mercedes-Benz CL-Class (C215)
The second generation of the Mercedes-Benz CL-Class is the C215-chassis coupé of 1998–2006. It is based on the 1998–2005 Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W220), though it rides on an shorter wheelbase. Sales in Germany started in August 1999 for th ...
introduced ''
Active Body Control
Active Body Control, or ABC, is the Mercedes-Benz brand name used to describe electronically controlled hydropneumatic suspension.
This suspension combines a high level of ride quality with control of the vehicle body motions, and therefore vi ...
'', where high pressure hydraulic servos are controlled by electronic computing, and this feature is still available. Vehicles can be designed to actively
lean into curves to improve occupant comfort.
Active anti-roll bar
Active anti-roll bar
An anti-roll bar (roll bar, anti-sway bar, sway bar, stabilizer bar) is a part of many automobile suspensions that helps reduce the body roll of a vehicle during fast cornering or over road irregularities. It connects opposite (left/right) wheel ...
stiffens under command of the driver or suspension
electronic control unit
An electronic control unit (ECU), also known as an electronic control module (ECM), is an embedded system in automotive electronics that controls one or more of the electrical systems or subsystems in a car or other motor vehicle.
Modern vehic ...
(ECU) during hard cornering. First production car was
Mitsubishi Mirage Cyborg in 1988.
Electromagnetic recuperative
In fully active electronically controlled production cars, the application of electric servos and motors married to electronic computing allows for flat cornering and instant reactions to road conditions.
The
Bose Corporation
Bose Corporation () is an American manufacturing company that predominantly sells audio equipment. The company was established by Amar Bose in 1964 and is based in Framingham, Massachusetts. It is best known for its home audio systems and speak ...
has a proof of concept model. The founder of Bose,
Amar Bose
Amar Gopal Bose (November 2, 1929 – July 12, 2013) was an American entrepreneur and academic. An electrical engineer and sound engineer, he was a professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology for over 45 years. He was also the found ...
, had been working on exotic suspensions for many years while he was an MIT professor.
Electromagnetic active suspension uses linear electromagnetic motors attached to each wheel. It provides extremely fast response, and allows regeneration of power consumed, by using the motors as generators. This nearly surmounts the issues of slow response times and high power consumption of hydraulic systems. Electronically controlled active suspension system (ECASS) technology was patented by the University of Texas Center for Electromechanics in the 1990s and has been developed by L-3 Electronic Systems for use on military vehicles. The ECASS-equipped
Humvee
The High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicle (HMMWV; colloquial: Humvee) is a family of light, four-wheel drive, military trucks and utility vehicles produced by AM General. It has largely supplanted the roles previously performed by the ori ...
exceeded the performance specifications for all performance evaluations in terms of absorbed power to the vehicle operator, stability and handling.
Active Wheel
*
Michelin
Michelin (; ; full name: ) is a French multinational tyre manufacturing company based in Clermont-Ferrand in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes ''région'' of France. It is the second largest tyre manufacturer in the world behind Bridgestone and la ...
's
Active Wheel Active Wheel was a Michelin-developed tire which incorporates an electric motor and suspension It was presented at Challenge Bibendum 2004's edition on the Hy-Light concept car and showcased during Paris Motor Show "Mondial de l'automobile"in 2008 ...
from 2004 incorporates an in-wheel electrical suspension motor that controls torque distribution, traction, turning maneuvers, pitch, roll and suspension damping for that wheel, in addition to an
in-wheel electric traction motor.
*
Audi
Audi AG () is a German automotive manufacturer of luxury vehicles headquartered in Ingolstadt, Bavaria, Germany. As a subsidiary of its parent company, the Volkswagen Group, Audi produces vehicles in nine production facilities worldwide.
