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A semi-trailer truck, also known as a semitruck, (or semi, eighteen-wheeler, big rig, tractor-trailer or, by
synecdoche Synecdoche ( ) is a type of metonymy: it is a figure of speech in which a term for a part of something is used to refer to the whole (''pars pro toto''), or vice versa (''totum pro parte''). The term comes from Greek . Examples in common Engl ...
, a semitrailer) is the combination of a
tractor unit A tractor unit (also known as a truck unit, power unit, prime mover, ten-wheeler, semi-tractor, tractor truck, semi-truck, tractor cab, truck cab, tractor rig, truck rig or big rig or simply a tractor, truck, semi or rig) is a characteristical ...
and one or more
semi-trailer A semi-trailer is a trailer without a front axle. In the United States, the term is also used to refer to the combination of a truck and a semi-trailer; a tractor-trailer. A large proportion of a semi-trailer's weight is supported by a tracto ...
s to carry freight. A semi-trailer attaches to the tractor with a type of hitch called a
fifth wheel The fifth-wheel coupling provides the link between a semi-trailer and the towing truck, tractor unit, leading trailer or dolly. The coupling consists of a kingpin, a vertical steel pin protruding from the bottom of the front of the semi-tr ...
.


Regional configurations


Europe

The noticeable difference between tractor units in Europe and North America is that almost all European models are
cab over engine Cab-over, also known as cab over engine (COE), cab forward (U.S.), flat nose (Canada), or forward control (UK), is a body style of truck, bus, or van that has a vertical front, "flat face" or a semi-hood, with the cab of the truck sitting ab ...
(called "forward control" in the UK), while the majority of North American trucks are "conventional" (called "normal control" or "bonneted" in the UK). European trucks, whether straight trucks or fully
articulated An articulated vehicle is a vehicle which has a permanent or semi-permanent pivot joint in its construction, allowing it to turn more sharply. There are many kinds, from heavy equipment to buses, trams and trains. Steam locomotives were someti ...
, have a sheer face on the front. This allows shorter trucks with longer trailers (with larger freight capacity) within the legal maximum total length. Furthermore, it offers greater maneuverability in confined areas, a more balanced weight-distribution, and better overall view for the driver. The major disadvantage is that for repairs on COE trucks, the entire cab has to hinge forward to allow maintenance access. In Europe, usually only the driven tractor axle has dual wheels, while single wheels are used for every other axle on the tractor and the trailer. The most common combination used in Europe is a semi tractor with two axles and a cargo trailer with three axles, one of which is sometimes a lift axle, giving 5 axles and 12 wheels in total. This format is now common across Europe as it is able to meet the EU maximum weight limit of without overloading any axle. Individual countries have raised their own weight limit. The U.K., for example, has a limit, an increase achieved by adding an extra axle to the tractor, usually in the form of a middle unpowered lifting axle (midlift) with a total of 14 wheels. The lift axles used on both tractors and trailers allow the trucks to remain legal when fully loaded (as weight per axle remains within the legal limits); on the other hand, these axle set(s) can be raised off the roadway for increased maneuverability or for reduced fuel consumption and tire wear when carrying lighter loads. Although lift axles usually operate automatically, they can be lowered manually even while carrying light loads, in order to remain within legal (safe) limits when, for example, navigating back-road bridges with severely restricted axle loads. For greater detail, see the United Kingdom section, below. When using a dolly, which generally has to be equipped with lights and a
license plate A vehicle registration plate, also known as a number plate (British English), license plate (American English), or licence plate ( Canadian English), is a metal or plastic plate attached to a motor vehicle or trailer for official identificati ...
,
rigid truck A truck or lorry is a motor vehicle designed to transport cargo, carry specialized payloads, or perform other utilitarian work. Trucks vary greatly in size, power, and configuration, but the vast majority feature body-on-frame construction ...
s can be used to pull semi-trailers. The dolly is equipped with a
fifth wheel The fifth-wheel coupling provides the link between a semi-trailer and the towing truck, tractor unit, leading trailer or dolly. The coupling consists of a kingpin, a vertical steel pin protruding from the bottom of the front of the semi-tr ...
to which the trailer is coupled. Because the dolly attaches to a
pintle hitch A pintle is a pin or bolt, usually inserted into a gudgeon, which is used as part of a pivot or hinge. Other applications include pintle and lunette ring for towing, and pintle pins securing casters in furniture. Use Pintle/gudgeon sets have ma ...
on the truck, maneuvering a trailer hooked to a dolly is different from maneuvering a fifth wheel trailer. Backing the vehicle requires the same technique as backing an ordinary truck/full trailer combination, though the dolly/semi setup is probably longer, thus requiring more space for maneuvering. The tractor/semi-trailer configuration is rarely used on
timber truck A logging truck or timber lorry is a large truck used to carry logs. Some have integrated flatbeds, some are discrete tractor units, and some are configured to spread a load between the tractor unit and a dollied trailer pulled behind it. Ofte ...
s since they use the two major advantages of having the weight of the load on the drive wheels, and the
loader crane A crane is a type of machine, generally equipped with a hoist rope, wire ropes or chains, and sheaves, that can be used both to lift and lower materials and to move them horizontally. It is mainly used for lifting heavy objects and transporti ...
used to lift the logs from the ground can be mounted on the rear of the truck behind the load, allowing a short (lightweight) crane to reach both ends of the vehicle without uncoupling. Also, construction trucks are more often seen in a rigid + midaxle trailer configuration instead of the tractor/semi-trailer setup.


Continental Europe

The maximum overall length in the EU and EEA member states was with a maximum weight of if carrying an
ISO container An intermodal container, often called a shipping container, is a large standardized shipping container, designed and built for intermodal freight transport, meaning these containers can be used across different modes of transport – from ship ...
. However, rules limiting the semi-trailers to and 18.75 m are met with trucks carrying a standardized body with one additional 7.82 m body on tow as a trailer. truck combinations were developed under the branding of ''EcoCombi'' which influenced the name of ''EuroCombi'' for an ongoing standardization effort where such truck combinations shall be legal to operate in all jurisdictions of the European Economic Area. With the 50% increase in cargo weight, the fuel efficiency increases with an average of 20% with a corresponding relative decrease in carbon emissions and with the added benefit of one third fewer trucks on the road. The 1996 EU regulation defines a Europe Module System (EMS) as it was implemented in Sweden. The wording of EMS combinations and EuroCombi are now used interchangeably to point to truck combinations as specified in the EU document; however, apart from Sweden and Finland, the EuroCombi is only allowed to operate on specific roads in other EU member states. Since 1996 Sweden and Finland formally won a final exemption from the European Economic Area rules with 60 tonne and combinations. From 2006, 25.25 m truck trailer combinations are to be allowed on restricted routes within Germany, following a similar (on-going) trial in The Netherlands. Similarly, Denmark has allowed 25.25 m combinations on select routes. These vehicles will run a weight limit. Two types are to be used: 1) a 26-tonne truck pulling a dolly and semi-trailer, or 2) an articulated tractor unit pulling a
B-double A road train, land train or long combination vehicle (LCV) is a trucking vehicle used to move road freight more efficiently than semi-trailer trucks. It consists of two or more trailers or semi-trailers hauled by a prime mover. History Early ...
, member states gained the ability to adopt the same rules. In Italy the maximum permitted weight (unless exceptional transport is authorized) is 44 tonnes for any kind of combination with five axles or more. Czech Republic has allowed 25.25 m combinations with a permission for a selected route.


