![Jacques-Louis David - The Emperor Napoleon in His Study at the Tuileries - Google Art Project](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/50/Jacques-Louis_David_-_The_Emperor_Napoleon_in_His_Study_at_the_Tuileries_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg)
The 19th (nineteenth) century began on 1 January 1801 (
MDCCCI), and ended on 31 December 1900 (
MCM). The 19th century was the ninth century of the
2nd millennium
File:2nd millennium montage.png, From top left, clockwise: in 1492, Christopher Columbus reaches North America, opening the European colonization of the Americas; the American Revolution, one of the late 1700s Enlightenment-inspired Atlantic Rev ...
.
The 19th century was characterized by vast social upheaval.
Slavery was
abolished in much of
Europe and the
Americas
The Americas, which are sometimes collectively called America, are a landmass comprising the totality of North and South America. The Americas make up most of the land in Earth's Western Hemisphere and comprise the New World.
Along with th ...
. The
First Industrial Revolution, though it began in the late 18th century, expanding beyond its British homeland for the first time during this century, particularly remaking the economies and societies of the
Low Countries, the
Rhineland,
Northern Italy
Northern Italy ( it, Italia settentrionale, it, Nord Italia, label=none, it, Alta Italia, label=none or just it, Nord, label=none) is a geographical and cultural region in the northern part of Italy. It consists of eight administrative regions ...
, and the
Northeastern United States
The Northeastern United States, also referred to as the Northeast, the East Coast, or the American Northeast, is a geographic region of the United States. It is located on the Atlantic coast of North America, with Canada to its north, the Southe ...
. A few decades later, the
Second Industrial Revolution led to ever more massive
urbanization and much higher levels of productivity, profit, and prosperity, a pattern that continued into the
20th century
The 20th (twentieth) century began on
January 1, 1901 ( MCMI), and ended on December 31, 2000 ( MM). The 20th century was dominated by significant events that defined the modern era: Spanish flu pandemic, World War I and World War II, nuclear ...
.
The
Islamic gunpowder empires fell into decline and European
imperialism
Imperialism is the state policy, practice, or advocacy of extending power and dominion, especially by direct territorial acquisition or by gaining political and economic control of other areas, often through employing hard power (economic and ...
brought much of
South Asia,
Southeast Asia, and almost all of
Africa under
colonial rule. It was also marked by the collapse of the large
Spanish and
Mughal
Mughal or Moghul may refer to:
Related to the Mughal Empire
* Mughal Empire of South Asia between the 16th and 19th centuries
* Mughal dynasty
* Mughal emperors
* Mughal people, a social group of Central and South Asia
* Mughal architecture
* Mug ...
empires. This paved the way for the growing influence of the
British,
French
French (french: français(e), link=no) may refer to:
* Something of, from, or related to France
** French language, which originated in France, and its various dialects and accents
** French people, a nation and ethnic group identified with Franc ...
,
German
German(s) may refer to:
* Germany (of or related to)
**Germania (historical use)
* Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language
** For citizens of Germany, see also German nationality law
**Ger ...
,
Russian,
Italian, and
Japanese empires along with the
United States. The British boasted unchallenged global dominance after 1815.
After the defeat of
France in the
Napoleonic Wars, the British and Russian empires expanded greatly, becoming two of the world's leading powers. Russia expanded its territory to
Central Asia and the
Caucasus. The
Ottomans
The Ottoman Turks ( tr, Osmanlı Türkleri), were the Turkic founding and sociopolitically the most dominant ethnic group of the Ottoman Empire ( 1299/1302–1922).
Reliable information about the early history of Ottoman Turks remains scarce, ...
underwent a period of
Westernization and reform known as the
Tanzimat
The Tanzimat (; ota, تنظيمات, translit=Tanzimāt, lit=Reorganization, ''see'' nizām) was a period of reform in the Ottoman Empire that began with the Gülhane Hatt-ı Şerif in 1839 and ended with the First Constitutional Era in 1876. ...
, vastly increasing their control over their core territories in the
Middle East. However, it remained in decline and became known as the
sick man of Europe
"Sick man of Europe" is a label given to a nation which is located in some part of Europe and experiencing a time of economic difficulty or impoverishment.
Emperor Nicholas I of the Russian Empire is considered to be the first to use the term " ...
, losing territory in the
Balkans and
North Africa.
The remaining powers in the
Indian subcontinent such as the
Maratha and
Sikh
Sikhs ( or ; pa, ਸਿੱਖ, ' ) are people who adhere to Sikhism, Sikhism (Sikhi), a Monotheism, monotheistic religion that originated in the late 15th century in the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent, based on the revelation of Gu ...
empires have suffered a massive decline and their dissatisfaction with the
British East India Company's rule led to the
Indian Rebellion of 1857, marking its dissolution. India was later ruled directly by the
British Crown
The Crown is the state (polity), state in all its aspects within the jurisprudence of the Commonwealth realms and their subdivisions (such as the Crown Dependencies, British Overseas Territories, overseas territories, Provinces and territorie ...
through the establishment of the
British Raj.
Britain's overseas possessions grew rapidly in the first half of the century, especially with the expansion of vast territories in Canada, Australia, South Africa, India, and in the last two decades of the century in Africa. By the end of the century, the British controlled a fifth of the world's land and one-quarter of the world's population. During the post-Napoleonic era, it enforced what became known as the
Pax Britannica, which had ushered in unprecedented
globalization on a massive scale.
Overview
![Queen Victoria - Winterhalter 1859](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/de/Queen_Victoria_-_Winterhalter_1859.jpg)
The first
electronics appeared in the 19th century, with the introduction of the
electric relay in 1835, the
telegraph and its
Morse code
Morse code is a method used in telecommunication to encode text characters as standardized sequences of two different signal durations, called ''dots'' and ''dashes'', or ''dits'' and ''dahs''. Morse code is named after Samuel Morse, one of ...
protocol in 1837, the first telephone call in 1876, and the first functional
light bulb
An electric light, lamp, or light bulb is an electrical component that produces light. It is the most common form of artificial lighting. Lamps usually have a base made of ceramic, metal, glass, or plastic, which secures the lamp in the soc ...
in 1878.
The 19th century was an era of rapidly accelerating
scientific discovery and
invention
An invention is a unique or novel device, method, composition, idea or process. An invention may be an improvement upon a machine, product, or process for increasing efficiency or lowering cost. It may also be an entirely new concept. If an i ...
, with significant developments in the fields of mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, electricity, and metallurgy that laid the groundwork for the technological advances of the 20th century. The
Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and spread to continental Europe, North America, and Japan. The
Victorian era was notorious for the employment of young children in factories and mines, as well as strict
social norm
Social norms are shared standards of acceptance, acceptable behavior by groups. Social norms can both be informal understandings that govern the behavior of members of a society, as well as be codified into wikt:rule, rules and laws. Social normat ...
s regarding modesty and gender roles. Japan embarked on a program of rapid modernization following the
Meiji Restoration, before defeating China, under the
Qing dynasty, in the
First Sino-Japanese War.
Advances in medicine and the understanding of human anatomy and disease prevention took place in the 19th century, and were partly responsible for rapidly accelerating
population growth
Population growth is the increase in the number of people in a population or dispersed group. Actual global human population growth amounts to around 83 million annually, or 1.1% per year. The global population has grown from 1 billion in 1800 to ...
in the
Western world. Europe's population doubled during the 19th century, from approximately 200 million to more than 400 million. The introduction of
railroads provided the first major advancement in land transportation for centuries, changing the way people lived and obtained goods, and fuelling major
urbanization movements in countries across the globe. Numerous cities worldwide surpassed populations of a million or more during this century. London became the world's
largest city
The United Nations uses three definitions for what constitutes a city, as not all cities in all jurisdictions are classified using the same criteria. Cities may be defined as the cities proper, the extent of their urban area, or their metropo ...
and capital of the British Empire. Its population increased from 1 million in 1800 to 6.7 million a century later. The last remaining undiscovered landmasses of Earth, including vast expanses of interior
Africa and
Asia, were
explored during this century, and with the exception of the extreme zones of the Arctic and Antarctic, accurate and detailed maps of the globe were available by the 1890s.
Liberalism became the pre-eminent
reform movement
A reform movement or reformism is a type of social movement that aims to bring a social or also a political system closer to the community's ideal. A reform movement is distinguished from more radical social movements such as revolutionary mo ...
in Europe.
Slavery was greatly reduced around the world. Following a successful
slave revolt in Haiti,
Britain and France stepped up the battle against the
Barbary pirates
The Barbary pirates, or Barbary corsairs or Ottoman corsairs, were Muslim pirates and privateers who operated from North Africa, based primarily in the ports of Salé, Rabat, Algiers, Tunis and Tripoli, Libya, Tripoli. This area was known i ...
and succeeded in stopping their enslavement of Europeans. The UK's
Slavery Abolition Act charged the British
Royal Navy with ending the global
slave trade. The first colonial empire in the century to abolish slavery was the British, who did so in 1834. America's
Thirteenth Amendment following their
Civil War abolished slavery there in 1865, and in
Brazil slavery was abolished in 1888 (see
abolitionism
Abolitionism, or the abolitionist movement, is the movement to end slavery. In Western Europe and the Americas, abolitionism was a historic movement that sought to end the Atlantic slave trade and liberate the enslaved people.
The Britis ...
). Similarly,
serfdom was abolished in
Russia in 1861.
The 19th century was remarkable in the widespread formation of new
settlement
Settlement may refer to:
*Human settlement, a community where people live
*Settlement (structural), the distortion or disruption of parts of a building
*Closing (real estate), the final step in executing a real estate transaction
*Settlement (fina ...
foundations which were particularly prevalent across North America and Australia, with a significant proportion of the two continents' largest cities being founded at some point in the century.
Chicago in the
United States and
Melbourne in Australia were non-existent in the earliest decades but grew to become the 2nd largest cities in the United States and British Empire respectively by the end of the century. In the 19th century, approximately 70 million people left Europe, with most migrating to the United States.
The 19th century also saw the rapid creation, development, and codification of many sports, particularly in Britain and the United States.
Association football,
rugby union,
baseball, and many other sports were developed during the 19th century, while the British Empire facilitated the rapid spread of sports such as
cricket
Cricket is a bat-and-ball game played between two teams of eleven players on a field at the centre of which is a pitch with a wicket at each end, each comprising two bails balanced on three stumps. The batting side scores runs by striki ...
to many different parts of the world. Also,
women's fashion
Fashion is a form of self-expression and autonomy at a particular period and place and in a specific context, of clothing, footwear, lifestyle, accessories, makeup, hairstyle, and body posture. The term implies a look defined by the fashion ind ...
was a very sensitive topic during this time, as women showing their ankles was viewed to be scandalous.
![Europe 1815 map en](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ac/Europe_1815_map_en.png)
It also marks the fall of the
Ottoman rule of the
Balkans which led to the creation of
Serbia,
Bulgaria,
Montenegro, and
Romania as a result of the
second Russo-Turkish War
The second (symbol: s) is the unit of time in the International System of Units (SI), historically defined as of a day – this factor derived from the division of the day first into 24 hours, then to 60 minutes and finally to 60 seconds each ...
, which in itself followed the great
Crimean War.
Eras
![World 1898 empires colonies territory](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/World_1898_empires_colonies_territory.png)
*
Industrial revolution
*
European imperialism
*
British Regency,
Victorian era (UK,
British Empire)
*
Bourbon Restoration Bourbon Restoration may refer to:
France under the House of Bourbon:
* Bourbon Restoration in France (1814, after the French revolution and Napoleonic era, until 1830; interrupted by the Hundred Days in 1815)
Spain under the Spanish Bourbons:
* ...
,
July Monarchy,
French Second Republic,
Second French Empire,
French Third Republic (
France)
*
Belle Époque
The Belle Époque or La Belle Époque (; French for "Beautiful Epoch") is a period of French and European history, usually considered to begin around 1871–1880 and to end with the outbreak of World War I in 1914. Occurring during the era ...
(Europe)
*
Edo period,
Meiji period (Japan)
*
Qing dynasty (China)
*
Nguyen dynasty (Vietnam)
*
Joseon
Joseon (; ; Middle Korean: 됴ᇢ〯션〮 Dyǒw syéon or 됴ᇢ〯션〯 Dyǒw syěon), officially the Great Joseon (; ), was the last dynastic kingdom of Korea, lasting just over 500 years. It was founded by Yi Seong-gye in July 1392 and re ...
dynasty (Korea)
*
Zulu Kingdom
The Zulu Kingdom (, ), sometimes referred to as the Zulu Empire or the Kingdom of Zululand, was a monarchy in Southern Africa. During the 1810s, Shaka established a modern standing army that consolidated rival clans and built a large following ...