Th ...
active
electromechanical
In engineering, electromechanics combines processes and procedures drawn from electrical engineering and mechanical engineering. Electromechanics focuses on the interaction of electrical and mechanical systems as a whole and how the two systems ...
suspension system introduced in 2017. It drives each wheel individually and adapts to the prevailing road conditions. Each wheel has an electric motor which is powered by the 48-volt main electrical system. Additional components include gears, a rotary tube together with internal titanium
torsion bar
A torsion bar suspension, also known as a torsion spring suspension, is any vehicle suspension that uses a torsion bar as its main weight-bearing spring. One end of a long metal bar is attached firmly to the vehicle chassis; the opposite end termi ...
and a lever which exerts up to 1,100 Nm (811.3 lb-ft) on the suspension via a
coupling rod
A coupling rod or side rod connects the driving wheels of a locomotive. Steam locomotives in particular usually have them, but some diesel and electric locomotives, especially older ones and shunters, also have them. The coupling rods transfer t ...
. Thanks to the front camera, the sedan detects bumps in the road early on and predictively adjusts the active suspension. Even before the car reaches a bump in the road, the preview function developed by Audi transmits the right amount of travel to the actuators and actively controls the suspension. The computer-controlled motors can sense imperfection on the road, and can raise the suspension up from the wheel which would go over the undulation, thus aiding the ride quality. The system will direct the motors on the outside to push up or pull down the suspension while cornering. This will result in a flatter drive and reduced body-roll around corners which in turn means more confident handling dynamics.
Adaptive and semi-active
Adaptive or semi-active systems can only change the
viscous damping coefficient of the
shock absorber
A shock absorber or damper is a mechanical or hydraulic device designed to absorb and damp shock impulses. It does this by converting the kinetic energy of the shock into another form of energy (typically heat) which is then dissipated. Most sh ...
, and do not add energy to the suspension system. While adaptative suspensions have generally a slow time response and a limited number of damping coefficient values, semi-active suspensions have time response close to a few milliseconds and can provide a wide range of damping values. Therefore, adaptative suspensions usually only propose different riding modes (comfort, normal, sport...) corresponding to different damping coefficients, while semi-active suspensions modify the damping in real time, depending on the road conditions and the dynamics of the car. Though limited in their intervention (for example, the control force can never have different direction than the current vector of velocity of the suspension), semi-active suspensions are less expensive to design and consume far less energy. In recent times, research in semi-active suspensions has continued to advance with respect to their capabilities, narrowing the gap between semi-active and fully active suspension systems.
Solenoid/valve actuated
This type is the most economic and basic type of semi-active suspensions. They consist of a solenoid valve which alters the flow of the hydraulic medium inside the
shock absorber
A shock absorber or damper is a mechanical or hydraulic device designed to absorb and damp shock impulses. It does this by converting the kinetic energy of the shock into another form of energy (typically heat) which is then dissipated. Most sh ...
, therefore changing the damping characteristics of the suspension setup. The solenoids are wired to the controlling computer, which sends them commands depending on the control algorithm (usually the so-called "Sky-Hook" technique). This type of system is used in
Cadillac's Computer Command Ride Speed Dependent Damping Control (also called SD²C) was an automatic damper system installed on late-1980s and early-1990s Cadillac automobiles. This system firmed up the suspension at 25 mph (40 km/h) and again at 60 mph (97 km ...
(CCR) suspension system. The first production car was the
Toyota Soarer
The is a personal luxury GT coupé produced from 1981 to 2005 by Toyota and sold in Japan. It was available at both Japanese Toyota dealerships called ''Toyota Store'' and ''Toyopet Store'', and it debuted with the Z10 series, replacing the ''T ...
with semi-active
Toyota Electronic Modulated Suspension
TEMS (Toyota Electronic Modulated Suspension) is a shock absorber that is electronically controlled (Continuous Damping Control) based on multiple factors, and was built and exclusively used by Toyota for selected products during the 1980s and 199 ...
, from 1983.
Magnetorheological damper
Another fairly recent method incorporates magnetorheological dampers with a brand name
MagneRide
MagneRide is an automotive adaptive suspension with magnetorheological damper system developed by the Delphi Automotive corporation, during a period when the company was a subsidiary of General Motors (GM), that uses magnetically controlled damper ...