Nordic countries

Denmark and Norway allow trucks (Denmark from 2008, and Norway from 2008 on selected routes). In
Sweden Sweden, formally the Kingdom of Sweden,The United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names states that the country's formal name is the Kingdom of SwedenUNGEGN World Geographical Names, Sweden./ref> is a Nordic country located on ...
, the allowed length has been since 1967. Before that, the maximum length was unlimited; the only limitations were on axle load. What stopped Sweden from adopting the same rules as the rest of Europe, when securing road safety, was the national importance of a competitive forestry industry. Finland, with the same road safety issues and equally important forestry industry, followed suit. The change made trucks able to carry three stacks of cut-to-length logs instead of two, as it would be in a short combination. They have one stack together with a crane on the 6×4 truck, and two additional stacks on a four axle trailer. The allowed gross weight in both countries is up to depending on the distance between the first and last axle. In the negotiations starting in the late 1980s preceding Sweden and Finland's entries to the European Economic Area and later the European Union, they insisted on exemptions from the EU rules citing environmental concerns and the transportation needs of the logging industry. In 1995, after their entry to the union, the rules changed again, this time to allow trucks carrying a standard CEN unit of to draw a standard semi-trailer on a dolly, a total overall length of 25.25 m. Later,
B-double A road train, land train or long combination vehicle (LCV) is a trucking vehicle used to move road freight more efficiently than semi-trailer trucks. It consists of two or more trailers or semi-trailers hauled by a prime mover. History Early ...
combinations came into use, often with one container on the B-link and a container (or two containers) on a semi-trailer bed. In allowing the longer truck combinations, what would take two semi-trailer trucks and one truck and trailer to haul on the continent now could be handled by just two 25.25 m trucks – greatly reducing overall costs and emissions. Prepared since late 2012 and effective in January 2013, Finland has changed its regulations to allow total maximum legal weight of a combination to be . At the same time the maximum allowed height would be increased by ; from current maximum of to . The effect this major maximum weight increase would cause to the roads and bridges in Finland over time is strongly debated. However, longer and heavier combinations are regularly seen on public roads; special permits are issued for special cargo. The mining company
Boliden AB Boliden AB is a Swedish multinational metals, mining, and smelting company headquartered in Stockholm. The company produces zinc, copper, lead, nickel, silver, and gold, with operations in Sweden, Finland, Norway, and Ireland. Boliden is linked ...
have a standing special permit for combinations on select routes between mines in the inland and the processing plant in
Boliden Boliden is a locality situated in Skellefteå Municipality, Västerbotten County, Sweden with 1,566 inhabitants in 2010. It lies 28,5 kilometers from Skellefteå City. This is where Boliden AB Boliden AB is a Swedish multinational metals, m ...
, taking a load of ore.
Volvo The Volvo Group ( sv, Volvokoncernen; legally Aktiebolaget Volvo, shortened to AB Volvo, stylized as VOLVO) is a Swedish multinational manufacturing corporation headquartered in Gothenburg. While its core activity is the production, distributio ...
has a special permit for a , steering B-trailer-trailer combination carrying two containers to and from Gothenburg harbour and the
Volvo Trucks Volvo Trucks ( sv, Volvo Lastvagnar) is a truck manufacturing division of Volvo based in Gothenburg, Sweden. Volvo Trucks was a separate company within Volvo. The Volvo Group was reorganised on 1 January 2012 and as a part of the process, Vol ...
factory, all on the island of
Hisingen Hisingen () is the fifth-largest island of Sweden (after Gotland, Öland, Södertörn and Orust), with an area of . It is a river island, formed by the split of the Göta Älv at Bohus, and is defined to the east and south by the main arm of tha ...
. Another example is the ongoing project ''En Trave Till'' (lit. ''One more pile/stack'') started in December 2008. It will allow even longer vehicles to further rationalize the logging transports. As the name of the project points out, it will be able to carry four stacks of timber, instead of the usual three. The test is limited to
Norrbotten Norrbotten (), known in English as North Bothnia, is a Swedish province (''landskap'') in northernmost Sweden. It borders south to Västerbotten, west to Swedish Lapland, and east to Finland. Administration The traditional provinces of Swede ...
county and the
European route E4 European route E4 passes from north to south through Sweden from the border with Finland, with a total length of . The Finnish part lies entirely within Tornio in northern Finland, and is only long. The Swedish part traverses most of Sweden ex ...
between the timber terminal in
Överkalix Överkalix (; fi, Ylikainuu) is a locality and the seat of Överkalix Municipality in Norrbotten County, Sweden with 975 inhabitants in 2010. Climate Överkalix has a subarctic climate with significant temperature differences between the warm sho ...
and the sawmill in Munksund (outside
Piteå Piteå () is a locality and the seat of Piteå Municipality in Norrbotten County, Sweden. Piteå is Sweden's 58th largest city, with a population of 23,326. Geography Piteå is located at the mouth of the Pite River ( sv, Piteälven), at th ...
). The vehicle is a long truck trailer combination with a gross weight exceeding . It is estimated that this will give a 20% lower cost and 20-25% emissions reduction compared to the regular truck combinations. As the combination spreads its weight over more axles, braking distance, road wear and traffic safety is believed to be either the same or improved with the truck-trailer. In the same program two types of combinations will be tested in
Dalsland Dalsland () is a Swedish traditional province, or ''landskap'', situated in Götaland in southern Sweden. Lying to the west of Lake Vänern, it is bordered by Värmland to the north, Västergötland to the southeast, Bohuslän to the west, and ...
and
Bohuslän Bohuslän (; da, Bohuslen; no, Båhuslen) is a Swedish province in Götaland, on the northernmost part of the country's west coast. It is bordered by Dalsland to the northeast, Västergötland to the southeast, the Skagerrak arm of the North Sea ...
counties in western Sweden: an enhanced truck and trailer combination for use in the forest and a b-double for plain highway transportation to the mill in
Skoghall Skoghall (literally means "Forest Hall") is a locality and the seat of Hammarö Municipality in Värmland County, Sweden with 13,265 inhabitants in 2010. Stora Enso with paper mill and manufacturing being the largest employer. Second largest is Ak ...
. In 2012, the Northland Mining company received permission for combinations with normal axle load (an extra dolly) for use on the Kaunisvaara-
Svappavaara Svappavaara (Meänkieli: ''Vaskivuori'') is a locality situated in Kiruna Municipality, Norrbotten County, Sweden with 417 inhabitants in 2010. It is a mining village. Mining was started around 1650. Large scale iron mining started in 1965. The ...
route, carrying iron ore. , the longest and heaviest truck in everyday use in Finland is operated by transport company Ketosen Kuljetus as part of a
pilot project A pilot study, pilot project, pilot test, or pilot experiment is a small-scale preliminary study conducted to evaluate feasibility, duration, cost, adverse events, and improve upon the study design prior to performance of a full-scale research p ...
studying transport efficiency in the timber industry. The combined vehicle is long, has 13 axles, and weighs a total of . Starting from Jan 21 2019 the Government of Finland changed the maximum allowed length of truck from . New types of vehicle combinations that differ from the current standards may also be used on the road. The requirements for combinations also include camera systems for side visibility, an advanced emergency braking and lane detector system, electronic driving stability system and electronically controlled brakes