(South Africa)
*
Tanzimat
The Tanzimat (; ota, تنظيمات, translit=Tanzimāt, lit=Reorganization, ''see'' nizām) was a period of reform in the Ottoman Empire that began with the Gülhane Hatt-ı Şerif in 1839 and ended with the First Constitutional Era in 1876. ...
,
First Constitutional Era (
Ottoman Empire)
*
Russian Empire
*
American Manifest Destiny,
The Gilded Age,
Wild West
Wars
Napoleonic Wars
![Napoleons retreat from moscow](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/Napoleons_retreat_from_moscow.jpg)
The Napoleonic Wars were a series of major conflicts from 1803 to 1815 pitting the
French Empire
French Empire (french: Empire Français, link=no) may refer to:
* First French Empire, ruled by Napoleon I from 1804 to 1814 and in 1815 and by Napoleon II in 1815, the French state from 1804 to 1814 and in 1815
* Second French Empire, led by Nap ...
and its allies, led by
Napoleon I
Napoleon Bonaparte ; it, Napoleone Bonaparte, ; co, Napulione Buonaparte. (born Napoleone Buonaparte; 15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821), later known by his regnal name Napoleon I, was a French military commander and political leader who ...
, against a fluctuating array of
European powers formed into various coalitions, financed and usually led by the
United Kingdom. The wars stemmed from the unresolved disputes associated with the
French Revolution and its
resultant conflict.
In the aftermath of the
French Revolution,
Napoleon Bonaparte
Napoleon Bonaparte ; it, Napoleone Bonaparte, ; co, Napulione Buonaparte. (born Napoleone Buonaparte; 15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821), later known by his regnal name Napoleon I, was a French military commander and political leader who ...
gained power in France in 1799. In 1804, he crowned himself
Emperor of the French.
In 1805, the French victory over an Austrian-Russian army at the
Battle of Austerlitz ended the
War of the Third Coalition. As a result of the
Treaty of Pressburg, the
Holy Roman Empire was dissolved.
Later efforts were less successful. In the
Peninsular War, France unsuccessfully attempted to establish
Joseph Bonaparte as King of Spain. In 1812, the
French invasion of Russia
The French invasion of Russia, also known as the Russian campaign, the Second Polish War, the Army of Twenty nations, and the Patriotic War of 1812 was launched by Napoleon Bonaparte to force the Russian Empire back into the continental block ...
had massive French casualties, and was a turning point in the
Napoleonic Wars.
In 1814, after defeat in the
War of the Sixth Coalition, Napoleon abdicated and was exiled to
Elba. Later that year, he escaped exile and began the
Hundred Days
The Hundred Days (french: les Cent-Jours ), also known as the War of the Seventh Coalition, marked the period between Napoleon's return from eleven months of exile on the island of Elba to Paris on20 March 1815 and the second restoration ...
before finally being defeated at the
Battle of Waterloo and exiled to
Saint Helena
Saint Helena () is a British overseas territory located in the South Atlantic Ocean. It is a remote volcanic tropical island west of the coast of south-western Africa, and east of Rio de Janeiro in South America. It is one of three constitu ...
, an island in the
South Atlantic Ocean.
After Napoleon's defeat, the
Congress of Vienna was held to determine new national borders. The
Concert of Europe attempted to preserve this settlement was established to preserve these borders, with limited impact.
Latin American independence
Mexico and the majority of the countries in
Central America and
South America obtained independence from
colonial
Colonial or The Colonial may refer to:
* Colonial, of, relating to, or characteristic of a colony or colony (biology)
Architecture
* American colonial architecture
* French Colonial
* Spanish Colonial architecture
Automobiles
* Colonial (1920 a ...
overlords during the 19th century. In 1804,
Haiti
Haiti (; ht, Ayiti ; French: ), officially the Republic of Haiti (); ) and formerly known as Hayti, is a country located on the island of Hispaniola in the Greater Antilles archipelago of the Caribbean Sea, east of Cuba and Jamaica, and ...
gained independence from France. In
Mexico, the
Mexican War of Independence was a decade-long conflict that ended in Mexican independence in 1821.
Due to the Napoleonic Wars, the royal family of Portugal
relocated to Brazil from 1808 to 1821, leading to Brazil having a separate monarchy from Portugal.
The
Federal Republic of Central America gained independence from Spain in 1821 and from Mexico in 1823. After several rebellions, by 1841 the federation had dissolved into the independent countries of
Guatemala
Guatemala ( ; ), officially the Republic of Guatemala ( es, República de Guatemala, links=no), is a country in Central America. It is bordered to the north and west by Mexico; to the northeast by Belize and the Caribbean; to the east by H ...
,
El Salvador
El Salvador (; , meaning " The Saviour"), officially the Republic of El Salvador ( es, República de El Salvador), is a country in Central America. It is bordered on the northeast by Honduras, on the northwest by Guatemala, and on the south b ...
,
Honduras
Honduras, officially the Republic of Honduras, is a country in Central America. The republic of Honduras is bordered to the west by Guatemala, to the southwest by El Salvador, to the southeast by Nicaragua, to the south by the Pacific Oce ...
,
Nicaragua, and
Costa Rica
Costa Rica (, ; ; literally "Rich Coast"), officially the Republic of Costa Rica ( es, República de Costa Rica), is a country in the Central American region of North America, bordered by Nicaragua to the north, the Caribbean Sea to the no ...
.
In 1830, the post-colonial nation of
Gran Colombia dissolved and the nations of
Colombia
Colombia (, ; ), officially the Republic of Colombia, is a country in South America with insular regions in North America—near Nicaragua's Caribbean coast—as well as in the Pacific Ocean. The Colombian mainland is bordered by the Car ...
(including modern-day Panama),
Ecuador, and
Venezuela took its place.
Revolutions of 1848
![Maerz1848 berlin](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Ereignisblatt_aus_den_revolution%C3%A4ren_M%C3%A4rztagen_18.-19._M%C3%A4rz_1848_mit_einer_Barrikadenszene_aus_der_Breiten_Strasse%2C_Berlin_01.jpg)
The
Revolutions of 1848 were a series of
political upheaval
In political science, a revolution (Latin: ''revolutio'', "a turn around") is a fundamental and relatively sudden change in political power and political organization which occurs when the population revolts against the government, typically due ...
s throughout
Europe in 1848. The revolutions were essentially
democratic and liberal in nature, with the aim of removing the old
monarchical structures and creating independent nation states.
The first revolution began in
January in Sicily. Revolutions then spread across Europe after a separate revolution began in
France in February. Over 50 countries were affected, but with no coordination or cooperation among their respective revolutionaries.
According to Evans and von Strandmann (2000), some of the major contributing factors were widespread dissatisfaction with political leadership, demands for more participation in government and democracy, demands for freedom of the press, other demands made by the working class, the upsurge of nationalism, and the regrouping of established government forces.
Abolition and the American Civil War
![Wilberforce john rising](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/Wilberforce_john_rising.jpg)
The
abolitionism
Abolitionism, or the abolitionist movement, is the movement to end slavery. In Western Europe and the Americas, abolitionism was a historic movement that sought to end the Atlantic slave trade and liberate the enslaved people.
The Britis ...
movement achieved success in the 19th century. The
Atlantic slave trade
The Atlantic slave trade, transatlantic slave trade, or Euro-American slave trade involved the transportation by slave traders of enslaved African people, mainly to the Americas. The slave trade regularly used the triangular trade route and i ...
was abolished in the United States in 1808, and by the end of the century, almost every government had banned slavery. The
Slavery Abolition Act of 1833 banned slavery throughout the
British Empire, and the
Lei Áurea abolished slavery in Brazil in 1888.
Abolitionism in the United States continued until the end of the
American Civil War.
Frederick Douglass and
Harriet Tubman were two of many American abolitionists who helped win the fight against slavery. Douglass was an articulate orator and incisive antislavery writer, while Tubman worked with a network of antislavery activists and safe houses known as the
Underground Railroad.
The American Civil War took place from 1861 to 1865. Eleven
southern states Southern States may refer to:
*The independent states of the Southern hemisphere
United States
* Southern United States, or the American South
* Southern States Cooperative, an American farmer-owned agricultural supply cooperative
* Southern Stat ...
seceded from the
United States, largely over concerns related to slavery. In 1863, President
Abraham Lincoln issued the
Emancipation Proclamation
The Emancipation Proclamation, officially Proclamation 95, was a presidential proclamation and executive order issued by United States President Abraham Lincoln on January 1, 1863, during the Civil War. The Proclamation changed the legal sta ...
. Lincoln issued a preliminary on September 22, 1862 warning that in all states still in rebellion (
Confederacy) on January 1, 1863, he would declare their slaves "then, thenceforward, and forever free." He did so. The
Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution, ratified in 1865, officially abolished slavery in the entire country.
Five days after
Robert E. Lee
Robert Edward Lee (January 19, 1807 – October 12, 1870) was a Confederate general during the American Civil War, towards the end of which he was appointed the overall commander of the Confederate States Army. He led the Army of Nort ...
surrendered at
Appomattox Courthouse, Virginia
The Appomattox Courthouse is the current courthouse in Appomattox, Virginia built in 1892. It is located in the middle of the state about three miles (5 km) southwest of the Appomattox Court House National Historical Park, once known as ...
,
Lincoln was assassinated by actor and
Confederate
Confederacy or confederate may refer to:
States or communities
* Confederate state or confederation, a union of sovereign groups or communities
* Confederate States of America, a confederation of secessionist American states that existed between ...
sympathiser
John Wilkes Booth.
Decline of the Ottoman Empire
In 1830,
Greece became the first country to break away from the
Ottoman Empire after the
Greek War of Independence
The Greek War of Independence, also known as the Greek Revolution or the Greek Revolution of 1821, was a successful war of independence by Greek revolutionaries against the Ottoman Empire between 1821 and 1829. The Greeks were later assisted by ...
. In 1831, the
Bosnian Uprising
Bosnian may refer to:
*Anything related to the state of Bosnia and Herzegovina or its inhabitants
*Anything related to Bosnia (region) or its inhabitants
* Bosniaks, an ethnic group mainly inhabiting Bosnia and Herzegovina and one of three const ...
against Ottoman rule occurred. In 1817, the
Principality of Serbia became
suzerain
Suzerainty () is the rights and obligations of a person, state or other polity who controls the foreign policy and relations of a tributary state, while allowing the tributary state to have internal autonomy. While the subordinate party is calle ...
from the Ottoman Empire, and in 1867, it passed a constitution that defined its independence from the Ottoman Empire. In 1876,
Bulgarians instigated the
April Uprising against Ottoman rule. Following the
Russo-Turkish War, the
Treaty of Berlin recognized the formal independence of the Serbia,
Montenegro, and
Romania.
Bulgaria became autonomous.
China: Taiping Rebellion
![Regaining the Provincial Capital of Ruizhou](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b3/Regaining_the_Provincial_Capital_of_Ruizhou.jpg)
The
Taiping Rebellion was the bloodiest conflict of the 19th century, leading to the deaths of around 20-30 million people. Its leader,
Hong Xiuquan
Hong Xiuquan (1 January 1814 – 1 June 1864), born Hong Huoxiu and with the courtesy name Renkun, was a Chinese revolutionary who was the leader of the Taiping Rebellion against the Qing dynasty. He established the Taiping Heavenly Kingdo ...
, declared himself the younger brother of
Jesus Christ and developed a new Chinese religion known as the
God Worshipping Society
The God Worshipping Society, in its literal translation Emperor Worshipping Society (), was a religious movement founded and led by Hong Xiuquan which drew on his own unique interpretation of Protestant Christianity and combined it with Chinese ...
. After proclaiming the establishment of the
Taiping Heavenly Kingdom in 1851, the Taiping army conquered a large part of China, capturing
Nanjing in 1853. In 1864, after the death of Hong Xiuquan,
Qing
The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-speaki ...
forces recaptured Nanjing and ended the rebellion.
Japan: Meiji Restoration
During the
Edo period,
Japan
Japan ( ja, 日本, or , and formally , ''Nihonkoku'') is an island country in East Asia. It is situated in the northwest Pacific Ocean, and is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan, while extending from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north ...
largely pursued an
isolationist foreign policy
Isolationism is a political philosophy advocating a national foreign policy that opposes involvement in the political affairs, and especially the wars, of other countries. Thus, isolationism fundamentally advocates neutrality and opposes entangl ...