. It was initially developed by Delphi Corporation for
GM and was standard, as many other new technologies, for
Cadillac STS
The Cadillac STS (Seville Touring Sedan) is a mid-sized luxury 4-door sedan manufactured and marketed by General Motors from 2004 to 2011 for the 2005 to 2011 model years. A version of the STS was sold in China as the SLS through 2013. It was ...
(from model 2002), and on some other GM models from 2003. This was an upgrade for semi-active systems ("automatic road-sensing suspensions") used in upscale GM vehicles for decades. It allows, together with faster modern computers, changing the stiffness of all wheel suspensions independently. These dampers are finding increased usage in the US and already leases to some foreign brands, mostly in more expensive vehicles.
This system was in development for 25 years. The damper fluid contains metallic particles. Through the onboard computer, the dampers' compliance characteristics are controlled by an
electromagnet
An electromagnet is a type of magnet in which the magnetic field is produced by an electric current. Electromagnets usually consist of wire wound into a coil. A current through the wire creates a magnetic field which is concentrated in the ...
. Essentially, increasing the current flow into the damper magnetic circuit increases the circuit magnetic flux. This in turn causes the metal particles to change their alignment, which increases fluid viscosity thereby raising the compression/rebound rates, while a decrease softens the effect of the dampers by aligning the particles in the opposite direction. If we imagine the metal particles as dinner plates then whilst aligned so they are on edge - viscosity is minimised. At the other end of the spectrum they will be aligned at 90 degrees so flat. Thus making the fluid much more viscous. It is the electric field produced by the electromagnet that changes the alignment of the metal particles. Information from wheel sensors (about suspension extension), steering, acceleration sensors - and other data, is used to calculate the optimal stiffness at that point in time. The fast reaction of the system (milliseconds) allows, for instance, making a softer passing by a single wheel over a bump in the road at a particular instant in time.
Production vehicles
By calendar year:
* 1954:
Citroën Traction Avant
The Citroën Traction Avant () is the world’s first unibody front-wheel-drive car. A range of mostly 4-door saloons and executive cars, were made with four or six-cylinder engines, produced by the French manufacturer Citroën from 1934 to 1957. ...
15-6H:,
self-leveling Citroën
hydropneumatic suspension
Hydropneumatic suspension is a type of motor vehicle suspension system, designed by Paul Magès, invented by Citroën, and fitted to Citroën cars, as well as being used under licence by other car manufacturers, notably Rolls-Royce ( Silver Shado ...
on rear wheels.
* 1955:
Citroën DS
The Citroën DS () is a Front-mid-engine, front-wheel-drive layout, front mid-engined, front-wheel drive executive car manufactured and marketed by Citroën from 1955 to 1975, in fastback/sedan, wagon/estate, and convertible body configurations ...
, self-leveling Citroën hydropneumatic suspension on all four wheels.
* 1957:
Cadillac Eldorado Brougham
The Cadillac Eldorado is a luxury car manufactured and marketed by Cadillac from 1952 until 2002 over twelve generations.
The Eldorado was at or near the top of the Cadillac line. The original 1953 Eldorado convertible and the Eldorado Brougham ...
: premiere of self-leveling GM
air suspension
Air suspension is a type of vehicle suspension powered by an electric or engine-driven air pump or compressor. This compressor pumps the air into a flexible bellows, usually made from textile-reinforced rubber. Unlike hydropneumatic suspension, ...
*1967:
Rolls Royce Silver Shadow Partial load bearing hydropneumatic suspension on all four wheels. Front system deleted in 1969
* 1970:
Citroën SM
The Citroën SM is a high-performance coupé produced by the French manufacturer Citroën from 1970 to 1975. The SM placed third in the 1971 European Car of the Year contest, trailing its stablemate Citroën GS, and won the 1972 ''Motor Tre ...
,
self-leveling Citroën hydropneumatic suspension on all four wheels.
* 1970:
Citroën GS
The GS is a front-engine, front-drive, four or five door, five passenger family car manufactured and marketed by Citroën in two series: for model years 1970-1979 in fastback saloon and estate bodystyles and subsequently as the GSA for model ye ...