United Kingdom

In the
United Kingdom The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Europe, off the north-western coast of the continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotland, Wales and North ...
, a semi-trailer truck is known as an 'articulated lorry' (or colloquially as an 'artic'). The maximum permitted
gross weight In science and engineering, the weight of an object is the force acting on the object due to gravity. Some standard textbooks define weight as a vector quantity, the gravitational force acting on the object. Others define weight as a scalar qua ...
of a semi-trailer truck without the use of a Special Type General Order (STGO) is . In order for a 44,000 kg semi-trailer truck to be permitted on UK roads the tractor and semi-trailer must have three or more axles each. Lower weight semi-trailer trucks can mean some tractors and trailer having fewer axles. In practice, as with double decker buses and coaches in the UK, there is no legal height limit for semi-trailer trucks; however, bridges over do not have the height marked on them. Semi-trailer trucks in continental Europe have a height limit of . Vehicles heavier than 44,000 kg are permitted on UK roads but are indivisible loads, which would be classed as abnormal (or oversize). Such vehicles are required to display an STGO (Special Types General Order) plate on the front of the tractor unit and, under certain circumstances, are required to travel by an authorized route and have an escort. Most UK trailers are long and, dependent on the position of the fifth wheel and kingpin, a coupled tractor unit and trailer will have a combined length of between . Although the Construction and Use Regulations allow a maximum rigid length of , this, combined with a shallow kingpin and fifth wheel set close to the rear of the tractor unit, can give an overall length of around . In January 2012, the
Department for Transport The Department for Transport (DfT) is a department of His Majesty's Government responsible for the English transport network and a limited number of transport matters in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland that have not been devolved. The d ...
began conducting a trial of longer semi-trailers. The trial involves 900 semi-trailers of in length (i.e. longer than the current maximum), and a further 900 semi-trailers of in length (i.e. longer). This will result in the total maximum length of the semi-trailer truck being for trailers in length, and for trailers long. The increase in length will not result in the weight limit being exceeded and will allow some operators to approach the weight limit which may not have been previously possible due to the previous length of trailers. The trial will run for a maximum of 10 years. Providing certain requirements are fulfilled, a Special Types General Order (STGO) allows for vehicles of any size or weight to travel on UK roads. However, in practice, any such vehicle has to travel by a route authorized by the Department of Transport and move under escort. The escort of abnormal loads in the UK is now predominantly carried out by private companies, but extremely large or heavy loads that require road closures must still be escorted by the police. In the UK, some semi-trailer trucks have eight tires on three axles on the tractor; these are known as six-wheelers or "six leggers," with either the center or rear axle having single wheels which normally steer as well as the front axle and can be raised when not needed (i.e. when unloaded or only a light load is being carried; an arrangement known as a TAG axle when it is the rear axle, or mid-lift when it is the center axle). Some trailers have two axles which have twin tires on each axle; other trailers have three axles, of which one axle can be a lift axle which has super-single wheels. In the UK, two wheels bolted to the same hub are classed as a single wheel, therefore a standard six-axle articulated truck is considered to have twelve wheels, even though it has twenty tires. The UK also allows semi-trailer truck which have six tires on two axles; these are known as four-wheelers. In 2009, the operator Denby Transport designed and built a
B-Train A road train, land train or long combination vehicle (LCV) is a trucking vehicle used to move road freight more efficiently than semi-trailer trucks. It consists of two or more trailers or semi-trailers hauled by a prime mover. History Early ...
(or B-Double) semi-trailer truck called the
Denby Eco-Link The Denby Eco-Link, dubbed the super lorry by the mainstream media, is a commercial vehicle designed and built by Denby Transport of the United Kingdom. The Eco-Link is a 60 tonne fully laden, 25.25m long, 8 axle B-Train (or B-Double) type of ...
to show the benefits of such a vehicle, which were a reduction in road accidents and result in fewer road deaths, a reduction in emissions due to the one tractor unit still being used and no further highway investment being required. Furthermore, Denby Transport asserted that two Eco-Links would replace three standard semi-trailer trucks while, if limited to the current UK weight limit of , it was claimed the Eco-Link would reduce carbon emissions by 16% and could still halve the number of trips needed for the same amount of cargo carried in conventional semi-trailer trucks. This is based on the fact that for light but bulky goods such as toilet paper, plastic bottles, cereals and aluminum cans, conventional semi-trailer trucks run out of cargo space before they reach the weight limit. At , as opposed to usually associated with B-Trains, the Eco-Link also exerts less weight per axle on the road compared to the standard six-axle semi-trailer truck. The vehicle was built after Denby Transport believed they had found a legal-loophole in the present UK law to allow the Eco-Link to be used on the public roads. The relevant legislation concerned the 1986 Road Vehicles Construction and Use Regulations. The 1986 regulations state that "certain vehicles" may be permitted to draw more than one trailer and can be up to . The point of law reportedly hinged on the definition of a "towing implement", with Denby prepared to argue that the second trailer on the Eco-Link was one. The Department for Transport were of the opinion that this refers to recovering a vehicle after an accident or breakdown, but the regulation does not explicitly state this. During BTAC performance testing the Eco-Link was given an "excellent" rating for its performance in maneuverability, productivity, safety and emissions tests, superseding ordinary semi-trailer trucks in many respects. Reportedly, private trials had also shown the Denby vehicle had a 20% shorter stopping distance than conventional semi-trailer trucks of the same weight, due to having extra axles. The active steer system meant that the Eco-Link had a turning circle of , the same as a conventional semi-trailer truck. Although the Department for Transport advised that the Eco-Link was not permissible on public roads, Denby Transport gave the Police prior warning of the timing and route of the test drive on the public highway, as well as outlining their position in writing to the Eastern Traffic Area Office. On 1 December 2009 Denby Transport were preparing to drive the Eco-Link on public roads, but this was cut short because the Police pulled the semi-trailer truck over as it left the gates in order to test it for its legality "to investigate any... offenses which may be found". The Police said the vehicle was unlawful due to its length and Denby Transport was served with a notice by the
Vehicle and Operator Services Agency Vehicle and Operator Services Agency (VOSA) was an executive agency granted trading fund status in the United Kingdom sponsored by the Department for Transport of the United Kingdom Government. It was announced on 20 June 2013 that VOSA would m ...
(VOSA) inspector to remove the vehicle from the road for inspection. Having returned to the yard, Denby Transport was formally notified by Police and VOSA that the semi-trailer truck could not be used. Neither the Eco-Link, nor any other B-Train, have since been permitted on UK roads. However, this prompted the
Department for Transport The Department for Transport (DfT) is a department of His Majesty's Government responsible for the English transport network and a limited number of transport matters in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland that have not been devolved. The d ...
to undertake a desk study into semi-trailer trucks, which has resulted in the longer semi-trailer trial which commenced in 2012.


North America

In
North America North America is a continent in the Northern Hemisphere and almost entirely within the Western Hemisphere. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Car ...
, the combination vehicles made up of a powered semi-tractor and one or more semitrailers are known as "semis", "semitrailers", "tractor-trailers", "big rigs", "semi-trucks", "eighteen-wheelers", or "semi-tractor-trailers". The
tractor unit A tractor unit (also known as a truck unit, power unit, prime mover, ten-wheeler, semi-tractor, tractor truck, semi-truck, tractor cab, truck cab, tractor rig, truck rig or big rig or simply a tractor, truck, semi or rig) is a characteristical ...
typically has two or three
axle An axle or axletree is a central shaft for a rotating wheel or gear. On wheeled vehicles, the axle may be fixed to the wheels, rotating with them, or fixed to the vehicle, with the wheels rotating around the axle. In the former case, bearing ...
s; those built for hauling heavy-duty commercial-construction machinery may have as many as five, some often being lift axles. The most common tractor-cab layout has a forward engine, one steering axle, and two
drive axle An axle or axletree is a central shaft for a rotating wheel or gear. On wheeled vehicles, the axle may be fixed to the wheels, rotating with them, or fixed to the vehicle, with the wheels rotating around the axle. In the former case, bearing ...
s. The fifth-wheel trailer coupling on most tractor trucks is movable fore and aft, to allow adjustment in the weight distribution over its rear axle(s). Ubiquitous in Europe but less common in North America since the 1990s, is the cabover engine configuration, where the driver sits next to or over the engine. With changes in the US to the maximum length of the combined vehicle, the cabover was largely phased out of North American over-the-road (long-haul) service by 2007. Cabovers were difficult to service; for a long time, the cab could not be lifted on its hinges to a full 90-degree forward tilt, severely limiting access to the front of the engine. , a truck could cost , while the diesel fuel cost could be $70,000 per year. Trucks average from , with fuel economy standards requiring better than efficiency by 2014. Power requirements in standard conditions are 170 hp at or 280 hp at , and somewhat different power usage in other conditions. The
cargo trailer A trailer is an unpowered vehicle towed by a powered vehicle. It is commonly used for the transport of goods and materials. Sometimes recreational vehicles, travel trailers, or mobile homes with limited living facilities where people can cam ...
usually has
tandem Tandem, or in tandem, is an arrangement in which a team of machines, animals or people are lined up one behind another, all facing in the same direction. The original use of the term in English was in ''tandem harness'', which is used for two ...
axles at the rear, each of which has dual wheels, or eight tires on the trailer, four per axle. In the US it is common to refer to the number of wheel hubs, rather than the number of tires; an axle can have either single or dual tires with no legal difference. The combination of eight tires on the trailer and ten tires on the tractor is what led to the
moniker A nickname is a substitute for the proper name of a familiar person, place or thing. Commonly used to express affection, a form of endearment, and sometimes amusement, it can also be used to express defamation of character. As a concept, it is ...
''eighteen wheeler'', although this term is considered by some truckers to be a
misnomer A misnomer is a name that is incorrectly or unsuitably applied. Misnomers often arise because something was named long before its correct nature was known, or because an earlier form of something has been replaced by a later form to which the name ...
(the term "eighteen-wheeler" is a nickname for a five-axle over-the-road combination). Many trailers are equipped with movable tandem axles to allow adjusting the weight distribution. To connect the second of a set of doubles to the first trailer, and to support the front half of the second trailer, a converter gear known as a "dolly" is used. This has one or two axles, a fifth-wheel coupling for the rear trailer, and a tongue with a ring-hitch coupling for the forward trailer. Individual states may further allow longer vehicles, known as "longer combination vehicles" (or LCVs), and may allow them to operate on roads other than Interstates.
Long combination vehicle A road train, land train or long combination vehicle (LCV) is a trucking vehicle used to move road freight more efficiently than semi-trailer trucks. It consists of two or more trailers or semi-trailers hauled by a prime mover. History Early ...
types include: * Doubles (officially " STAA doubles", known colloquially as "a set of joints"): Two trailers. * B-Doubles: Twin trailers in B-double configuration (very common in Canada but rarely used in the United States). * Triples: Three trailers. * Turnpike Doubles: Two trailers. * Rocky Mountain Doubles: One trailer (though usually no more than ) and one trailer (known as a " pup"). * In Canada, a Turnpike Double is two trailers, and a Rocky Mountain Double is a trailer with a "pup". Future long combination vehicles under consideration and study for the US
MAP-21 The Moving Ahead for Progress in the 21st Century Act (MAP-21) is a funding and authorization bill to govern United States federal surface transportation spending. It was passed by Congress on June 29, 2012, and President Barack Obama signed it o ...
transportation bill are container doubles. These combinations are under study for potential recommendation in November 2014: * trailer Turnpike Doubles,
GVWR Vehicle weight is a measurement of wheeled motor vehicles; either an actual measured weight of the vehicle under defined conditions or a gross weight rating for its weight carrying capacity. Curb or kerb weight Curb weight (U.S. English) or kerb ...
* and trailer Rocky Mountain Doubles, GVWR * Double trailers. The US federal government, which only regulates the
Interstate Highway System The Dwight D. Eisenhower National System of Interstate and Defense Highways, commonly known as the Interstate Highway System, is a network of controlled-access highways that forms part of the National Highway System in the United States. Th ...
, does not set maximum length requirements (except on auto and boat transporters), only minimums. Tractors can pull two or three trailers if the combination is legal in that state. Weight maximums are on a single axle, on a tandem, and total for any vehicle or combination. There is a maximum width of and no maximum height. Roads other than Interstates are regulated by individual states, and laws vary widely. Maximum weight varies between to , depending on the combination. Most states restrict operation of larger tandem trailer setups such as triple units, turnpike doubles, and Rocky Mountain doubles. Reasons for limiting the legal trailer configurations include safety concerns and the impracticality of designing and constructing roads that can accommodate the larger
wheelbase In both road and rail vehicles, the wheelbase is the horizontal distance between the centers of the front and rear wheels. For road vehicles with more than two axles (e.g. some trucks), the wheelbase is the distance between the steering (front ...
of these vehicles and the larger minimum turning radii associated with them. In general, these configurations are restricted to the Interstates. Except for these units, double setups are not restricted to certain roads any more than a single setup. They are also not restricted by weather conditions or "difficulty of operation". The Canadian province of Ontario, however, does have weather-related operating restrictions for larger tandem trailer setups.