. In 1853, United States Navy Commodore
Matthew C. Perry threatened the Japanese capital
Edo
Edo ( ja, , , "bay-entrance" or "estuary"), also romanized as Jedo, Yedo or Yeddo, is the former name of Tokyo.
Edo, formerly a ''jōkamachi'' (castle town) centered on Edo Castle located in Musashi Province, became the ''de facto'' capital of ...
with gunships, demanding that they agree to open trade. This led to
the opening of trade relations between Japan and foreign countries, with the policy of
Sakoku
was the Isolationism, isolationist Foreign policy of Japan, foreign policy of the Japanese Tokugawa shogunate under which, for a period of 265 years during the Edo period (from 1603 to 1868), relations and trade between Japan and other countri ...
formally ended in 1854.
By 1872, the Japanese government under
Emperor Meiji
, also called or , was the 122nd emperor of Japan according to the traditional order of succession. Reigning from 13 February 1867 to his death, he was the first monarch of the Empire of Japan and presided over the Meiji era. He was the figur ...
had
eliminated the ''daimyō'' system and established a strong central government. Further reforms included the abolishment of the
samurai class, rapid industrialization and modernization of government, closely following European models.
Colonialism
![Rao Baji signing the Treaty of Vasai](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/Rao_Baji_signing_the_Treaty_of_Vasai.jpg)
*
1803
Events
* January 1 – The first edition of Alexandre Balthazar Laurent Grimod de La Reynière's ''Almanach des gourmands'', the first guide to restaurant cooking, is published in Paris.
* January 5 – William Symington demonstrates his ...
: United States more than doubles in size when it buys out France's territorial claims in North America via the
Louisiana Purchase. This begins the U.S.'s westward expansion to the Pacific, referred to as its
Manifest Destiny
Manifest destiny was a cultural belief in the 19th century in the United States, 19th-century United States that American settlers were destined to expand across North America.
There were three basic tenets to the concept:
* The special vir ...
, which involves
annexing and conquering land from Mexico, Britain, and Native Americans.
*
1817
Events
January–March
* January 1 – Sailing through the Sandwich Islands, Otto von Kotzebue discovers New Year Island.
* January 19 – An army of 5,423 soldiers, led by General José de San Martín, starts crossing the ...
–
1819
Events
January–March
* January 2 – The Panic of 1819, the first major peacetime financial crisis in the United States, begins.
* January 25 – Thomas Jefferson founds the University of Virginia.
* January 29 – Si ...
: British Empire annexed the
Maratha Confederacy after the
Third Anglo-Maratha War.
*
1823
Events January–March
* January 22 – By secret treaty signed at the Congress of Verona, the Quintuple Alliance gives France a mandate to invade Spain for the purpose of restoring Ferdinand VII (who has been captured by armed revolutio ...
–
1887
Events
January–March
* January 11 – Louis Pasteur's anti-rabies treatment is defended in the Académie Nationale de Médecine, by Dr. Joseph Grancher.
* January 20
** The United States Senate allows the Navy to lease Pearl Har ...
: British Empire annexed Burma (now also called
Myanmar
Myanmar, ; UK pronunciations: US pronunciations incl. . Note: Wikipedia's IPA conventions require indicating /r/ even in British English although only some British English speakers pronounce r at the end of syllables. As John C. Wells, Joh ...
) after three
Anglo-Burmese Wars.
*
1848
1848 is historically famous for the wave of revolutions, a series of widespread struggles for more liberal governments, which broke out from Brazil to Hungary; although most failed in their immediate aims, they significantly altered the polit ...
–
1849
Events
January–March
* January 1 – France begins issue of the Ceres series, the nation's first postage stamps.
* January 5 – Hungarian Revolution of 1848: The Austrian army, led by Alfred I, Prince of Windisch-Grätz, enters in th ...
:
Sikh Empire is defeated in the
Second Anglo-Sikh War. Therefore, the entire
Indian subcontinent is under British control.
*
1862
Events
January–March
* January 1 – The United Kingdom annexes Lagos Island, in modern-day Nigeria.
* January 6 – French intervention in Mexico: French, Spanish and British forces arrive in Veracruz, Mexico.
* January ...
: France gained its first foothold in
Southeast Asia and in
1863
Events
January–March
* January 1 – Abraham Lincoln signs the Emancipation Proclamation during the third year of the American Civil War, making the abolition of slavery in the Confederate states an official war goal. It proclaims t ...
annexed
Cambodia.
*
1867
Events
January–March
* January 1 – The Covington–Cincinnati Suspension Bridge opens between Cincinnati, Ohio, and Covington, Kentucky, in the United States, becoming the longest single-span bridge in the world. It was renamed a ...
: United States
purchased Alaska from
Russia.
Africa
![Scramble-for-Africa-1880-1913-v2](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d1/Scramble-for-Africa-1880-1913-v2.png)
In Africa, European exploration and technology led to the colonization of almost the entire continent by 1898. New medicines such as
quinine and more advanced
firearms
A firearm is any type of gun designed to be readily carried and used by an individual. The term is legally defined further in different countries (see Legal definitions).
The first firearms originated in 10th-century China, when bamboo tubes c ...
allowed European nations to conquer native populations.
Motivations for the
Scramble for Africa
The Scramble for Africa, also called the Partition of Africa, or Conquest of Africa, was the invasion, annexation, division, and colonisation of Africa, colonization of most of Africa by seven Western Europe, Western European powers during a ...
included national pride, desire for raw materials, and Christian missionary activity. Britain seized control of Egypt to ensure control of the
Suez Canal
The Suez Canal ( arz, قَنَاةُ ٱلسُّوَيْسِ, ') is an artificial sea-level waterway in Egypt, connecting the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea through the Isthmus of Suez and dividing Africa and Asia. The long canal is a popular ...
, but
Ethiopia defeated Italy in the
First Italo–Ethiopian War at the
Battle of Adwa. France, Belgium, Portugal, and Germany also had substantial colonies. The
Berlin Conference of 1884–1885 attempted to reach agreement on colonial borders in Africa, but disputes continued, both amongst European powers and in resistance by the native populations.
In 1867,
diamonds were discovered in the
Kimberley
Kimberly or Kimberley may refer to:
Places and historical events
Australia
* Kimberley (Western Australia)
** Roman Catholic Diocese of Kimberley
* Kimberley Warm Springs, Tasmania
* Kimberley, Tasmania a small town
* County of Kimberley, a ...
region of South Africa. In 1886, gold was discovered in
Transvaal Transvaal is a historical geographic term associated with land north of (''i.e.'', beyond) the Vaal River in South Africa. A number of states and administrative divisions have carried the name Transvaal.
* South African Republic (1856–1902; af, ...
. This led to colonization in Southern Africa by the British and business interests, led by
Cecil Rhodes
Cecil John Rhodes (5 July 1853 – 26 March 1902) was a British mining magnate and politician in southern Africa who served as Prime Minister of the Cape Colony from 1890 to 1896.
An ardent believer in British imperialism, Rhodes and his Br ...
.
Other wars
*
1801
Events
January–March
* January 1
** The legislative union of Great Britain and Ireland is completed under the Act of Union 1800, bringing about the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and the abolition of the Parliament of I ...
–
1815
Events
January
* January 2 – Lord Byron marries Anna Isabella Milbanke in Seaham, county of Durham, England.
* January 3 – Austria, Britain, and Bourbon-restored France form a secret defensive alliance treaty against Prussi ...
:
First Barbary War and the
Second Barbary War between the United States and the
Barbary States of
North Africa.
*
1802
Events
January–March
* January 5 – Thomas Bruce, 7th Earl of Elgin, British ambassador to the Ottoman Empire, begins removal of the Elgin Marbles from the Parthenon in Athens, claiming they were at risk of destruction during the Ot ...
:
Tay Son
Tay may refer to:
People and languages
* Tay (name), including lists of people with the given name, surname and nickname
* Tay people, an ethnic group of Vietnam
** Tày language
*Atayal language, an Austronesian language spoken in Taiwan (ISO 639 ...
army recaptured
Phu Xuan
Phu or ''variation'', may refer to:
Places
*Phủ, prefecture in 15th–19th century Vietnam
People Given name
*Phu Dorjee (died 1987), first Indian to climb Mount Everest without oxygen
*Phu Dorjee Sherpa (died 1969), first Nepali to climb Mount ...
, causing Vo Tanh to commit suicide,
Nguyen Phuc Anh
Gia Long ( (''North''), ('' South''); 8 February 1762 – 3 February 1820), born Nguyễn Phúc Ánh (阮福暎) or Nguyễn Ánh, was the founding emperor of the Nguyễn dynasty, the last dynasty of Vietnam. His dynasty would rule the unif ...
successfully captured
Thang Long, founded the
Nguyen Dynasty
*
1804
Events
January–March
* January 1 – Haiti gains independence from France, and becomes the first black republic, having the only successful slave revolt ever.
* February 4 – The Sokoto Caliphate is founded in West Africa.
* Februa ...
–
1810
Events
January–March
* January 1 – Major-General Lachlan Macquarie officially becomes Governor of New South Wales.
* January 4 – Australian seal hunter Frederick Hasselborough discovers Campbell Island, in the Subantarctic.
* Janua ...
:
Fulani Jihad
The Fulani War of 1804–1808, also known as the Fulani Jihad or Jihad of Usman dan Fodio, was a military conflict in present-day Nigeria and Cameroon. The war began when Usman Dan Fodiyo, a prominent Islamic scholar and teacher, was exiled ...
in
Nigeria.
*
1804
Events
January–March
* January 1 – Haiti gains independence from France, and becomes the first black republic, having the only successful slave revolt ever.
* February 4 – The Sokoto Caliphate is founded in West Africa.
* Februa ...
–
1813
Events
January–March
* January 18–January 23 – War of 1812: The Battle of Frenchtown is fought in modern-day Monroe, Michigan between the United States and a British and Native American alliance.
* January 24 – T ...
:
Russo-Persian War
The Russo-Persian Wars or Russo-Iranian Wars were a series of conflicts between 1651 and 1828, concerning Persia (Iran) and the Russian Empire. Russia and Persia fought these wars over disputed governance of territories and countries in the Cauc ...
.
*
1806
Events
January–March
* January 1
** The French Republican Calendar is abolished.
** The Kingdom of Bavaria is established by Napoleon.
* January 5 – The body of Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson, lies in state in the Painted Hall ...
–
1812
Events
January–March
* January 1 – The ''Allgemeines bürgerliches Gesetzbuch'' (the Austrian civil code) enters into force in the Austrian Empire.
* January 19 – Peninsular War: The French-held fortress of Ciudad Rodrigo Siege of ...
:
Russo-Turkish War,
Treaty of Bucharest.
*
1807
Events
January–March
* January 7 – The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland issues an Order in Council prohibiting British ships from trading with France or its allies.
* January 20 – The Sierra Leone Company, faced with b ...
–
1837
Events
January–March
* January 1 – The destructive Galilee earthquake causes 6,000–7,000 casualties in Ottoman Syria.
* January 26 – Michigan becomes the 26th state admitted to the United States.
* February – Charles Dickens's ...
:
Musket Wars among
Māori
Māori or Maori can refer to:
Relating to the Māori people
* Māori people of New Zealand, or members of that group
* Māori language, the language of the Māori people of New Zealand
* Māori culture
* Cook Islanders, the Māori people of the C ...
in many parts of
New Zealand.
*
1808
Events January–March
* January 1
** The importation of slaves into the United States is banned, as the 1807 Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves takes effect; African slaves continue to be imported into Cuba, and until the island ab ...
–
1809
Events
January–March
* January 5 – The Treaty of the Dardanelles, between the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and the Ottoman Empire, is concluded.
* January 10 – Peninsular War – French Marshal Jean ...
: Russia conquers Finland from Sweden in the
Finnish War.
![KingShaka](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/KingShaka.jpg)
*
1810
Events
January–March
* January 1 – Major-General Lachlan Macquarie officially becomes Governor of New South Wales.
* January 4 – Australian seal hunter Frederick Hasselborough discovers Campbell Island, in the Subantarctic.
* Janua ...
:
Grito de Dolores begins the
Mexican War of Independence.
*
1811
Events
January–March
* January 8 – An unsuccessful slave revolt is led by Charles Deslondes, in St. Charles and St. James Parishes, Louisiana.
* January 17 – Mexican War of Independence – Battle of Calderón Brid ...
:
Battle of Tippecanoe: U.S outnumbering Native Americans resulting in defeat and burning of community
*
1812
Events
January–March
* January 1 – The ''Allgemeines bürgerliches Gesetzbuch'' (the Austrian civil code) enters into force in the Austrian Empire.