,
self-leveling Citroën hydropneumatic suspension on all four wheels.
* 1974:
Citroën CX
The Citroën CX is a large, front-engined, front-wheel-drive executive car manufactured and marketed by Citroën from 1974 to 1991. Production models took the form of a four-door fastback sedan, station wagon (estate), and a long-wheelbase fastb ...
,
self-leveling Citroën hydropneumatic suspension on all four wheels.
*1975:
Mercedes Benz 450 SEL 6.9 Hydropneumatic suspension on all four wheels.
* 1982:
Citroën BX
The Citroën BX is a large family car which was produced by the French manufacturer Citroën from 1982 to 1994. In total, 2,315,739 BXs were built during its 12-year history. The hatchback was discontinued in 1993 with the arrival of the Xantia, ...
,
self-leveling Citroën hydropneumatic suspension on all four wheels.
*1979:
Mercedes Benz W126 Hydropneumatic suspension on all four wheels as an option on the LWB v8 models
* 1983:
Toyota Soarer
The is a personal luxury GT coupé produced from 1981 to 2005 by Toyota and sold in Japan. It was available at both Japanese Toyota dealerships called ''Toyota Store'' and ''Toyopet Store'', and it debuted with the Z10 series, replacing the ''T ...
: premiere of semi-active
Toyota Electronic Modulated Suspension
TEMS (Toyota Electronic Modulated Suspension) is a shock absorber that is electronically controlled (Continuous Damping Control) based on multiple factors, and was built and exclusively used by Toyota for selected products during the 1980s and 199 ...
(TEMS)
*1985
Mercedes Benz 190E 2.3-16 Partial load bearing hydropneumatic suspension on all four wheels as an option on the 16v model. Standard on the Evo 1 and Evo 2 models
* 1986:
Toyota Soarer
The is a personal luxury GT coupé produced from 1981 to 2005 by Toyota and sold in Japan. It was available at both Japanese Toyota dealerships called ''Toyota Store'' and ''Toyopet Store'', and it debuted with the Z10 series, replacing the ''T ...
: world first Electronically controlled (TEMS) full air suspension (spring constant, variable attenuation force) installed
*1986:
Mercedes Benz W126 Hydropneumatic suspension on all four wheels with electronically controlled adaptive damping as an option on the LWB v8 models
* 1987:
Mitsubishi Galant
The Mitsubishi Galant is an automobile which was produced by Japanese manufacturer Mitsubishi from 1969 until 2012. The model name was derived from the French word ''galant'', meaning "chivalrous". There have been nine distinct generations with ...
(sixth generation) - features Active Controlled Suspension (Dynamic ECS). The system enables a comfortable ride and handling stability by automatically adjusting the vehicle height and damping force.
* 1989:
Citroën XM
The Citroën XM is a front-engine, front-drive, five-passenger, five-door hatchback noted for its hydropneumatic suspension. Manufactured and marketed by Citroën from 1989 to 2000, with a minor facelift in 1994, XM production reached 333,405 ov ...
- self-levelling, semi-active
Hydractive
Hydropneumatic suspension is a type of motor vehicle suspension system, designed by Paul Magès, invented by Citroën, and fitted to Citroën cars, as well as being used under licence by other car manufacturers, notably Rolls-Royce ( Silver Sha ...
on all four wheels with automatically adjusted spring rates and dampeners.
*1989:
Mercedes Benz R129 Partial load bearing hydropneumatic suspension with automatically adjusted spring rates and dampers as an option (ADS)
* 1990: *First
semi-active suspension An active suspension is a type of automotive suspension on a vehicle. It uses an onboard system to control the vertical movement of the vehicle's wheels relative to the chassis or vehicle body rather than the passive suspension provided by large sp ...
scanning the road ahead (
sonar
Sonar (sound navigation and ranging or sonic navigation and ranging) is a technique that uses sound propagation (usually underwater, as in submarine navigation) to navigation, navigate, measure distances (ranging), communicate with or detect o ...