Oceania


Australia

Australia Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a Sovereign state, sovereign country comprising the mainland of the Australia (continent), Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous List of islands of Australia, sma ...
n road transport has a reputation for using very large trucks and
road train A road train, land train or long combination vehicle (LCV) is a trucking vehicle used to move road freight more efficiently than semi-trailer trucks. It consists of two or more trailers or semi-trailers hauled by a prime mover. History Early ...
s. This is reflected in the most popular configurations of trucks generally having dual drive axles and three axles on the trailers, with four tires on each axle. This means that Australian single semi-trailer trucks will usually have 22 tires, which is generally more than their counterparts in other countries. Super single tires are sometimes used on tri-axle trailers. The suspension is designed with travel limiting, which will hold the rim off the road for one blown or deflated tyre for each side of the trailer, so a trailer can be driven at reduced speed to a safe place for repair. Super singles are also often used on the steer axle in Australia to allow greater loading over the steer axle. The increase in loading of steer tires requires a permit. Long haul transport usually operates as B-doubles with two trailers (each with three axles), for a total of nine axles (including steering). In some lighter duty applications only one of the rear axles of the truck is driven, and the trailer may have only two axles. From July 2007, the Australian Federal and State Governments allowed the introduction of B-triple trucks on a specified network of roads. B-Triples are set up differently from conventional road trains. The front of their first trailer is supported by the
turntable A phonograph, in its later forms also called a gramophone (as a trademark since 1887, as a generic name in the UK since 1910) or since the 1940s called a record player, or more recently a turntable, is a device for the mechanical and analogu ...
on the prime mover. The second and third trailers are supported by turntables on the trailers in front of them. As a result, B-Triples are much more stable than road trains and handle exceptionally well. True road trains only operate in remote areas, regulated by each state or territory government. In total, the maximum length that any articulated vehicle may be (without a special permit and escort) is , its maximum load may be up to 164 tonnes gross, and may have up to four trailers. However, heavy restrictions apply to the areas where such a vehicle may travel in most states. In remote areas such as the
Northern Territory The Northern Territory (commonly abbreviated as NT; formally the Northern Territory of Australia) is an states and territories of Australia, Australian territory in the central and central northern regions of Australia. The Northern Territory ...
great care must be taken when sharing the road with longer articulated vehicles that often travel during the daytime, especially four-trailer road trains. Articulated trucks towing a single trailer or two trailers (commonly known as "short doubles") with a maximum overall length of are referred to as "General access heavy vehicles" and are permitted in all areas, including metropolitan. B-doubles are limited to a maximum total weight of 62.5 tonnes and overall length of , or if they are fitted with approved FUPS (Front Underrun Protection System) devices. B-doubles may only operate on designated roads, which includes most highways and some major metropolitan roads. B-doubles are very common in all parts of Australia including state capitals and on major routes they outnumber single trailer configurations. Maximum width of any vehicle is and a height of . In the past few years, allowance has been made by several states to allow certain designs of heavy vehicles up to high but they are also restricted to designated routes. In effect, a 4.6 meter high B-double will have to follow two sets of rules: they may access only those roads that are permitted for B-doubles ''and'' for 4.6 meter high vehicles. In Australia, both conventional prime movers and
cabover Cab-over, also known as cab over engine (COE), cab forward (U.S.), flat nose (Canada), or forward control (UK), is a body style of truck, bus, or van that has a vertical front, "flat face" or a semi-hood, with the cab of the truck sitting abo ...
s are common, however, cabovers are most often seen on B-doubles on the eastern seaboard where the reduction in total length allows the vehicle to pull longer trailers and thus more cargo than it would otherwise. File:B double logging truck in Australia.jpg, An Australian
prime mover Prime mover may refer to: Philosophy *Unmoved mover, a concept in Aristotle's writings Engineering * Prime mover (engine), motor, a machine that converts various other forms of energy (chemical, electrical, fluid pressure/flow, etc) into energy o ...
Kenworth Kenworth Truck Company is an American truck manufacturer. Founded in 1923 as the successor to Gersix Motor Company, Kenworth specializes in production of heavy-duty ( Class 8) and medium-duty (Class 5–7) commercial vehicles. Headquartered in ...
and B double trailer combination File:Road Train2.jpg, A
road train A road train, land train or long combination vehicle (LCV) is a trucking vehicle used to move road freight more efficiently than semi-trailer trucks. It consists of two or more trailers or semi-trailers hauled by a prime mover. History Early ...
in Australia File:Red B-double truck.jpg, B-double truck on the
Sturt Highway Sturt Highway is an Australian national highway in New South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia. It is an important road link for the transport of passengers and freight between Sydney and Adelaide and the regions situated adjacent to the r ...


New Zealand

New Zealand legislation governing truck dimensions falls under the Vehicle Dimensions and Mass Rules, published by
NZ Transport Agency Waka Kotahi NZ Transport Agency (commonly known as Waka Kotahi, and abbreviated as NZTA) is a New Zealand Crown entity tasked with promoting safe and functional transport by land, including the responsibility for driver and vehicle licensing, an ...
. New rules were introduced effective 1 February 2017, which increased the maximum height, width and weight of loads and vehicles, to simplify regulations, increase the amount of freight carried by road, and to improve the range of vehicles and trailers available to transport operators. Common combinations in New Zealand are a standard semi-trailer, a
B-double A road train, land train or long combination vehicle (LCV) is a trucking vehicle used to move road freight more efficiently than semi-trailer trucks. It consists of two or more trailers or semi-trailers hauled by a prime mover. History Early ...
, or a rigid towing vehicle pulling a trailer with a drawbar, with a maximum of nine axles. Standard maximum vehicle lengths for trailers with one axle set are: * Semi-trailer: * Simple: * Pole: Trailers with two axle sets can be long, including heavy rigid vehicles towing two trailers. Oversized loads require, at minimum, a permit, and may require one or more pilot vehicles. High-productivity motor vehicle (HPMV) permits are issued for vehicles exceeding 44 tonnes, or the above dimensions. Trucks up to 62 tonnes were allowed, with an initial bridge strengthening program costing $12.5m.