* January 19 – Peninsular War: The French-held fortress of Ciudad Rodrigo Siege of ...
–
1815
Events
January
* January 2 – Lord Byron marries Anna Isabella Milbanke in Seaham, county of Durham, England.
* January 3 – Austria, Britain, and Bourbon-restored France form a secret defensive alliance treaty against Prussi ...
:
War of 1812 between the United States and Britain; ends in a draw, except that Native Americans lose power.
*
1813
Events
January–March
* January 18–January 23 – War of 1812: The Battle of Frenchtown is fought in modern-day Monroe, Michigan between the United States and a British and Native American alliance.
* January 24 – T ...
–
1837
Events
January–March
* January 1 – The destructive Galilee earthquake causes 6,000–7,000 casualties in Ottoman Syria.
* January 26 – Michigan becomes the 26th state admitted to the United States.
* February – Charles Dickens's ...
:
Afghan–Sikh Wars.
*
1814
Events January
* January 1 – War of the Sixth Coalition – The Royal Prussian Army led by Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher crosses the Rhine.
* January 3
** War of the Sixth Coalition – Siege of Cattaro: French garrison s ...
–
1816
This year was known as the ''Year Without a Summer'', because of low temperatures in the Northern Hemisphere, possibly the result of the Mount Tambora volcanic eruption in Indonesia in 1815, causing severe global cooling, catastrophic in s ...
:
Anglo-Nepalese War between
Nepal (Gurkha Empire) and
British Empire.
*
1817
Events
January–March
* January 1 – Sailing through the Sandwich Islands, Otto von Kotzebue discovers New Year Island.
* January 19 – An army of 5,423 soldiers, led by General José de San Martín, starts crossing the ...
: First
Seminole War begins in Florida.
*
1817
Events
January–March
* January 1 – Sailing through the Sandwich Islands, Otto von Kotzebue discovers New Year Island.
* January 19 – An army of 5,423 soldiers, led by General José de San Martín, starts crossing the ...
: Russia commences its
conquest of the Caucasus.
*
1820
Events
January–March
*January 1 – Nominal beginning of the Trienio Liberal in Spain: A constitutionalist military insurrection at Cádiz leads to the summoning of the Spanish Parliament (March 7).
*January 8 – General Maritime T ...
:
Revolutions of 1820
Revolutions during the 1820s included revolutions in Russia (Decembrist revolt), Spain, Portugal, and Italy for constitutional monarchies, and for independence from Ottoman rule in Greece. Unlike the revolutionary wave in the 1830s, these tende ...
in Southern Europe
*
1821
Events
January–March
* January 21 – Peter I Island in the Antarctic is first sighted, by Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen.
* January 28 – Alexander Island, the largest in Antarctica, is first discovered by Fabian Gottlieb von Be ...
–
1830
It is known in European history as a rather tumultuous year with the Revolutions of 1830 in France, Belgium, Poland, Switzerland and Italy.
Events January–March
* January 11 – LaGrange College (later the University of North Alabama) b ...
:
Greek War of Independence
The Greek War of Independence, also known as the Greek Revolution or the Greek Revolution of 1821, was a successful war of independence by Greek revolutionaries against the Ottoman Empire between 1821 and 1829. The Greeks were later assisted by ...
against the
Ottoman Empire.
*
1825
Events
January–March
* January 4 – King Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies dies in Naples and is succeeded by his son, Francis.
* February 3 – Vendsyssel-Thy, once part of the Jutland peninsula forming westernmost Denmark, becomes a ...
–
1830
It is known in European history as a rather tumultuous year with the Revolutions of 1830 in France, Belgium, Poland, Switzerland and Italy.
Events January–March
* January 11 – LaGrange College (later the University of North Alabama) b ...
:
Java War begins.
*
1826
Events January–March
* January 15 – The French newspaper ''Le Figaro'' begins publication in Paris, initially as a weekly.
* January 30 – The Menai Suspension Bridge, built by engineer Thomas Telford, is opened between the island o ...
–
1828
Events
January–March
* January 4 – Jean Baptiste Gay, vicomte de Martignac succeeds the Comte de Villèle, as Prime Minister of France.
* January 8 – The Democratic Party of the United States is organized.
* January 22 – Arthu ...
: After the final
Russo-Persian War
The Russo-Persian Wars or Russo-Iranian Wars were a series of conflicts between 1651 and 1828, concerning Persia (Iran) and the Russian Empire. Russia and Persia fought these wars over disputed governance of territories and countries in the Cauc ...
, the
Persian Empire
The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenian Empire (; peo, wikt:𐎧𐏁𐏂𐎶, 𐎧𐏁𐏂, , ), also called the First Persian Empire, was an History of Iran#Classical antiquity, ancient Iranian empire founded by Cyrus the Great in 550 BC. Bas ...
took back territory lost to Russia from the previous war.
*
1828
Events
January–March
* January 4 – Jean Baptiste Gay, vicomte de Martignac succeeds the Comte de Villèle, as Prime Minister of France.
* January 8 – The Democratic Party of the United States is organized.
* January 22 – Arthu ...
–
1832
Events
January–March
* January 6 – Abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison founds the New-England Anti-Slavery Society.
* January 13 – The Christmas Rebellion of slaves is brought to an end in Jamaica, after the island's white plan ...
:
Black War in
Tasmania leads to the near extinction of the
Tasmanian aborigines
* 1
830:
July Revolution overthrew old line of Bourbons.
*
1830
It is known in European history as a rather tumultuous year with the Revolutions of 1830 in France, Belgium, Poland, Switzerland and Italy.
Events January–March
* January 11 – LaGrange College (later the University of North Alabama) b ...
:
November Uprising
The November Uprising (1830–31), also known as the Polish–Russian War 1830–31 or the Cadet Revolution,
was an armed rebellion in the heartland of partitioned Poland against the Russian Empire. The uprising began on 29 November 1830 in W ...
in
Poland against
Russia.
*
1830
It is known in European history as a rather tumultuous year with the Revolutions of 1830 in France, Belgium, Poland, Switzerland and Italy.
Events January–March
* January 11 – LaGrange College (later the University of North Alabama) b ...
:
Belgian Revolution
The Belgian Revolution (, ) was the conflict which led to the secession of the southern provinces (mainly the former Southern Netherlands) from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands and the establishment of an independent Kingdom of Belgium.
T ...
results in
Belgium's independence from
Netherlands.
*
1830
It is known in European history as a rather tumultuous year with the Revolutions of 1830 in France, Belgium, Poland, Switzerland and Italy.
Events January–March
* January 11 – LaGrange College (later the University of North Alabama) b ...
: End of the Java War. The whole area of Yogyakarta and Surakarta Manca nagara Dutch seized. 27 September, Klaten Agreement determines a fixed boundary between Surakarta and Yogyakarta and permanently divide the kingdom of Mataram was signed by Sasradiningrat, Pepatih Dalem Surakarta, and Danurejo, Pepatih Dalem Yogyakarta. Mataram is a de facto and de yure controlled by the Dutch East Indies.
*
1831
Events
January–March
* January 1 – William Lloyd Garrison begins publishing '' The Liberator'', an anti-slavery newspaper, in Boston, Massachusetts.
* January 10 – Japanese department store, Takashimaya in Kyoto establ ...
:
France invades and occupies Algeria.
*
1831
Events
January–March
* January 1 – William Lloyd Garrison begins publishing '' The Liberator'', an anti-slavery newspaper, in Boston, Massachusetts.
* January 10 – Japanese department store, Takashimaya in Kyoto establ ...
–
1833
Events January–March
* January 3 – Reassertion of British sovereignty over the Falkland Islands (1833), Reassertion of British sovereignty over the Falkland Islands in the South Atlantic.
* February 6 – His Royal Highness Prince Otto ...
:
Egyptian–Ottoman War.
*
1832
Events
January–March
* January 6 – Abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison founds the New-England Anti-Slavery Society.
* January 13 – The Christmas Rebellion of slaves is brought to an end in Jamaica, after the island's white plan ...
–
1875
Events
January–March
* January 1 – The Midland Railway of England abolishes the Second Class passenger category, leaving First Class and Third Class. Other British railway companies follow Midland's lead during the rest of the ...
: Regimental rebellions of Brazil
*
1835
Events
January–March
* January 7 – anchors off the Chonos Archipelago on her second voyage, with Charles Darwin on board as naturalist.
* January 8 – The United States public debt contracts to zero, for the only time in history.
...
–
1836
Events
January–March
* January 1 – Queen Maria II of Portugal marries Prince Ferdinand Augustus Francis Anthony of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha.
* January 5 – Davy Crockett arrives in Texas.
* January 12
** , with Charles Darwin on board, r ...
:
Texas Revolution results in
Texas's independence from
Mexico.
*
1839
Events
January–March
* January 2 – The first photograph of the Moon is taken, by French photographer Louis Daguerre.
* January 6 – Night of the Big Wind: Ireland is struck by the most damaging cyclone in 300 years.
* January 9 – T ...
–
1842
Events
January–March
* January
** Michael Alexander takes office, as the first appointee to the Anglican-German Bishopric in Jerusalem.
** American medical student William E. Clarke of Berkshire Medical College becomes the first pe ...
:
First Opium War
The First Opium War (), also known as the Opium War or the Anglo-Sino War was a series of military engagements fought between Britain and the Qing dynasty of China between 1839 and 1842. The immediate issue was the Chinese enforcement of the ...
begins.
*
1846
Events
January–March
* January 5 – The United States House of Representatives votes to stop sharing the Oregon Country with the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, United Kingdom.
* January 13 – The Milan–Venice railway' ...
–
1848
1848 is historically famous for the wave of revolutions, a series of widespread struggles for more liberal governments, which broke out from Brazil to Hungary; although most failed in their immediate aims, they significantly altered the polit ...
:
Mexican–American War leads to Mexico's cession of much of the modern-day
Southwestern United States
The Southwestern United States, also known as the American Southwest or simply the Southwest, is a geographic and cultural region of the United States that generally includes Arizona, New Mexico, and adjacent portions of California, Colorado, Ne ...
.
*
1848
1848 is historically famous for the wave of revolutions, a series of widespread struggles for more liberal governments, which broke out from Brazil to Hungary; although most failed in their immediate aims, they significantly altered the polit ...
:
February Revolution
The February Revolution ( rus, Февра́льская револю́ция, r=Fevral'skaya revolyutsiya, p=fʲɪvˈralʲskəjə rʲɪvɐˈlʲutsɨjə), known in Soviet historiography as the February Bourgeois Democratic Revolution and somet ...
overthrew Louis Philippe's government. Second Republic proclaimed; Louis Napoleon, nephew of Napoleon I, elected president.
*
1853
Events
January–March
* January 6 – Florida Governor Thomas Brown signs legislation that provides public support for the new East Florida Seminary, leading to the establishment of the University of Florida.
* January 8 – Taiping Reb ...
–
1856
Events
January–March
* January 8 – Borax deposits are discovered in large quantities by John Veatch in California.
* January 23 – American paddle steamer SS ''Pacific'' leaves Liverpool (England) for a transatlantic voyag ...
:
Crimean War between France, the United Kingdom, the
Ottoman Empire and Russia.
*
1857
Events January–March
* January 1 – The biggest Estonian newspaper, ''Postimees'', is established by Johann Voldemar Jannsen.
* January 7 – The partly French-owned London General Omnibus Company begins operating.
* Janua ...
:
Indian Rebellion
The Indian Rebellion of 1857 was a major uprising in India in 1857–58 against Company rule in India, the rule of the East India Company, British East India Company, which functioned as a sovereign power on behalf of the The Crown, British ...
against the
Company Raj
Company rule in India (sometimes, Company ''Raj'', from hi, rāj, lit=rule) refers to the rule of the British East India Company on the Indian subcontinent. This is variously taken to have commenced in 1757, after the Battle of Plassey, when ...
. After this the power of the
East India Company is transferred to the
British Crown
The Crown is the state (polity), state in all its aspects within the jurisprudence of the Commonwealth realms and their subdivisions (such as the Crown Dependencies, British Overseas Territories, overseas territories, Provinces and territorie ...
.
*
1859
Events
January–March
* January 21 – José Mariano Salas (1797–1867) becomes Conservative interim President of Mexico.
* January 24 ( O. S.) – Wallachia and Moldavia are united under Alexandru Ioan Cuza (Romania since 1866, final u ...
:
Franco-Austrian War is part of the wars of
Italian unification
The unification of Italy ( it, Unità d'Italia ), also known as the ''Risorgimento'' (, ; ), was the 19th-century political and social movement that resulted in the consolidation of different states of the Italian Peninsula into a single ...