) - 1990
Nissan Leopard
The Nissan Leopard is a line of sport/luxury cars built by Japanese carmaker Nissan. The Leopard began life in 1980 and was discontinued in 1999. The Leopard were initially based on the Japanese market Nissan Skyline and Nissan Laurel, then later ...
/
Nissan Cedric
The is a large automobile produced by Nissan since 1960. It was developed to provide upscale transportation, competing with the Prince Skyline and Gloria which were later merged into the Nissan family. In later years, the Nissan Skyline was posi ...
/
Nissan Maxima
The Nissan Maxima is a full-size car manufactured and marketed by Nissan and offered as Nissan's flagship sedan primarily in North America, the Middle East, and China — and currently in its eighth generation. Having debuted for model year 1 ...
/
Nissan J30 DUET-SS Super Sonic Suspension
* 1990:
Infiniti Q45
The Infiniti Q45 is a full-size luxury sedan manufactured and marketed by Nissan's Infiniti brand for model years 1989-2006, over three generations.
The first generation Q45 (1989–1999) was based on the Nissan President; the second generation ...
"Full-Active Suspension (FAS)", active suspension system, although it did still have conventional coil springs
* 1992:
Toyota Celica
The is an automobile produced by Toyota from 1970 until 2006. The Celica name derives from the Latin word '' coelica'' meaning 'heavenly' or 'celestial'. In Japan, the Celica was exclusive to the ''Toyota Corolla Store'' dealer chain.
Produce ...
(Toyota Electronically Modulated Suspension)
* 1992:
Citroën Xantia
The Citroën Xantia, pronounced "Zan–ti–a" is a large family car ( D) produced by the French automaker Citroën, and designed by Bertone. Presented to the press in December 1992, the car was produced between 1992 and 2002 in Europe, with a f ...
VSX - self-levelling, semi-active
Hydractive 2 on all four wheels, with automatically adjusted spring rates and dampeners.
* 1993:
Cadillac
The Cadillac Motor Car Division () is a division of the American automobile manufacturer General Motors (GM) that designs and builds luxury vehicles. Its major markets are the United States, Canada, and China. Cadillac models are distributed i ...
, several models with RSS
road sensing suspension
MagneRide is an automotive active suspension, adaptive suspension with magnetorheological damper system developed by the Delphi Automotive corporation, during a period when the company was a subsidiary of General Motors, General Motors (GM), that u ...
. RSS was available in both standard and
CVRSS
MagneRide is an automotive adaptive suspension with magnetorheological damper system developed by the Delphi Automotive corporation, during a period when the company was a subsidiary of General Motors (GM), that uses magnetically controlled damper ...
(
continuously variable road sensing suspension
MagneRide is an automotive adaptive suspension with magnetorheological damper system developed by the Delphi Automotive corporation, during a period when the company was a subsidiary of General Motors (GM), that uses magnetically controlled damper ...
) systems. It monitored
damping rate
Damping is an influence within or upon an oscillatory system that has the effect of reducing or preventing its oscillation. In physical systems, damping is produced by processes that dissipate the energy stored in the oscillation. Examples incl ...
s of the
shock absorber
A shock absorber or damper is a mechanical or hydraulic device designed to absorb and damp shock impulses. It does this by converting the kinetic energy of the shock into another form of energy (typically heat) which is then dissipated. Most sh ...
s every 15
millisecond
A millisecond (from '' milli-'' and second; symbol: ms) is a unit of time in the International System of Units (SI) equal to one thousandth (0.001 or 10−3 or 1/1000) of a second and to 1000 microseconds.
A unit of 10 milliseconds may be called ...
s, selecting between two settings.
*1994:
Toyota Celsior
The is a full-size luxury sedan (F-segment in Europe) serving as the flagship model of Lexus, the luxury division of Toyota. For the first four generations, all LS models featured V8 engines and were predominantly rear-wheel-drive. In the fourt ...
introduced first
Skyhook air suspension
* 1994:
Citroën Xantia
The Citroën Xantia, pronounced "Zan–ti–a" is a large family car ( D) produced by the French automaker Citroën, and designed by Bertone. Presented to the press in December 1992, the car was produced between 1992 and 2002 in Europe, with a f ...