Construction


Types of trailers

There are many types of semi-trailers in use, designed to haul a wide range of products. *
Box A box (plural: boxes) is a container used for the storage or transportation of its contents. Most boxes have flat, parallel, rectangular sides. Boxes can be very small (like a matchbox) or very large (like a shipping box for furniture), and can ...
, or
dry van A van is a type of road vehicle used for transporting goods or people. Depending on the type of van, it can be bigger or smaller than a pickup truck and SUV, and bigger than a common car. There is some varying in the scope of the word across ...
*
Bus A bus (contracted from omnibus, with variants multibus, motorbus, autobus, etc.) is a road vehicle that carries significantly more passengers than an average car or van. It is most commonly used in public transport, but is also in use for cha ...
* Car hauler * Intermodal chassis *
Dry bulk Bulk cargo is commodity cargo that is transported unpackaged in large quantities. Description Bulk cargo refers to material in either liquid or granular, particulate form, as a mass of relatively small solids, such as petroleum/ crude oi ...
* Dump * Flatbed * Hopper-Bottom *
Lowboy A lowboy is an American collectors term for one type of dressing table, vanity, or duchess (Australian English).Lowboy is a "collectors term for a dressing table made in 18th century America often with a matching highboy ". It is a small table ...
*
Refrigerator A refrigerator, colloquially fridge, is a commercial and home appliance consisting of a thermally insulated compartment and a heat pump (mechanical, electronic or chemical) that transfers heat from its inside to its external environment so th ...
** Reefer * Tanker


Coupling and uncoupling

The cargo trailer is, by means of a
king pin King Pin () is a nunatak, high, rising above the Wilson Piedmont Glacier, Antarctica, about midway between Mount Doorly and Hogback Hill. It was named by the Victoria University of Wellington Antarctic Expedition, 1958–59, after the American h ...
, hooked to a horseshoe-shaped quick-release coupling device called a
fifth wheel The fifth-wheel coupling provides the link between a semi-trailer and the towing truck, tractor unit, leading trailer or dolly. The coupling consists of a kingpin, a vertical steel pin protruding from the bottom of the front of the semi-tr ...
or a turntable hitch at the rear of the towing engine that allows easy hook up and release. The truck trailer cannot move by itself because it only has wheels at the rear end: it requires a forward
axle An axle or axletree is a central shaft for a rotating wheel or gear. On wheeled vehicles, the axle may be fixed to the wheels, rotating with them, or fixed to the vehicle, with the wheels rotating around the axle. In the former case, bearing ...
, provided by the towing engine, to carry half the load weight. When braking hard at high speeds, the vehicle has a tendency to fold at the pivot point between the towing vehicle and the trailer. Such a truck accident is called a "trailer swing", although it is also commonly described as a "jackknife."
Jackknifing Jackknifing is the folding of an articulated vehicle so that it resembles the acute angle of a folding pocket knife. If a vehicle towing a trailer skids, the trailer can push the towing vehicle from behind until it spins the vehicle around and ...
is a condition where the tractive unit swings round against the trailer, and not vice versa.


Braking

Semi trucks use air pressure, rather than
hydraulic Hydraulics (from Greek: Υδραυλική) is a technology and applied science using engineering, chemistry, and other sciences involving the mechanical properties and use of liquids. At a very basic level, hydraulics is the liquid counter ...
fluid, to actuate the
brake A brake is a mechanical device that inhibits motion by absorbing energy from a moving system. It is used for slowing or stopping a moving vehicle, wheel, axle, or to prevent its motion, most often accomplished by means of friction. Background ...
. The use of air hoses allows for ease of coupling and uncoupling of trailers from the tractor unit. The most common failure is ''
brake fade Vehicle braking system fade, or brake fade, is the reduction in stopping power that can occur after repeated or sustained application of the brakes, especially in high load or high speed conditions. Brake fade can be a factor in any vehicle that u ...
'', usually caused when the drums or discs and the linings of the brakes overheat from excessive use. The parking brake of the tractor unit and the emergency brake of the trailer are spring brakes that require air pressure in order to be released. They are applied when air pressure is released from the system, and disengaged when air pressure is supplied. This is a
fail-safe In engineering, a fail-safe is a design feature or practice that in the event of a specific type of failure, inherently responds in a way that will cause minimal or no harm to other equipment, to the environment or to people. Unlike inherent safe ...
design feature which ensures that if air pressure to either unit is lost, the vehicle will stop to a grinding halt, instead of continuing without brakes and becoming uncontrollable. The trailer controls are coupled to the tractor through two ''
gladhand connector A gladhand connector or gladhand coupler is an interlocking hose coupling fitted to hoses supplying pressurized air from a tractor unit to air brakes on a semi-trailer, or from a locomotive to railway air brakes on railroad cars. Gladhand conn ...
s'', which provide air pressure, and an electrical cable, which provides power to the lights and any specialized features of the trailer. ''Glad-hand connectors'' (also known as ''palm couplings'') are air hose connectors, each of which has a flat engaging face and retaining tabs. The faces are placed together, and the units are rotated so that the tabs engage each other to hold the connectors together. This arrangement provides a secure connection but allows the couplers to break away without damaging the equipment if they are pulled, as may happen when the tractor and trailer are separated without first uncoupling the air lines. These connectors are similar in design to the ones used for a similar purpose between
railroad car A railroad car, railcar (American and Canadian English), railway wagon, railway carriage, railway truck, railwagon, railcarriage or railtruck (British English and UIC), also called a train car, train wagon, train carriage or train truck, is a ...
s. Two air lines typically connect to the trailer unit. An ''emergency'' or ''main'' air supply line pressurizes the trailer's air tank and disengages the emergency brake, and a second ''service'' line controls the brake application during normal operation. In the UK, male/female quick release connectors (''red line'' or emergency), have a female on the truck and male on the trailer, but a ''yellow line'' or service has a male on the truck and female on the trailer. This avoids coupling errors (causing no brakes) plus the connections will not come apart if pulled by accident. The three electrical lines will fit one way around a primary black, a secondary green, and an ABS lead, all of which are collectively known as ''suzies'' or ''suzie coils''. Another braking feature of semi-trucks is
engine braking Engine braking occurs when the retarding forces within an engine are used to slow down a motor vehicle, as opposed to using additional external braking mechanisms such as friction brakes or magnetic brakes. The term is often confused with sever ...
, which could be either a compression brake (usually shortened to ''
Jake brake A compression release engine brake, compression brake, or decompression brake, frequently called a Jacobs brake or Jake Brake, is an engine braking mechanism installed on some diesel engines. When activated, it opens exhaust valves to the cylin ...
'') or
exhaust brake An exhaust brake is a means of slowing a diesel engine by closing off the exhaust path from the engine, causing the exhaust gases to be compressed in the exhaust manifold, and in the cylinder. Since the exhaust is being compressed, and there is no ...
or combination of both. However, the use of compression brake alone produces a loud and distinctive noise, and to control
noise pollution Noise pollution, also known as environmental noise or sound pollution, is the propagation of noise with ranging impacts on the activity of human or animal life, most of them are harmful to a degree. The source of outdoor noise worldwide is main ...
, some local municipalities have prohibited or restricted the use of engine brake systems inside their jurisdictions, particularly in residential areas. The advantage to using engine braking instead of conventional brakes is that a truck can descend a long grade without overheating its wheel brakes. Some vehicles can also be equipped with hydraulic or electric retarders which have an advantage of near silent operation.