.
*
1861
Statistically, this year is considered the end of the whale oil industry and (in replacement) the beginning of the petroleum oil industry.
Events
January–March
* January 1
** Benito Juárez captures Mexico City.
** The first steam-p ...
–
1865
Events
January–March
* January 4 – The New York Stock Exchange opens its first permanent headquarters at Broad Street (Manhattan), 10-12 Broad near Wall Street, in New York City.
* January 13 – American Civil War : Sec ...
:
American Civil War between the
Union and seceding
Confederacy.
![EwellsDeadSpotsylvania1864crop01](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3c/EwellsDeadSpotsylvania1864crop01.jpg)
*
1861
Statistically, this year is considered the end of the whale oil industry and (in replacement) the beginning of the petroleum oil industry.
Events
January–March
* January 1
** Benito Juárez captures Mexico City.
** The first steam-p ...
–
1867
Events
January–March
* January 1 – The Covington–Cincinnati Suspension Bridge opens between Cincinnati, Ohio, and Covington, Kentucky, in the United States, becoming the longest single-span bridge in the world. It was renamed a ...
:
French intervention in Mexico and the creation of the
Second Mexican Empire
The Second Mexican Empire (), officially the Mexican Empire (), was a constitutional monarchy established in Mexico by Mexican monarchists in conjunction with the Second French Empire. The period is sometimes referred to as the Second French i ...
, ruled by
Maximilian I of Mexico
Maximilian I (german: Ferdinand Maximilian Josef Maria von Habsburg-Lothringen, link=no, es, Fernando Maximiliano José María de Habsburgo-Lorena, link=no; 6 July 1832 – 19 June 1867) was an Austrian archduke who reigned as the only Emperor ...
and his consort
Carlota of Mexico.
*
1863
Events
January–March
* January 1 – Abraham Lincoln signs the Emancipation Proclamation during the third year of the American Civil War, making the abolition of slavery in the Confederate states an official war goal. It proclaims t ...
–
1865
Events
January–March
* January 4 – The New York Stock Exchange opens its first permanent headquarters at Broad Street (Manhattan), 10-12 Broad near Wall Street, in New York City.
* January 13 – American Civil War : Sec ...
:
January Uprising
The January Uprising ( pl, powstanie styczniowe; lt, 1863 metų sukilimas; ua, Січневе повстання; russian: Польское восстание; ) was an insurrection principally in Russia's Kingdom of Poland that was aimed at ...
against the
Russian Empire.
*
1864
Events
January–March
* January 13 – American songwriter Stephen Foster ("Oh! Susanna", "Old Folks at Home") dies aged 37 in New York City, leaving a scrap of paper reading "Dear friends and gentle hearts". His parlor song " ...
–
1870
Events
January–March
* January 1
** The first edition of ''The Northern Echo'' newspaper is published in Priestgate, Darlington, England.
** Plans for the Brooklyn Bridge are completed.
* January 3 – Construction of the Broo ...
:
Paraguayan War ends Paraguayan ambitions for expansion and destroys much of the Paraguayan population.
*
1866
Events January–March
* January 1
** Fisk University, a historically black university, is established in Nashville, Tennessee.
** The last issue of the abolitionist magazine '' The Liberator'' is published.
* January 6 – Ottoman tr ...
:
Austro-Prussian War
The Austro-Prussian War, also by many variant names such as Seven Weeks' War, German Civil War, Brothers War or Fraternal War, known in Germany as ("German War"), (; "German war of brothers") and by a variety of other names, was fought in 186 ...
results in the dissolution of the
German Confederation and the creation of the
North German Confederation and the
Austrian-Hungarian Dual Monarchy.
*
1868
Events
January–March
* January 2 – British Expedition to Abyssinia: Robert Napier leads an expedition to free captive British officials and missionaries.
* January 3 – The 15-year-old Mutsuhito, Emperor Meiji of Jap ...
-
1869
Events
January–March
* January 3 – Abdur Rahman Khan is defeated at Tinah Khan, and exiled from Afghanistan.
* January 5 – Scotland's oldest professional football team, Kilmarnock F.C., is founded.
* January 20 – E ...
:
Boshin War
The , sometimes known as the Japanese Revolution or Japanese Civil War, was a civil war in Japan fought from 1868 to 1869 between forces of the ruling Tokugawa shogunate and a clique seeking to seize political power in the name of the Imperi ...
results in end of the shogunate and the founding the Japanese Empire.
*
1868
Events
January–March
* January 2 – British Expedition to Abyssinia: Robert Napier leads an expedition to free captive British officials and missionaries.
* January 3 – The 15-year-old Mutsuhito, Emperor Meiji of Jap ...
–
1878
Events January–March
* January 5 – Russo-Turkish War – Battle of Shipka Pass IV: Russian and Bulgarian forces defeat the Ottoman Empire.
* January 9 – Umberto I becomes King of Italy.
* January 17 – Battle o ...
:
Ten Years' War between
Cuba and
Spain.
*
1870
Events
January–March
* January 1
** The first edition of ''The Northern Echo'' newspaper is published in Priestgate, Darlington, England.
** Plans for the Brooklyn Bridge are completed.
* January 3 – Construction of the Broo ...
–
1871
Events January–March
* January 3 – Franco-Prussian War – Battle of Bapaume: Prussians win a strategic victory.
* January 18 – Proclamation of the German Empire: The member states of the North German Confederation and the sout ...
:
Franco-Prussian War results in the
unifications of Germany and Italy, the collapse of the
Second French Empire and the emergence of a
New Imperialism.
* 1870: Napoleon III abdicated after unsuccessful conclusion of Franco-Prussian War. Third Republic proclaimed.
*
1876
Events
January–March
* January 1
** The Reichsbank opens in Berlin.
** The Bass Brewery Red Triangle becomes the world's first registered trademark symbol.
* February 2 – The National League of Professional Base Ball Clubs i ...
: The
April Uprising in
Bulgaria against the
Ottoman Empire.
*
1879
Events January–March
* January 1 – The Specie Resumption Act takes effect. The United States Note is valued the same as gold, for the first time since the American Civil War.
* January 11 – The Anglo-Zulu War begins.
* Janu ...
:
Anglo-Zulu War results in British victory and the annexation of the
Zulu Kingdom
The Zulu Kingdom (, ), sometimes referred to as the Zulu Empire or the Kingdom of Zululand, was a monarchy in Southern Africa. During the 1810s, Shaka established a modern standing army that consolidated rival clans and built a large following ...
.
*
1879
Events January–March
* January 1 – The Specie Resumption Act takes effect. The United States Note is valued the same as gold, for the first time since the American Civil War.
* January 11 – The Anglo-Zulu War begins.
* Janu ...
–
1880
Events
January–March
* January 22 – Toowong State School is founded in Queensland, Australia.
* January – The international White slave trade affair scandal in Brussels is exposed and attracts international infamy.
* February ...
:
Little War against Spanish rule in
Cuba leads to rebel defeat.
*
1879
Events January–March
* January 1 – The Specie Resumption Act takes effect. The United States Note is valued the same as gold, for the first time since the American Civil War.
* January 11 – The Anglo-Zulu War begins.
* Janu ...
–
1883
Events
January–March
* January 4 – ''Life'' magazine is founded in Los Angeles, California, United States.
* January 10 – A fire at the Newhall Hotel in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States, kills 73 people.
* Ja ...
:
Chile battles with
Peru and
Bolivia
, image_flag = Bandera de Bolivia (Estado).svg
, flag_alt = Horizontal tricolor (red, yellow, and green from top to bottom) with the coat of arms of Bolivia in the center
, flag_alt2 = 7 × 7 square p ...
over Andean territory in the
War of the Pacific.
*
1880
Events
January–March
* January 22 – Toowong State School is founded in Queensland, Australia.
* January – The international White slave trade affair scandal in Brussels is exposed and attracts international infamy.
* February ...
–
1881
Events
January–March
* January 1– 24 – Siege of Geok Tepe: Russian troops under General Mikhail Skobelev defeat the Turkomans.
* January 13 – War of the Pacific – Battle of San Juan and Chorrillos: The C ...
:
First Boer War begins.
*
1881
Events
January–March
* January 1– 24 – Siege of Geok Tepe: Russian troops under General Mikhail Skobelev defeat the Turkomans.
* January 13 – War of the Pacific – Battle of San Juan and Chorrillos: The C ...
–
1899
Events January 1899
* January 1
** Spanish rule ends in Cuba, concluding 400 years of the Spanish Empire in the Americas.
** Queens and Staten Island become administratively part of New York City.
* January 2 –
**Bolivia sets up a c ...
:
Mahdist War
The Mahdist War ( ar, الثورة المهدية, ath-Thawra al-Mahdiyya; 1881–1899) was a war between the Mahdist Sudanese of the religious leader Muhammad Ahmad bin Abd Allah, who had proclaimed himself the "Mahdi" of Islam (the "Guided On ...
in
Sudan
Sudan ( or ; ar, السودان, as-Sūdān, officially the Republic of the Sudan ( ar, جمهورية السودان, link=no, Jumhūriyyat as-Sūdān), is a country in Northeast Africa. It shares borders with the Central African Republic t ...
.
![Battle of Omdurman](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/Battle_of_Omdurman.jpg)
*
1882
Events
January–March
* January 2
** The Standard Oil Trust is secretly created in the United States to control multiple corporations set up by John D. Rockefeller and his associates.
** Irish-born author Oscar Wilde arrives in ...
:
Anglo-Egyptian War British invasion and subsequent occupation of
Egypt
*
1883
Events
January–March
* January 4 – ''Life'' magazine is founded in Los Angeles, California, United States.
* January 10 – A fire at the Newhall Hotel in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States, kills 73 people.
* Ja ...
–
1898
Events
January–March
* January 1 – New York City annexes land from surrounding counties, creating the City of Greater New York as the world's second largest. The city is geographically divided into five boroughs: Manhattan, B ...
:
Mandingo Wars between the
French colonial empire
The French colonial empire () comprised the overseas colonies, protectorates and mandate territories that came under French rule from the 16th century onward. A distinction is generally made between the "First French Colonial Empire", that exist ...
and the
Wassoulou Empire of the
Mandingo people led by
Samory Touré
Samory Toure ( – June 2, 1900), also known as Samori Toure, Samory Touré, or Almamy Samore Lafiya Toure, was a Muslim cleric, a military strategist, and the founder and leader of the Wassoulou Empire, an Islamic empire that was in present-day ...
.
*
1894
Events January–March
* January 4 – A military alliance is established between the French Third Republic and the Russian Empire.
* January 7 – William Kennedy Dickson receives a patent for motion picture film in the United S ...
–
1895
Events
January–March
* January 5 – Dreyfus affair: French officer Alfred Dreyfus is stripped of his army rank, and sentenced to life imprisonment on Devil's Island.
* January 12 – The National Trust for Places of Histor ...
: After the
First Sino-Japanese War, China cedes
Taiwan to Japan and grants Japan a free hand in Korea.
*
1895
Events
January–March
* January 5 – Dreyfus affair: French officer Alfred Dreyfus is stripped of his army rank, and sentenced to life imprisonment on Devil's Island.
* January 12 – The National Trust for Places of Histor ...
:
Taiwan is ceded to the
Empire of Japan as a result of the
First Sino-Japanese War.
*
1895
Events
January–March
* January 5 – Dreyfus affair: French officer Alfred Dreyfus is stripped of his army rank, and sentenced to life imprisonment on Devil's Island.
* January 12 – The National Trust for Places of Histor ...
–
1896
Events
January–March
* January 2 – The Jameson Raid comes to an end, as Jameson surrenders to the Boers.
* January 4 – Utah is admitted as the 45th U.S. state.
* January 5 – An Austrian newspaper reports that Wil ...
:
Ethiopia defeats Italy in the
First Italo–Ethiopian War at the
Battle of Adwa.
*
1895
Events
January–March
* January 5 – Dreyfus affair: French officer Alfred Dreyfus is stripped of his army rank, and sentenced to life imprisonment on Devil's Island.
* January 12 – The National Trust for Places of Histor ...
–
1898
Events
January–March
* January 1 – New York City annexes land from surrounding counties, creating the City of Greater New York as the world's second largest. The city is geographically divided into five boroughs: Manhattan, B ...
:
Cuban War for Independence results in Cuban independence from
Spain.
*
1896
Events
January–March
* January 2 – The Jameson Raid comes to an end, as Jameson surrenders to the Boers.
* January 4 – Utah is admitted as the 45th U.S. state.
* January 5 – An Austrian newspaper reports that Wil ...