Activa - self-levelling, fully active Hydractive on all four wheels with hydraulic anti-roll bars and automatically adjusted spring rates and dampeners.
* 1998:
Land Rover Discovery series 2 - Active Cornering Enhancement; an electronically controlled hydraulic anti-roll bar system was fitted to some versions, which reduced cornering roll.
*1999:
Mercedes Benz C215 Self leveling fully active hydraulic
Active body control
Active Body Control, or ABC, is the Mercedes-Benz brand name used to describe electronically controlled hydropneumatic suspension.
This suspension combines a high level of ride quality with control of the vehicle body motions, and therefore vi ...
. Available on the S, CL and SL models
*2002:
Cadillac Seville
The Seville was manufactured by Cadillac from 1975 to 2004 as a smaller-sized, premium model. It was replaced by the STS in 2004.
Origin of the name
The name of "Cadillac's first small car" was selected over a revival of LaSalle or the GM des ...
STS, first
MagneRide
MagneRide is an automotive adaptive suspension with magnetorheological damper system developed by the Delphi Automotive corporation, during a period when the company was a subsidiary of General Motors (GM), that uses magnetically controlled damper ...
* 2004:
Volvo
The Volvo Group ( sv, Volvokoncernen; legally Aktiebolaget Volvo, shortened to AB Volvo, stylized as VOLVO) is a Swedish multinational manufacturing corporation headquartered in Gothenburg. While its core activity is the production, distributio ...
S60 R and
V70 R (Four-C, a short name for "Continuously Controlled Chassis Concept", semi-active)
*2013:
Mercedes Benz W222: Optional
Magic body control
Active Body Control, or ABC, is the Mercedes-Benz brand name used to describe electronically controlled hydropneumatic suspension.
This suspension combines a high level of ride quality with control of the vehicle body motions, and therefore vi ...
. Self leveling fully active hydraulic system with road surface scanning electronics
*2013:
Volkswagen
Volkswagen (),English: , . abbreviated as VW (), is a German Automotive industry, motor vehicle manufacturer headquartered in Wolfsburg, Lower Saxony, Germany. Founded in 1937 by the German Labour Front under the Nazi Party and revived into a ...
Mk7 Golf R User-Selectable Electronically Controlled Shock Dampening (Dynamic Chassis Control (DCC))
* 2019:
Toyota
is a Japanese multinational automotive manufacturer headquartered in Toyota City, Aichi, Japan. It was founded by Kiichiro Toyoda and incorporated on . Toyota is one of the largest automobile manufacturers in the world, producing about 10 ...
Avalon
Avalon (; la, Insula Avallonis; cy, Ynys Afallon, Ynys Afallach; kw, Enys Avalow; literally meaning "the isle of fruit r appletrees"; also written ''Avallon'' or ''Avilion'' among various other spellings) is a mythical island featured in the ...
Touring model (Adaptive Variable Suspension (AVS))
See also
*
Toyota Active Control Suspension Toyota Active Control Suspension was (according to Toyota) the world's first fully active suspension.
It was a complex hydropneumatic, computer-controlled active suspension system. This did away with conventional springs and anti-roll (stabiliser) ...
*
Hydropneumatic suspension
Hydropneumatic suspension is a type of motor vehicle suspension system, designed by Paul Magès, invented by Citroën, and fitted to Citroën cars, as well as being used under licence by other car manufacturers, notably Rolls-Royce ( Silver Shado ...
*
Active Body control
Active Body Control, or ABC, is the Mercedes-Benz brand name used to describe electronically controlled hydropneumatic suspension.
This suspension combines a high level of ride quality with control of the vehicle body motions, and therefore vi ...
References
*
*
{{Chassis control systems
Advanced driver assistance systems
Automotive suspension technologies
Mechanical power control