Transmission

Because of the wide variety of loads the semi may carry, they usually have a
manual transmission A manual transmission (MT), also known as manual gearbox, standard transmission (in Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States), or stick shift (in the United States), is a multi-speed motor vehicle transmission (mechanics), transmission ...
to allow the driver to have as much control as possible. However, all truck manufacturers now offer
automated manual transmission The automated manual transmission (AMT) is a type of transmission for motor vehicles. It is essentially a conventional manual transmission but uses automatic actuation to operate the clutch and/or shift between gears. Many early versions of t ...
s (manual gearboxes with automated gear change), as well as conventional
hydraulic Hydraulics (from Greek: Υδραυλική) is a technology and applied science using engineering, chemistry, and other sciences involving the mechanical properties and use of liquids. At a very basic level, hydraulics is the liquid counter ...
automatic transmissions An automatic transmission (sometimes abbreviated to auto or AT) is a multi-speed transmission used in internal combustion engine-based motor vehicles that does not require any input from the driver to change forward gears under normal driving ...
. Semi-truck transmissions can have as few as three forward speeds or as many as 18 forward speeds (plus 2 reverse speeds). A large number of transmission ratios means the driver can operate the engine more efficiently. Modern on-highway diesel engines are designed to provide maximum torque in a narrow
RPM Revolutions per minute (abbreviated rpm, RPM, rev/min, r/min, or with the notation min−1) is a unit of rotational speed or rotational frequency for rotating machines. Standards ISO 80000-3:2019 defines a unit of rotation as the dimensionl ...
range (usually 1200-1500 RPM); having more gear ratios means the driver can hold the engine in its optimum range regardless of road speed (
drive axle An axle or axletree is a central shaft for a rotating wheel or gear. On wheeled vehicles, the axle may be fixed to the wheels, rotating with them, or fixed to the vehicle, with the wheels rotating around the axle. In the former case, bearing ...
ratio must also be considered). A ten-speed manual transmission, for example, is controlled via a six-slot H-box pattern, similar to that in five-speed cars — five forward and one reverse gear. Gears six to ten (and high-speed reverse) are accessed by a Lo/High range splitter; gears one to five are Lo range; gears six to ten are High range using the same shift pattern. A Super-10 transmission, by contrast, has no range splitter; it uses alternating "stick and button" shifting (stick shifts 1-3-5-7-9, button shifts 2-4-6-8-10). The 13-, 15-, and 18-speed transmissions have the same basic shift pattern but include a splitter button to enable additional ratios found in each range. Some transmissions may have 12 speeds. Another difference between semi-trucks and cars is the way the clutch is set up. On an
automobile A car or automobile is a motor vehicle with Wheel, wheels. Most definitions of ''cars'' say that they run primarily on roads, Car seat, seat one to eight people, have four wheels, and mainly transport private transport#Personal transport, pe ...
, the clutch pedal is depressed full stroke to the floor for every gear shift, to ensure the gearbox is disengaged from the engine. On a semi-truck with constant-mesh transmission (non-synchronized), such as by the Eaton Roadranger series, not only is
double-clutching Double-clutching (also called double de-clutching outside of the United States) is a method of shifting gears used primarily for vehicles with an unsynchronized manual transmission, such as commercial trucks and specialty vehicles. While double ...
required, but a clutch brake is required as well. The clutch brake stops the rotation of the gears and allows the truck to be put into gear without grinding when stationary. The clutch is pressed to the floor only to allow a smooth engagement of low gears when starting from a full stop; when the truck is moving, the clutch pedal is pressed only far enough to break torque for gear changes. Theoretically, semi-trucks could have diesel-electric transmission, as electric motors have better torque at 0 RPM than diesel engines, but this would increase the weight of the cabin itself, at the expense of the cargo weight.


Lights

An electrical connection is made between the tractor and the trailer through a cable often referred to as a ''pigtail''. This cable is a bundle of wires in a single casing. Each wire controls one of the electrical circuits on the trailer, such as running lights, brake lights, turn signals, etc. A straight cable would break when the rig went around corners, so a coiled cable is used which retracts these coils when not under tension. It is these coils that cause the cable to look like a pigtail. In most countries, a trailer or semi-trailer must have minimum * 2 rear lights (red) * 2 stop lights (red) * 2 turning lights; one for right and one for left, flashing (amber; red optional in North America. May be combined with a brake light in North America) * 2 marking lights behind if wider than certain specifications (red; plus a group of 3 red lights in the middle in North America) * 2 marking lights front if wider than the truck or wider than certain specifications (white; amber in North America)


Wheels and tires

Although dual wheels are the most common, use of two single, wider
tire A tire (American English) or tyre (British English) is a ring-shaped component that surrounds a Rim (wheel), wheel's rim to transfer a vehicle's load from the axle through the wheel to the ground and to provide Traction (engineering), t ...
s, known as '' super singles'', on each axle is becoming popular among bulk cargo carriers and other weight-sensitive operators. With increased efforts to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions Greenhouse gas emissions from human activities strengthen the greenhouse effect, contributing to climate change. Most is carbon dioxide from burning fossil fuels: coal, oil, and natural gas. The largest emitters include coal in China and lar ...
, the use of the super-single tire is gaining popularity. There are several advantages to this configuration. The first of these is that super singles reduce fuel consumption. In 1999, tests on an oval track showed a 10% fuel savings when super singles were used. These savings are realized because less energy is wasted flexing fewer tire sidewalls. Second, the lighter overall tire weight allows a truck to be loaded with more freight. The third advantage is that the single wheel encloses less of the brake unit, which allows faster cooling and reduces
brake fade Vehicle braking system fade, or brake fade, is the reduction in stopping power that can occur after repeated or sustained application of the brakes, especially in high load or high speed conditions. Brake fade can be a factor in any vehicle that u ...
. One of the major disadvantages of the super singles is that they are currently not as widely available as a standard tire. In addition, if a tire should become deflated or be destroyed, there is not another tire attached to the same hub to maintain the dynamic stability of the vehicle, as would be the case with dual wheels. With dual wheels, the remaining tire may be overloaded, but it will typically allow the vehicle to be safely stopped or driven to a repair facility. In Europe, super singles became popular when the allowed weight of semitrailer rigs was increased from 38 to 40 tonnes. In this reform the trailer industry replaced two axles with dual wheels, with three axles on wide-base single wheels. The significantly lower axle weight on super singles must be considered when comparing road wear from single versus dual wheels. The majority of super singles sold in Europe have a width of . The standard 385 tires have a legal load limit of . (Note that expensive, specially reinforced 385 tires approved for do exist. Their market share is tiny, except for mounting on the steer axle.)


Skirted trailers

An innovation rapidly growing in popularity is the skirted trailer. The space between the road and the bottom of the trailer frame was traditionally left open until it was realized that the
turbulent In fluid dynamics, turbulence or turbulent flow is fluid motion characterized by chaotic changes in pressure and flow velocity. It is in contrast to a laminar flow, which occurs when a fluid flows in parallel layers, with no disruption between t ...
air swirling under the trailer is a major source of
aerodynamic drag In fluid dynamics, drag (sometimes called air resistance, a type of friction, or fluid resistance, another type of friction or fluid friction) is a force acting opposite to the relative motion of any object moving with respect to a surrounding fl ...
. Three split skirt concepts were verified by the
United States Environmental Protection Agency The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is an independent executive agency of the United States federal government tasked with environmental protection matters. President Richard Nixon proposed the establishment of EPA on July 9, 1970; it be ...
(EPA) to provide fuel savings greater than 5%, and four split skirt concepts had EPA-verified fuel savings between 4% and 5%. Skirted trailers are often combined with Underrun Protection Systems (''underride guards''), greatly improving safety for passenger vehicles sharing the road.


Underride guard

Underride protection systems can be installed at the rear, front and sides of a truck and the rear and sides of a trailer. A Rear Underrun Protection System (RUPS) is a rigid assembly hanging down from trailer's chassis, which is intended to provide some protection for passenger cars which collide with the rear of the trailer. Public awareness of this safeguard was increased in the aftermath of the accident that killed actress
Jayne Mansfield Jayne Mansfield (born Vera Jayne Palmer; April 19, 1933 – June 29, 1967) was an American actress, singer, nightclub entertainer, and ''Playboy'' Playmate. A sex symbol of the 1950s and early 1960s while under contract at 20th Century Fox, Man ...
on 29 June 1967, when the car she was in hit the rear of a tractor-trailer, causing fatal
head trauma A head injury is any injury that results in trauma to the skull or brain. The terms ''traumatic brain injury'' and ''head injury'' are often used interchangeably in the medical literature. Because head injuries cover such a broad scope of inju ...
. After her death, the
NHTSA The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA ) is an agency of the U.S. federal government, part of the Department of Transportation. It describes its mission as "Save lives, prevent injuries, reduce vehicle-related crashes" relat ...
recommended requiring a rear underride guard, also known as a ''Mansfield bar'', an '' ICC bar'', or a '' DOT bumper''. The bottom rear of the trailer is near head level for an adult seated in a car, and without the underride guard, the only protection for such an adult's head in a
rear-end collision A rear-end collision (often called simply rear-end or in the UK a shunt) occurs when a vehicle crashes into the one in front of it. Common factors contributing to rear-end collisions include driver inattention or distraction, tailgating, panic ...
would be the car's
windshield The windshield (North American English) or windscreen (Commonwealth English) of an aircraft, car, bus, motorbike, truck, train, boat or streetcar is the front window, which provides visibility while protecting occupants from the elements. Mo ...
and A pillars. The front of the car goes under the platform of the trailer rather than making contact via the passenger car bumper, so the car's protective crush zone becomes irrelevant and air bags are ineffective in protecting the passengers. The underride guard provides a rigid area for the car to contact that is lower than the lip of the bonnet/hood, preventing the vehicle from squatting and running under the truck and ensuring that the vehicle's crush zones and engine block absorb the force of the collision. In addition to rear underride guards, truck tractor cabs may be equipped with a Front Underrun Protection System (FUPS) at the front bumper of the truck, if the front end is not low enough for the bumper to provide the adequate protection on its own. The safest tractor-trailers are also equipped with side underride guards, also called Side Underrun Protection System (SUPS). These additional barriers prevent passenger cars from skidding underneath the trailer from the side, such as in an oblique or side collision, or if the trailer jackknifing, jackknifes across the road, and helps protect cyclists, pedestrians and other vulnerable road users. In Europe, side and rear underrun protection are mandated on all lorries and trailers with a gross weight of or more. Several US states and cities have adopted or are in the process of adopting truck side guards, including New York City, Philadelphia, and Washington DC. The NTSB has recommended that the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) develop standards for side underride protection systems for trucks, and for newly manufactured trucks to be equipped with technology meeting the standards. In addition to safety benefits, these underride guards may improve fuel mileage by reducing air turbulence under the trailer at highway speeds. Another benefit of having a sturdy rear underride guard is that it may be secured to a loading dock with a hook to prevent "Loading dock#Dangers, trailer creep", a movement of the trailer away from the dock, which opens up a dangerous gap during loading or unloading operations.