-
1898
Events
January–March
* January 1 – New York City annexes land from surrounding counties, creating the City of Greater New York as the world's second largest. The city is geographically divided into five boroughs: Manhattan, B ...
:
Philippine Revolution results in a Filipino victory.
*
1898
Events
January–March
* January 1 – New York City annexes land from surrounding counties, creating the City of Greater New York as the world's second largest. The city is geographically divided into five boroughs: Manhattan, B ...
:
Spanish–American War results in the independence of Cuba.
*
1899
Events January 1899
* January 1
** Spanish rule ends in Cuba, concluding 400 years of the Spanish Empire in the Americas.
** Queens and Staten Island become administratively part of New York City.
* January 2 –
**Bolivia sets up a c ...
–
1901
Events
January
* January 1 – The Crown colony, British colonies of New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria (Australia), Victoria and Western Australia Federation of Australia, federate as the Australia, ...
:
Boxer Rebellion
The Boxer Rebellion, also known as the Boxer Uprising, the Boxer Insurrection, or the Yihetuan Movement, was an anti-foreign, anti-colonial, and anti-Christian uprising in China between 1899 and 1901, towards the end of the Qing dynasty, by ...
in China is suppressed by the
Eight-Nation Alliance
The Eight-Nation Alliance was a multinational military coalition that invaded northern China in 1900 with the stated aim of relieving the foreign legations in Beijing, then besieged by the popular Boxer militia, who were determined to remove fo ...
.
*
1899
Events January 1899
* January 1
** Spanish rule ends in Cuba, concluding 400 years of the Spanish Empire in the Americas.
** Queens and Staten Island become administratively part of New York City.
* January 2 –
**Bolivia sets up a c ...
–
1902
Events
January
* January 1
** The Nurses Registration Act 1901 comes into effect in New Zealand, making it the first country in the world to require state registration of nurses. On January 10, Ellen Dougherty becomes the world's f ...
:
Thousand Days' War in
Colombia
Colombia (, ; ), officially the Republic of Colombia, is a country in South America with insular regions in North America—near Nicaragua's Caribbean coast—as well as in the Pacific Ocean. The Colombian mainland is bordered by the Car ...
breaks out between the "
Liberales
Liberales is an independent liberal think tank (some tend to call Liberales left-liberal), located in Ghent, Flanders, Belgium. The organization promotes progressive liberalism and supports individual freedom, justice, a certain degree of self ...
" and "
Conservadores", culminating with the loss of
Panama in 1903.
*
1899
Events January 1899
* January 1
** Spanish rule ends in Cuba, concluding 400 years of the Spanish Empire in the Americas.
** Queens and Staten Island become administratively part of New York City.
* January 2 –
**Bolivia sets up a c ...
–
1902
Events
January
* January 1
** The Nurses Registration Act 1901 comes into effect in New Zealand, making it the first country in the world to require state registration of nurses. On January 10, Ellen Dougherty becomes the world's f ...
:
Second Boer War begins.
*
1899
Events January 1899
* January 1
** Spanish rule ends in Cuba, concluding 400 years of the Spanish Empire in the Americas.
** Queens and Staten Island become administratively part of New York City.
* January 2 –
**Bolivia sets up a c ...
–
1902
Events
January
* January 1
** The Nurses Registration Act 1901 comes into effect in New Zealand, making it the first country in the world to require state registration of nurses. On January 10, Ellen Dougherty becomes the world's f ...
:
Philippine–American War
The Philippine–American War or Filipino–American War ( es, Guerra filipina-estadounidense, tl, Digmaang Pilipino–Amerikano), previously referred to as the Philippine Insurrection or the Tagalog Insurgency by the United States, was an arm ...
begins.
Science and technology
The 19th century saw the birth of science as a profession; the term scientist was coined in 1833 by
William Whewell, which soon replaced the older term of natural philosopher. Among the most influential ideas of the 19th century were those of
Charles Darwin (alongside the independent researches of
Alfred Russel Wallace
Alfred Russel Wallace (8 January 1823 – 7 November 1913) was a British naturalist, explorer, geographer, anthropologist, biologist and illustrator. He is best known for independently conceiving the theory of evolution through natural se ...
), who in 1859 published the book ''
The Origin of Species'', which introduced the idea of
evolution by
natural selection. Another important landmark in medicine and biology were the successful efforts to prove the
germ theory of disease. Following this,
Louis Pasteur
Louis Pasteur (, ; 27 December 1822 – 28 September 1895) was a French chemist and microbiologist renowned for his discoveries of the principles of vaccination, microbial fermentation and pasteurization, the latter of which was named afte ...
made the first
vaccine against
rabies, and also made many discoveries in the field of chemistry, including the
asymmetry of crystals. In chemistry,
Dmitri Mendeleev
Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev (sometimes transliterated as Mendeleyev or Mendeleef) ( ; russian: links=no, Дмитрий Иванович Менделеев, tr. , ; 8 February Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates">O.S._27_January.html" ;"title="O ...
, following the
atomic theory of
John Dalton
John Dalton (; 5 or 6 September 1766 – 27 July 1844) was an English chemist, physicist and meteorologist. He is best known for introducing the atomic theory into chemistry, and for his research into colour blindness, which he had. Colour b ...
, created the first
periodic table
The periodic table, also known as the periodic table of the (chemical) elements, is a rows and columns arrangement of the chemical elements. It is widely used in chemistry, physics, and other sciences, and is generally seen as an icon of ch ...
of
elements
Element or elements may refer to:
Science
* Chemical element, a pure substance of one type of atom
* Heating element, a device that generates heat by electrical resistance
* Orbital elements, parameters required to identify a specific orbit of ...
. In physics, the experiments, theories and discoveries of
Michael Faraday,
André-Marie Ampère
André-Marie Ampère (, ; ; 20 January 177510 June 1836) was a French physicist and mathematician who was one of the founders of the science of classical electromagnetism, which he referred to as "electrodynamics". He is also the inventor of nu ...
,
James Clerk Maxwell, and their contemporaries led to the creation of
electromagnetism as a new branch of science.
Thermodynamics led to an understanding of heat and the notion of energy was defined. Other highlights include the discoveries unveiling the nature of atomic structure and matter, simultaneously with chemistry – and of new kinds of radiation. In astronomy, the planet Neptune was discovered. In mathematics, the notion of complex numbers finally matured and led to a subsequent analytical theory; they also began the use of
hypercomplex numbers.
Karl Weierstrass and others carried out the
arithmetization of analysis for functions of
real and
complex variable
Complex analysis, traditionally known as the theory of functions of a complex variable, is the branch of mathematical analysis that investigates functions of complex numbers. It is helpful in many branches of mathematics, including algebraic ...
s. It also saw rise to
new progress in geometry beyond those classical theories of Euclid, after a period of nearly two thousand years. The mathematical science of logic likewise had revolutionary breakthroughs after a similarly long period of stagnation. But the most important step in science at this time were the ideas formulated by the creators of electrical science. Their work changed the face of physics and made possible for new technology to come about including a rapid spread in the use of electric illumination and power in the last two decades of the century and radio wave communication at the end of the 1890s.
![1878 Darwin photo by Leonard from Woodall 1884 - cropped grayed partially cleaned](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/02/1878_Darwin_photo_by_Leonard_from_Woodall_1884_-_cropped_grayed_partially_cleaned.jpg)
*
1807
Events
January–March
* January 7 – The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland issues an Order in Council prohibiting British ships from trading with France or its allies.
* January 20 – The Sierra Leone Company, faced with b ...
:
Potassium and
Sodium are individually isolated by
Sir Humphry Davy.
*
1831
Events
January–March
* January 1 – William Lloyd Garrison begins publishing '' The Liberator'', an anti-slavery newspaper, in Boston, Massachusetts.
* January 10 – Japanese department store, Takashimaya in Kyoto establ ...
–
1836
Events
January–March
* January 1 – Queen Maria II of Portugal marries Prince Ferdinand Augustus Francis Anthony of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha.
* January 5 – Davy Crockett arrives in Texas.
* January 12
** , with Charles Darwin on board, r ...
:
Charles Darwin's journey on .
*
1859
Events
January–March
* January 21 – José Mariano Salas (1797–1867) becomes Conservative interim President of Mexico.
* January 24 ( O. S.) – Wallachia and Moldavia are united under Alexandru Ioan Cuza (Romania since 1866, final u ...
:
Charles Darwin publishes ''
On the Origin of Species''.
*
1861
Statistically, this year is considered the end of the whale oil industry and (in replacement) the beginning of the petroleum oil industry.
Events
January–March
* January 1
** Benito Juárez captures Mexico City.
** The first steam-p ...
:
James Clerk Maxwell publishes ''
On Physical Lines of Force'', formulating the four
Maxwell's equations.
*
1865
Events
January–March
* January 4 – The New York Stock Exchange opens its first permanent headquarters at Broad Street (Manhattan), 10-12 Broad near Wall Street, in New York City.
* January 13 – American Civil War : Sec ...
:
Gregor Mendel formulates his
laws of inheritance
Mendelian inheritance (also known as Mendelism) is a type of biological inheritance following the principles originally proposed by Gregor Mendel in 1865 and 1866, re-discovered in 1900 by Hugo de Vries and Carl Correns, and later popularize ...
.
*
1869
Events
January–March
* January 3 – Abdur Rahman Khan is defeated at Tinah Khan, and exiled from Afghanistan.
* January 5 – Scotland's oldest professional football team, Kilmarnock F.C., is founded.
* January 20 – E ...
:
Dmitri Mendeleev
Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev (sometimes transliterated as Mendeleyev or Mendeleef) ( ; russian: links=no, Дмитрий Иванович Менделеев, tr. , ; 8 February Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates">O.S._27_January.html" ;"title="O ...
creates the
Periodic table
The periodic table, also known as the periodic table of the (chemical) elements, is a rows and columns arrangement of the chemical elements. It is widely used in chemistry, physics, and other sciences, and is generally seen as an icon of ch ...
.
*
1873
Events
January–March
* January 1
** Japan adopts the Gregorian calendar.
** The California Penal Code goes into effect.
* January 17 – American Indian Wars: Modoc War: First Battle of the Stronghold – Modoc Indians defeat ...
: Maxwell's ''
A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism
''A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism'' is a two-volume treatise on electromagnetism written by James Clerk Maxwell in 1873. Maxwell was revising the ''Treatise'' for a second edition when he died in 1879. The revision was completed by Wil ...
'' published.
*
1877
Events
January–March
* January 1 – Queen Victoria is proclaimed ''Empress of India'' by the ''Royal Titles Act 1876'', introduced by Benjamin Disraeli, the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom .
* January 8 – Great Sio ...
:
Asaph Hall discovers the
moons of Mars
*
1896
Events
January–March
* January 2 – The Jameson Raid comes to an end, as Jameson surrenders to the Boers.
* January 4 – Utah is admitted as the 45th U.S. state.
* January 5 – An Austrian newspaper reports that Wil ...
:
Henri Becquerel discovers
radioactivity;
J. J. Thomson identifies the
electron, though not by name.
Medicine
![Robert Koch](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/55/Robert_Koch.jpg)
*
1804
Events
January–March
* January 1 – Haiti gains independence from France, and becomes the first black republic, having the only successful slave revolt ever.
* February 4 – The Sokoto Caliphate is founded in West Africa.
* Februa ...
:
Morphine first isolated.
*
1842
Events
January–March
* January
** Michael Alexander takes office, as the first appointee to the Anglican-German Bishopric in Jerusalem.
** American medical student William E. Clarke of Berkshire Medical College becomes the first pe ...
:
Anesthesia
Anesthesia is a state of controlled, temporary loss of sensation or awareness that is induced for medical or veterinary purposes. It may include some or all of analgesia (relief from or prevention of pain), paralysis (muscle relaxation), ...
used for the first time.
*
1847
Events
January–March
* January 4 – Samuel Colt sells his first revolver pistol to the U.S. government.
* January 13 – The Treaty of Cahuenga ends fighting in the Mexican–American War in California.
* January 16 – John C. Frémont ...
:
Chloroform
Chloroform, or trichloromethane, is an organic compound with chemical formula, formula Carbon, CHydrogen, HChlorine, Cl3 and a common organic solvent. It is a colorless, strong-smelling, dense liquid produced on a large scale as a precursor to ...
invented for the first time, given to
Queen Victoria at the birth of her eighth child,
Prince Leopold in
1853
Events
January–March
* January 6 – Florida Governor Thomas Brown signs legislation that provides public support for the new East Florida Seminary, leading to the establishment of the University of Florida.