Semi-truck manufacturers

Current semi-truck manufacturers include:


Asia-Pacific

* Asia MotorWorks (India) * China International Marine Containers, C&C Trucks (China) * CAMC Star (China) * China National Heavy Duty Truck Group (China) * FAW Group (China) * Foton Motor (China) * Hino Motors (Japan) * Hyundai Motor Company, Hyundai (South Korea) * Isuzu Motors, Isuzu (Japan) * Mahindra Truck and Bus Division (India) * Mitsubishi Fuso Truck and Bus Corporation (Japan) * SAIC Iveco Hongyan (China) * Tata Daewoo (South Korea-India) * Tata Motors (India) * UD Trucks (Japan)


Canada and United States

* Crane Carrier Company * Freightliner Trucks, Freightliner * Hino Motors (Canadian plant) * Hyundai Translead *
Kenworth Kenworth Truck Company is an American truck manufacturer. Founded in 1923 as the successor to Gersix Motor Company, Kenworth specializes in production of heavy-duty ( Class 8) and medium-duty (Class 5–7) commercial vehicles. Headquartered in ...
* Mack Trucks, Mack * Navistar International * Oshkosh Corporation, Oshkosh * Peterbilt * Cat CT660, Caterpillar * Volvo Trucks, Volvo * Wabash National * Western Star Trucks, Western Star * Tesla, Inc., Tesla


Europe

* ADR Group Trailer * DAF Trucks * Iveco * Kamaz * KrAZ * MAN SE, MAN * Minsk Automobile Plant, MAZ * Mercedes-Benz * Renault Trucks * Roman (vehicle manufacturer), Roman * Scania AB, Scania * Sisu Auto, Sisu * Tatra (company), Tatra * Volvo Trucks, Volvo * ZiL * Jelcz


Other locations

* Al Kowary Industries (Bahrain) * Ashok Leyland (India) * BharatBenz (India) * BMC (Turkey), BMC (Turkey) * Eicher Motors (India) * Ford Otosan (Turkey) * Volkswagen Caminhões e Ônibus (Latin America, South Africa)


Driver's license

A special driver's license is required to operate various commercial vehicles.


Australia

Truck drivers in Australia require an endorsed license. These endorsements are gained through training and experience. The minimum age to hold an endorsed license is 18 years, and/or must have held open (full) driver's license for minimum 12 months. The following are the heavy vehicle license classes in Australia: * LR (Light Rigid) – Class LR covers a rigid vehicle with a GVM (gross weight, gross vehicle mass) of more than 4.5 tonnes but not more than 8 tonnes. Any towed trailer must not weigh more than 9 tonnes GVM. Also includes vehicles with a GVM up to 8 tonnes which carry more than 12 adults including the driver and vehicles in Class C. * MR (Medium Rigid) – Class MR covers a rigid vehicle with two axles and a GVM of more than 8 tonnes. Any towed trailer must not weigh more than 9 tonnes GVM. Also includes vehicles in Class LR. * HR (Heavy Rigid) – Class HR covers a rigid vehicle with three or more axles and a GVM of more than 15 tonnes. Any towed trailer must not weigh more than 9 tonnes GVM. Also includes articulated buses and vehicles in Class MR. * HC (Heavy Combination) – Class HC covers heavy combination vehicles like a prime mover towing a semi-trailer, or rigid vehicles towing a trailer with a GVM of more than 9 tonnes. Also includes vehicles in Class HR. * MC (Multi Combination) – Class MC covers multi-combination vehicles like road trains and B-double vehicles. Also includes vehicles in Class HC. In order to obtain an HC License the driver must have held an MR or HR license for at least 12 months. To upgrade to an MC License the driver must have held a HR or HC license for at least 12 months. From licenses MR and upward there is also a B Condition which may apply to the license if testing in a synchromesh or automatic transmission vehicle. The B Condition may be removed upon the driver proving the ability to drive a constant mesh transmission using the clutch. ''Constant mesh transmission refers to ''crash box'' transmissions, predominantly Road Ranger eighteen-speed transmissions in Australia.''


Canada

Regulations vary by province. A license to operate a vehicle with air brakes is required (i.e., normally a Class I, II, or III commercial license with an "A" or "S" endorsement in provinces other than Ontario). In Ontario, a "Z" endorsement is required to drive any vehicle using air brakes; in provinces other than Ontario, the "A" endorsement is for air brake operation only, and an "S" endorsement is for both operation and adjustment of air brakes. Anyone holding a valid Ontario driver's license (i.e., excluding a motorcycle license) with a "Z" endorsement can legally drive any air-brake-equipped truck-trailer combination with a registered- or actual-gross-vehicle-weight (i.e., including towing- and towed-vehicle) up to 11 tonnes, that includes one trailer weighing no more than 4.6 tonnes if the license falls under the following three classes: Class E (school bus—maximum 24-passenger capacity or ambulance), F (regular bus—maximum 24-passenger capacity or ambulance) or G (car, van, or small-truck). A Class B (any school bus), C (any urban-transit-vehicle or highway-coach), or D (heavy trucks other than tractor-trailers) license enables its holder to drive any truck-trailer combination with a registered- or actual-gross-vehicle-weight (i.e., including towing- and towed-vehicle) greater than 11 tonnes, that includes one trailer weighing no more than 4.6 tonnes. Anyone holding an Ontario Class A license (or its equivalent) can drive any truck-trailer combination with a registered- or actual-gross-vehicle-weight (i.e., including towing- and towed-vehicles) greater than 11 tonnes, that includes one or more trailers weighing more than 4.6 tonnes.


Europe

A European driving licence#Categories valid in all EEA countries, category CE driving licence is required to drive a tractor-trailer in Europe. Category C (Γ in Greece) is required for vehicles over , while category E is for heavy trailers, which in the case of trucks and buses means any trailer over . Vehicles over —which is the maximum limit of B license—but under can be driven with a C1 license. Buses require a D (Δ in Greece) license. A bus that is registered for no more than 16 passengers, excluding the driver, can be driven with a D1 license.


New Zealand

In New Zealand, drivers of heavy vehicles require specific licenses, termed as classes. A Class 1 license (''car license'') will allow the driving of any vehicle with Gross Laden Weight (GLW) or Gross Combination Weight (GCW) of or less. For other types of vehicles the classes are separately licensed as follows: * Class 2 – Medium Rigid Vehicle: Any rigid vehicle with GLW or less with light trailer of or less, any combination vehicle with GCW or less, any rigid vehicle of any weight with no more than two axles, or any Class 1 vehicle. * Class 3 – Medium Combination Vehicle: Any combination vehicle of GCW or less, or any Class 2 vehicle. * Class 4 – Heavy Rigid Vehicle: Any rigid vehicle of any weight, any combination vehicle which consists of a heavy vehicle and a light trailer, or any vehicle of Class 1 or 2 (but not 3). * Class 5 – Heavy Combination Vehicle: Any combination vehicle of any weight, and any vehicle covered by previous classes. * Class 6 – Motorcycle. Further information on the New Zealand licensing system for heavy vehicles can be found at th
New Zealand Transport Agency


Taiwan

The Road Traffic Security Rules (:zh:道路交通安全規則, 道路交通安全規則) require a combination vehicle driver license () to drive a combination vehicle (). These rules define a combination vehicle as a motor vehicle towing a heavy trailer, i.e., a trailer with a gross weight of more than .


United States

Drivers of semi-trailer trucks generally require a Class A commercial driver's license (CDL) to operate any combination vehicles with a gross combined weight rating, gross combination weight rating (or GCWR) in excess of if the gross vehicle weight rating (GVWR) of the towed vehicle(s) is in excess of . Some states (such as North Dakota) provide exemptions for farmers, allowing non-commercial license holders to operate semis within a certain air-mile radius of their reporting location. State exemptions, however, are only applicable in intrastate commerce; stipulations of the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) may be applied in interstate commerce. Also a person under the age of 21 cannot operate a commercial vehicle outside the state where the commercial license was issued. This restriction may also be mirrored by certain states in their intrastate regulations. A person must be at least 18 in order to be issued a commercial license. In addition, ''endorsements'' are necessary for certain cargo and vehicle arrangements and types; * H – hazardous materials, Hazardous Materials (HazMat or HM) – necessary if materials require HM placards. * N – Tankers – the driver is acquainted with the unique handling characteristics of liquids tankers. * X – Signifies Hazardous Materials and Tanker endorsements, combined. * T – Doubles & Triples – the licensee may pull more than one trailer. * P – Buses – Any Vehicle designed to transport 16 or more passengers (including the driver). * S – School Buses – Any school bus designed to transport 11 or more passengers (including the driver). * W – Tow Truck


Role in trade

Modern day semi-trailer trucks often operate as a part of a domestic or international transport infrastructure to support Containerization, containerized cargo Shipping, shipment. Various types of rail Flatcar, flat bed train cars are modified to hold the cargo trailer or container with wheels or without. This is called ''Intermodal freight transport, Intermodal'' or ''Piggy-back (transportation)#Rail, piggyback''. The system allows the cargo to switch from highway to railway or vice versa with relative ease by using Crane (machine)#Gantry, gantry cranes. The large trailers pulled by a
tractor unit A tractor unit (also known as a truck unit, power unit, prime mover, ten-wheeler, semi-tractor, tractor truck, semi-truck, tractor cab, truck cab, tractor rig, truck rig or big rig or simply a tractor, truck, semi or rig) is a characteristical ...
come in many styles, lengths, and shapes. Some common types are: vans, reefers, flatbeds, sidelifts and tankers. These trailers may be refrigerated, heated, ventilated, or pressurized, depending on climate and cargo. Some trailers have movable wheel axles that can be adjusted by moving them on a track underneath the trailer body and securing them in place with large pin (device), pins. The purpose of this is to help adjust weight distribution over the various axles, to comply with local laws.


Media


Television

* 1960s TV series ''Cannonball (TV series), Cannonball'' * NBC ran two popular TV series about truck drivers in the 1970s featuring actor Claude Akins in major roles: ** ''Movin' On (TV series), Movin' On'' (1974–1976) ** ''B. J. and the Bear'' (1978–1981) * ''The Highwayman (TV series), The Highwayman'' (1987-1988), a semi-futuristic action-adventure series starring Sam J. Jones, Sam Jones, featuring hi-tech, multi-function trucks. * ''Knight Rider (1982 TV series), Knight Rider'', an American television show featured a semi-trailer truck called The Semi, operated by the Foundation for Law & Government (F.L.A.G.) as a mobile support facility for KITT. Also, in two episodes KITT faced off against an armored semi called Garthe Knight, Goliath. * ''The Transformers (TV series), The Transformers'', a 1980s cartoon featuring tractor-trailers as the Autobots' leader Optimus Prime (''Convoy'' in Japanese version), their second-in-command Ultra Magnus, and as the Stunticons' leader Motormaster. Optimus Prime returned in Transformers (film), the 2007 film. * ''Trick My Truck'', a CMT show features trucks getting 'tricked out' (heavily customized). * ''Ice Road Truckers'', a History Channel show charts the lives of drivers who haul supplies to remote towns and work sites over frozen lakes that double as roads. * ''18 Wheels of Justice'', featuring Federal Agent Michael Cates (Lucky Vanous) as a crown witness for the mafia who goes undercover, when forced into it, to fight crime. * ''Eddie Stobart: Trucks & Trailers'', a UK television show showing the trucking company Eddie Stobart and its drivers. * ''Highway Thru Hell'', a Canadian reality TV show that follows the operations of Jamie Davis Motor Trucking, a heavy vehicle rescue and recovery towing company based in Hope, British Columbia.


Films

* ''Duel (1971 film), Duel'', Steven Spielberg's 1971 film, features a Peterbilt 281 tanker truck as the villain * ''White Line Fever (film), White Line Fever'', a 1975 Columbia Pictures film, starring Jan-Michael Vincent * ''Smokey and the Bandit'', a 1977 film featuring a number of trucks on the side of the bandit * ''Convoy (1978 film), Convoy'', a 1978 film directed by Sam Peckinpah, starring Kris Kristofferson * ''Maximum Overdrive'', Stephen King's 1986 film, featured big rigs as its primary homicidal villains * ''Over the Top (1987 film)'', a 1987 film directed by Menahem Golan, starring Sylvester Stallone * ''Black Dog (film), Black Dog'', a 1998 film directed by Kevin Hooks, starring Patrick Swayze * ''Primemover (film), Primemover'', a 2008 film directed by David Caesar * ''Joy Ride (2001 film), Joy Ride'', a 2001 film directed by John Dahl, starring Paul Walker and Steve Zahn * ''Big Rig (film), Big Rig'', a 2008 documentary film directed by Doug Pray


Music

* "Convoy (song), Convoy", a pop song by C. W. McCall, spurred sales of CB radios with an imaginary trucking story. * The eighteen-wheeled truck was immortalized in numerous country music songs, such as the Red Sovine titles "Giddyup Go", "Teddy Bear (Red Sovine song), Teddy Bear" and "Phantom 309 (Red Sovine song), Phantom 309", and Dave Dudley's "Six Days on the Road". * The thrash metal band, Big Rig (band), BigRig, was named after these trucks. * Country song "Eighteen Wheels and a Dozen Roses", made popular in 1987 by singer-songwriter Kathy Mattea. * "Roll On (Eighteen Wheeler)" by Alabama (American band), Alabama tells the story of a trucker who calls home to his family every night while out on the road. * "Papa Loved Mama" by Garth Brooks is about a trucker and his wife. * "Truck Drivin' Song" by "Weird Al" Yankovic tells the story of a female trucker, sung by a male with a deep voice. * "Cold Shoulder" by Garth Brooks is about a trucker stuck on the side of the highway during a blizzard, fantasizing about being home with his wife. * "Drivin' My Life Away" by Eddie Rabbitt, a former trucker, co-written with Even Stevens and David Malloy, sings of the life on the road.


Video games and truck simulators

* ''18 Wheels of Steel'' series * ''American Truck Simulator'' * ''Big Rigs: Over the Road Racing'' (2003) * ''Euro Truck Simulator'' * ''Euro Truck Simulator 2'' * ''Hard Truck'' (1998) * ''MotorStorm (video game), MotorStorm'' and ''MotorStorm: Pacific Rift'' * ''Rig 'n' Roll'' (2009) * ''Rigs of Rods''


Podcasts

* Over the Road, a podcast series by Radiotopia on truck driving the
North America North America is a continent in the Northern Hemisphere and almost entirely within the Western Hemisphere. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Car ...
/ United States, US


See also

* Air brake (road vehicle) * Bogie#Articulated lorries (tractor-trailers), Articulated lorries * Articulated vehicle * Brake * Bus * Cab over * Containerization * DAT Solutions (a.k.a. Dial-a-truck) * Dolly (trailer) * Drayage * Dump truck * Gladhand connector * Hybrid vehicle *
Jackknifing Jackknifing is the folding of an articulated vehicle so that it resembles the acute angle of a folding pocket knife. If a vehicle towing a trailer skids, the trailer can push the towing vehicle from behind until it spins the vehicle around and ...
* List of trucks * crane (machine)#Loader crane, Loader crane * Loading dock * Lockrod * Logging truck *
Long combination vehicle A road train, land train or long combination vehicle (LCV) is a trucking vehicle used to move road freight more efficiently than semi-trailer trucks. It consists of two or more trailers or semi-trailers hauled by a prime mover. History Early ...
* Oversize load * Progressive shifting * Refrigerator truck ("reefer") * Road train * Roll trailer * Semi-trailer * Terminal tractor * Tank truck * Tractor unit * Trailer (vehicle) * Trailer bus * Train * Truck * Truck driver * Truck sleeper


References


Notes


External links


TruckNetUK.com
dedicated to trucking information in UK and Europe
Ol' Blue, USA
safety and education in and around trucking in the US
natm.com/
Promote trailer safety and the success of the trailer manufacturing industry through education and advocacy.
Semitrailer truck dimensions
{{Authority control American inventions Trucks Articulated vehicles Freight transport