* January 8 – Taiping Reb ...
*
1855
Events
January–March
* January 1 – Ottawa, Ontario, is incorporated as a city.
* January 5 – Ramón Castilla begins his third term as President of Peru.
* January 23
** The first bridge over the Mississippi River opens ...
:
Cocaine is isolated by
Friedrich Gaedcke.
*
1885
Events
January–March
* January 3– 4 – Sino-French War – Battle of Núi Bop: French troops under General Oscar de Négrier defeat a numerically superior Qing Chinese force, in northern Vietnam.
* January 4 – ...
:
Louis Pasteur
Louis Pasteur (, ; 27 December 1822 – 28 September 1895) was a French chemist and microbiologist renowned for his discoveries of the principles of vaccination, microbial fermentation and pasteurization, the latter of which was named afte ...
creates the first successful
vaccine against rabies for a young boy who had been bitten 14 times by a rabid dog.
*
1889
Events
January–March
* January 1
** The total solar eclipse of January 1, 1889 is seen over parts of California and Nevada.
** Paiute spiritual leader Wovoka experiences a vision, leading to the start of the Ghost Dance movement in the ...
:
Aspirin patented.
Inventions
![Edison in his NJ laboratory 1901](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/42/Edison_in_his_NJ_laboratory_1901.jpg)
*
1804
Events
January–March
* January 1 – Haiti gains independence from France, and becomes the first black republic, having the only successful slave revolt ever.
* February 4 – The Sokoto Caliphate is founded in West Africa.
* Februa ...
: First
steam locomotive
A steam locomotive is a locomotive that provides the force to move itself and other vehicles by means of the expansion of steam. It is fuelled by burning combustible material (usually coal, oil or, rarely, wood) to heat water in the locomot ...
begins operation.
*
1816
This year was known as the ''Year Without a Summer'', because of low temperatures in the Northern Hemisphere, possibly the result of the Mount Tambora volcanic eruption in Indonesia in 1815, causing severe global cooling, catastrophic in s ...
:
Laufmaschine invented by
Karl von Drais
Karl Freiherr von Drais (full name: Karl Friedrich Christian Ludwig Freiherr Drais von Sauerbronn) (29 April 1785 – 10 December 1851) was a noble German forest official and significant inventor in the Biedermeier period. He was born and died ...
.
*
1825
Events
January–March
* January 4 – King Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies dies in Naples and is succeeded by his son, Francis.
* February 3 – Vendsyssel-Thy, once part of the Jutland peninsula forming westernmost Denmark, becomes a ...
:
Erie Canal opened connecting the
Great Lakes to the
Atlantic Ocean.
*
1825
Events
January–March
* January 4 – King Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies dies in Naples and is succeeded by his son, Francis.
* February 3 – Vendsyssel-Thy, once part of the Jutland peninsula forming westernmost Denmark, becomes a ...
: First isolation of
aluminium.
*
1825
Events
January–March
* January 4 – King Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies dies in Naples and is succeeded by his son, Francis.
* February 3 – Vendsyssel-Thy, once part of the Jutland peninsula forming westernmost Denmark, becomes a ...
: The
Stockton and Darlington Railway
The Stockton and Darlington Railway (S&DR) was a railway company that operated in north-east England from 1825 to 1863. The world's first public railway to use steam locomotives, its first line connected collieries near Shildon with Darl ...
, the first public railway in the world, is opened.
*
1826
Events January–March
* January 15 – The French newspaper ''Le Figaro'' begins publication in Paris, initially as a weekly.
* January 30 – The Menai Suspension Bridge, built by engineer Thomas Telford, is opened between the island o ...
:
Samuel Morey patents the
internal combustion engine.
*
1829
Events
January–March
* January 19 – August Klingemann's adaptation of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's ''Faust'' premieres in Braunschweig.
* February 27 – Battle of Tarqui: Troops of Gran Colombia and Peru battle to a draw.
* March ...
: First
electric motor built.
*
1837
Events
January–March
* January 1 – The destructive Galilee earthquake causes 6,000–7,000 casualties in Ottoman Syria.
* January 26 – Michigan becomes the 26th state admitted to the United States.
* February – Charles Dickens's ...
:
Telegraphy patented.
*
1841
Events
January–March
* January 20 – Charles Elliot of the United Kingdom, and Qishan of the Qing dynasty, agree to the Convention of Chuenpi.
* January 26 – Britain occupies Hong Kong. Later in the year, the first census of the i ...
: The word "
dinosaur" is coined by
Richard Owen
Sir Richard Owen (20 July 1804 – 18 December 1892) was an English biologist, comparative anatomist and paleontologist. Owen is generally considered to have been an outstanding naturalist with a remarkable gift for interpreting fossils.
Owe ...
.
*
1844
In the Philippines, it was the only leap year with 365 days, as December 31 was skipped when 1845 began after December 30.
Events
January–March
* January 15 – The University of Notre Dame, based in the city of the same name, receives ...
: First publicly funded
telegraph line in the world—between Baltimore and Washington—sends demonstration message on 24 May, ushering in the age of the telegraph. This message read "What hath God wrought?" (Bible, Numbers 23:23)
*
1849
Events
January–March
* January 1 – France begins issue of the Ceres series, the nation's first postage stamps.
* January 5 – Hungarian Revolution of 1848: The Austrian army, led by Alfred I, Prince of Windisch-Grätz, enters in th ...
: The
safety pin and the
gas mask
A gas mask is a mask used to protect the wearer from inhaling airborne pollutants and toxic gases. The mask forms a sealed cover over the nose and mouth, but may also cover the eyes and other vulnerable soft tissues of the face. Most gas mask ...
are invented.
*
1852
Events
January–March
* January 14 – President Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte proclaims a new constitution for the French Second Republic.
* January 15 – Nine men representing various Jewish charitable organizations come tog ...
: The first successful
blimp is invented
*
1855
Events
January–March
* January 1 – Ottawa, Ontario, is incorporated as a city.
* January 5 – Ramón Castilla begins his third term as President of Peru.
* January 23
** The first bridge over the Mississippi River opens ...
:
Bessemer process enables
steel
Steel is an alloy made up of iron with added carbon to improve its strength and fracture resistance compared to other forms of iron. Many other elements may be present or added. Stainless steels that are corrosion- and oxidation-resistant ty ...
to be mass-produced.
*
1856
Events
January–March
* January 8 – Borax deposits are discovered in large quantities by John Veatch in California.
* January 23 – American paddle steamer SS ''Pacific'' leaves Liverpool (England) for a transatlantic voyag ...
: World's first
oil refinery in
Romania
*
1858
Events
January–March
* January –
**Benito Juárez (1806–1872) becomes Liberal President of Mexico. At the same time, conservatives install Félix María Zuloaga (1813–1898) as president.
**William I of Prussia becomes regent f ...
: Invention of the
phonautograph
The phonautograph is the earliest known device for recording sound. Previously, tracings had been obtained of the sound-producing vibratory motions of tuning forks and other objects by physical contact with them, but not of actual sound waves a ...
, the first true device for
recording sound.
*
1859
Events
January–March
* January 21 – José Mariano Salas (1797–1867) becomes Conservative interim President of Mexico.
* January 24 ( O. S.) – Wallachia and Moldavia are united under Alexandru Ioan Cuza (Romania since 1866, final u ...
: The first
ironclad
An ironclad is a steam engine, steam-propelled warship protected by Wrought iron, iron or steel iron armor, armor plates, constructed from 1859 to the early 1890s. The ironclad was developed as a result of the vulnerability of wooden warships ...
was launched into sea by the
French Navy.
*
1860
Events
January–March
* January 2 – The discovery of a hypothetical planet Vulcan is announced at a meeting of the French Academy of Sciences in Paris, France.
* January 10 – The Pemberton Mill in Lawrence, Massachusett ...
:
Benjamin Tyler Henry
Benjamin Tyler Henry (March 22, 1821 – June 8, 1898) was an American gunsmith and manufacturer. He was the inventor of the Henry rifle, the first reliable lever-action repeating rifle.
Henry was born in Claremont, New Hampshire in 1821. ...
invents the 16 - shot
Henry Rifle
*
1861
Statistically, this year is considered the end of the whale oil industry and (in replacement) the beginning of the petroleum oil industry.
Events
January–March
* January 1
** Benito Juárez captures Mexico City.
** The first steam-p ...
:
Richard Gatling
Richard Jordan Gatling (September 12, 1818 – February 26, 1903) was an American inventor best known for his invention of the Gatling gun, which is considered to be the first successful machine gun.
Life
Gatling was born in Hertford County, Nort ...
invents the
Gatling Gun
The Gatling gun is a rapid-firing multiple-barrel firearm invented in 1861 by Richard Jordan Gatling. It is an early machine gun and a forerunner of the modern electric motor-driven rotary cannon.
The Gatling gun's operation centered on a cyc ...
, first modern
machine gun used notably in the battles of
Cold Harbor and
Petersburg
Petersburg, or Petersburgh, may refer to:
Places Australia
*Petersburg, former name of Peterborough, South Australia
Canada
* Petersburg, Ontario
Russia
*Saint Petersburg, sometimes referred to as Petersburg
United States
*Peterborg, U.S. Virg ...
*
1862
Events
January–March
* January 1 – The United Kingdom annexes Lagos Island, in modern-day Nigeria.
* January 6 – French intervention in Mexico: French, Spanish and British forces arrive in Veracruz, Mexico.
* January ...
: First meeting in combat of
ironclad warships, and , during the
American Civil War.
*
1863
Events
January–March
* January 1 – Abraham Lincoln signs the Emancipation Proclamation during the third year of the American Civil War, making the abolition of slavery in the Confederate states an official war goal. It proclaims t ...
: First section of the
London Underground opens.
*
1866
Events January–March
* January 1
** Fisk University, a historically black university, is established in Nashville, Tennessee.
** The last issue of the abolitionist magazine '' The Liberator'' is published.
* January 6 – Ottoman tr ...
: Successful
transatlantic telegraph cable follows an earlier attempt in 1858.
*
1867
Events
January–March
* January 1 – The Covington–Cincinnati Suspension Bridge opens between Cincinnati, Ohio, and Covington, Kentucky, in the United States, becoming the longest single-span bridge in the world. It was renamed a ...
:
Alfred Nobel
Alfred Bernhard Nobel ( , ; 21 October 1833 – 10 December 1896) was a Swedes, Swedish chemist, engineer, inventor, businessman, and Philanthropy, philanthropist. He is best known for having bequeathed his fortune to establish the Nobel ...
invents
dynamite
Dynamite is an explosive made of nitroglycerin, sorbents (such as powdered shells or clay), and Stabilizer (chemistry), stabilizers. It was invented by the Swedish people, Swedish chemist and engineer Alfred Nobel in Geesthacht, Northern Germa ...
.
*
1868
Events
January–March
* January 2 – British Expedition to Abyssinia: Robert Napier leads an expedition to free captive British officials and missionaries.
* January 3 – The 15-year-old Mutsuhito, Emperor Meiji of Jap ...
:
Safety bicycle invented.
*
1869
Events
January–March
* January 3 – Abdur Rahman Khan is defeated at Tinah Khan, and exiled from Afghanistan.
* January 5 – Scotland's oldest professional football team, Kilmarnock F.C., is founded.
* January 20 – E ...
:
First transcontinental railroad
North America's first transcontinental railroad (known originally as the "Pacific Railroad" and later as the " Overland Route") was a continuous railroad line constructed between 1863 and 1869 that connected the existing eastern U.S. rail netwo ...
completed in United States on 10 May.
*
1870
Events
January–March
* January 1
** The first edition of ''The Northern Echo'' newspaper is published in Priestgate, Darlington, England.
** Plans for the Brooklyn Bridge are completed.
* January 3 – Construction of the Broo ...
:
Rasmus Malling-Hansen's invention the
Hansen Writing Ball becomes the first commercially sold
typewriter.
*
1873
Events
January–March
* January 1
** Japan adopts the Gregorian calendar.
** The California Penal Code goes into effect.
* January 17 – American Indian Wars: Modoc War: First Battle of the Stronghold – Modoc Indians defeat ...
:
Blue jeans and
barbed wire
A close-up view of a barbed wire
Roll of modern agricultural barbed wire
Barbed wire, also known as barb wire, is a type of steel fencing wire constructed with sharp edges or points arranged at intervals along the strands. Its primary use is t ...
are invented.
*
1877
Events
January–March
* January 1 – Queen Victoria is proclaimed ''Empress of India'' by the ''Royal Titles Act 1876'', introduced by Benjamin Disraeli, the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom .
* January 8 – Great Sio ...
:
Thomas Edison invents the
phonograph
A phonograph, in its later forms also called a gramophone (as a trademark since 1887, as a generic name in the UK since 1910) or since the 1940s called a record player, or more recently a turntable, is a device for the mechanical and analogu ...
*
1878
Events January–March
* January 5 – Russo-Turkish War – Battle of Shipka Pass IV: Russian and Bulgarian forces defeat the Ottoman Empire.
* January 9 – Umberto I becomes King of Italy.
* January 17 – Battle o ...
: First commercial
telephone exchange
A telephone exchange, telephone switch, or central office is a telecommunications system used in the public switched telephone network (PSTN) or in large enterprises. It interconnects telephone subscriber lines or virtual circuits of digital syst ...
in
New Haven, Connecticut.
* c.
1875
Events
January–March
* January 1 – The Midland Railway of England abolishes the Second Class passenger category, leaving First Class and Third Class. Other British railway companies follow Midland's lead during the rest of the ...
/
1880
Events
January–March
* January 22 – Toowong State School is founded in Queensland, Australia.
* January – The international White slave trade affair scandal in Brussels is exposed and attracts international infamy.
* February ...
: Introduction of the widespread use of electric
lighting. These included early crude systems in France and the UK and the introduction of large scale outdoor
arc lighting systems by 1880.
*
1879
Events January–March
* January 1 – The Specie Resumption Act takes effect. The United States Note is valued the same as gold, for the first time since the American Civil War.
* January 11 – The Anglo-Zulu War begins.
* Janu ...
:
Thomas Edison patents a practical
incandescent light bulb.
*
1882
Events
January–March
* January 2
** The Standard Oil Trust is secretly created in the United States to control multiple corporations set up by John D. Rockefeller and his associates.
** Irish-born author Oscar Wilde arrives in ...
: Introduction of large scale
electric power utilities with the Edison
Holborn Viaduct
Holborn Viaduct is a road bridge in London and the name of the street which crosses it (which forms part of the A40 route). It links Holborn, via Holborn Circus, with Newgate Street, in the City of London financial district, passing over ...
(London) and
Pearl Street (New York) power stations supplying indoor electric lighting using Edison's incandescent bulb.
*
1884
Events
January–March
* January 4 – The Fabian Society is founded in London.
* January 5 – Gilbert and Sullivan's ''Princess Ida'' premières at the Savoy Theatre, London.
* January 18 – Dr. William Price atte ...
:
Sir Hiram Maxim invents the first self-powered
Machine gun.
*
1885
Events
January–March
* January 3– 4 – Sino-French War – Battle of Núi Bop: French troops under General Oscar de Négrier defeat a numerically superior Qing Chinese force, in northern Vietnam.
* January 4 – ...
:
Singer begins production of the '
Vibrating Shuttle'. which would become the most popular model of
sewing machine
A sewing machine is a machine used to sew fabric and materials together with thread. Sewing machines were invented during the first Industrial Revolution to decrease the amount of manual sewing work performed in clothing companies. Since the inv ...
.
* 1886: Karl Benz sells the first commercial automobile.
* 1890: The cardboard box is invented.
* 1892: John Froelich develops and constructs the first gasoline/petrol-powered tractor.
*
1894
Events January–March
* January 4 – A military alliance is established between the French Third Republic and the Russian Empire.
* January 7 – William Kennedy Dickson receives a patent for motion picture film in the United S ...
: Karl Elsener (inventor), Karl Elsener invents the Swiss Army knife.
*
1894
Events January–March
* January 4 – A military alliance is established between the French Third Republic and the Russian Empire.
* January 7 – William Kennedy Dickson receives a patent for motion picture film in the United S ...
: First gramophone record.
*
1895
Events
January–March
* January 5 – Dreyfus affair: French officer Alfred Dreyfus is stripped of his army rank, and sentenced to life imprisonment on Devil's Island.
* January 12 – The National Trust for Places of Histor ...
: Wilhelm Röntgen identifies x-rays.
Religion
* 1818: The first permanent Reform Judaism congregation, the Hamburg Temple, Neuer Israelitischer Tempel, is founded in Hamburg on October 18. Around the same time, through the development of ''Wissenschaft des Judentums'', the seeds of Conservative Judaism are sown.
*
1830
It is known in European history as a rather tumultuous year with the Revolutions of 1830 in France, Belgium, Poland, Switzerland and Italy.
Events January–March
* January 11 – LaGrange College (later the University of North Alabama) b ...
: The Church of Christ (Latter Day Saints), Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints is established.
*
1844
In the Philippines, it was the only leap year with 365 days, as December 31 was skipped when 1845 began after December 30.
Events
January–March
* January 15 – The University of Notre Dame, based in the city of the same name, receives ...
: The Báb announces his revelation on 23 May, founding Bábism. He announced to the world of the coming of "He whom God shall make manifest". He is considered the forerunner of Bahá'u'lláh, the founder of the Baháʼí Faith.
* 1850s–1890s: In Islam, Salafism grows in popularity.
* 1851:
Hong Xiuquan
Hong Xiuquan (1 January 1814 – 1 June 1864), born Hong Huoxiu and with the courtesy name Renkun, was a Chinese revolutionary who was the leader of the Taiping Rebellion against the Qing dynasty. He established the Taiping Heavenly Kingdo ...
, the leader of the
God Worshipping Society
The God Worshipping Society, in its literal translation Emperor Worshipping Society (), was a religious movement founded and led by Hong Xiuquan which drew on his own unique interpretation of Protestant Christianity and combined it with Chinese ...
, founds the
Taiping Heavenly Kingdom.
*
1868
Events
January–March
* January 2 – British Expedition to Abyssinia: Robert Napier leads an expedition to free captive British officials and missionaries.
* January 3 – The 15-year-old Mutsuhito, Emperor Meiji of Jap ...
: In Japan, State Shinto is established amidst the
Meiji Restoration.
*
1869
Events
January–March
* January 3 – Abdur Rahman Khan is defeated at Tinah Khan, and exiled from Afghanistan.
* January 5 – Scotland's oldest professional football team, Kilmarnock F.C., is founded.
* January 20 – E ...
–
1870
Events
January–March
* January 1
** The first edition of ''The Northern Echo'' newspaper is published in Priestgate, Darlington, England.
** Plans for the Brooklyn Bridge are completed.
* January 3 – Construction of the Broo ...
: The First Vatican Council is convened, articulating the dogma of papal infallibility and promoting a Neo-scholasticism, revival of scholastic theology.
*
1871
Events January–March
* January 3 – Franco-Prussian War – Battle of Bapaume: Prussians win a strategic victory.
* January 18 – Proclamation of the German Empire: The member states of the North German Confederation and the sout ...
–
1878
Events January–March
* January 5 – Russo-Turkish War – Battle of Shipka Pass IV: Russian and Bulgarian forces defeat the Ottoman Empire.
* January 9 – Umberto I becomes King of Italy.
* January 17 – Battle o ...
: In German Empire, Germany, Otto von Bismarck challenges the Catholic Church in the ''Kulturkampf'' ("Culture War")
*
1875
Events
January–March
* January 1 – The Midland Railway of England abolishes the Second Class passenger category, leaving First Class and Third Class. Other British railway companies follow Midland's lead during the rest of the ...
: Helena Blavatsky co-founds the Theosophical Society and becomes the leading articulator of Theosophy.
*
1879
Events January–March
* January 1 – The Specie Resumption Act takes effect. The United States Note is valued the same as gold, for the first time since the American Civil War.
* January 11 – The Anglo-Zulu War begins.
* Janu ...
: Mary Baker Eddy founds the Church of Christ, Scientist. ''The Watchtower,'' published by the Jehovah's Witnesses, releases its first issue.
*
1881
Events
January–March
* January 1– 24 – Siege of Geok Tepe: Russian troops under General Mikhail Skobelev defeat the Turkomans.
* January 13 – War of the Pacific – Battle of San Juan and Chorrillos: The C ...
: In the Sudan, Muhammad Ahmad claims to be the Mahdi, founding the Mahdist State and declaring war on the Khedivate of Egypt.
*
1889
Events
January–March
* January 1
** The total solar eclipse of January 1, 1889 is seen over parts of California and Nevada.
** Paiute spiritual leader Wovoka experiences a vision, leading to the start of the Ghost Dance movement in the ...
: Mirza Ghulam Ahmad establishes the Ahmadiyya, Ahmadiyya Muslim Community.
* 1891: Pope Leo XIII issues the papal encyclical ''Rerum novarum'', the first major document informing modern Catholic social teaching.
Culture
![Crystal Palace - interior](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Crystal_Palace_-_interior.jpg)
*
1808
Events January–March
* January 1
** The importation of slaves into the United States is banned, as the 1807 Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves takes effect; African slaves continue to be imported into Cuba, and until the island ab ...
: Beethoven composes Symphony No. 5 (Beethoven), Fifth Symphony
*
1813
Events
January–March
* January 18–January 23 – War of 1812: The Battle of Frenchtown is fought in modern-day Monroe, Michigan between the United States and a British and Native American alliance.
* January 24 – T ...
: Jane Austen publishes ''Pride and Prejudice''
* 1818: Mary Shelley publishes ''Frankenstein''.
*
1819
Events
January–March
* January 2 – The Panic of 1819, the first major peacetime financial crisis in the United States, begins.
* January 25 – Thomas Jefferson founds the University of Virginia.
* January 29 – Si ...
: John Keats writes his John Keats's 1819 odes, six of his best-known odes.
*
1819
Events
January–March
* January 2 – The Panic of 1819, the first major peacetime financial crisis in the United States, begins.
* January 25 – Thomas Jefferson founds the University of Virginia.
* January 29 – Si ...
: Théodore Géricault paints his masterpiece ''The Raft of the Medusa'', and exhibits it in the French Salon of 1819 at the The Louvre, Louvre.
* 1824: Premiere of Ludwig van Beethoven, Beethoven's ''Symphony No. 9 (Beethoven), Ninth Symphony''.
*
1829
Events
January–March
* January 19 – August Klingemann's adaptation of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's ''Faust'' premieres in Braunschweig.
* February 27 – Battle of Tarqui: Troops of Gran Colombia and Peru battle to a draw.
* March ...
: Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's ''Goethe's Faust, Faust'' premieres.
*
1837
Events
January–March
* January 1 – The destructive Galilee earthquake causes 6,000–7,000 casualties in Ottoman Syria.
* January 26 – Michigan becomes the 26th state admitted to the United States.
* February – Charles Dickens's ...
: Charles Dickens publishes ''Oliver Twist''.
*
1841
Events
January–March
* January 20 – Charles Elliot of the United Kingdom, and Qishan of the Qing dynasty, agree to the Convention of Chuenpi.
* January 26 – Britain occupies Hong Kong. Later in the year, the first census of the i ...
: Ralph Waldo Emerson publishes ''Self-Reliance''.
* 1845:
Frederick Douglass publishes ''Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave''.
*
1847
Events
January–March
* January 4 – Samuel Colt sells his first revolver pistol to the U.S. government.
* January 13 – The Treaty of Cahuenga ends fighting in the Mexican–American War in California.
* January 16 – John C. Frémont ...
: The Brontë sisters publish ''Jane Eyre'', ''Wuthering Heights'' and ''Agnes Grey''.
*
1848
1848 is historically famous for the wave of revolutions, a series of widespread struggles for more liberal governments, which broke out from Brazil to Hungary; although most failed in their immediate aims, they significantly altered the polit ...
: Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels publish ''The Communist Manifesto''.
*
1849
Events
January–March
* January 1 – France begins issue of the Ceres series, the nation's first postage stamps.
* January 5 – Hungarian Revolution of 1848: The Austrian army, led by Alfred I, Prince of Windisch-Grätz, enters in th ...
: Josiah Henson publishes The Life of Josiah Henson, Formerly a Slave, Now an Inhabitant of Canada, as Narrated by Himself.
* 1851: Herman Melville publishes Moby-Dick.
* 1851: Sojourner Truth delivers the speech Ain't I a Woman?.
*
1852
Events
January–March
* January 14 – President Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte proclaims a new constitution for the French Second Republic.
* January 15 – Nine men representing various Jewish charitable organizations come tog ...
: Harriet Beecher Stowe publishes Uncle Tom's Cabin.
*
1855
Events
January–March
* January 1 – Ottawa, Ontario, is incorporated as a city.
* January 5 – Ramón Castilla begins his third term as President of Peru.
* January 23
** The first bridge over the Mississippi River opens ...
: Walt Whitman publishes the first edition of ''Leaves of Grass''.
*
1855
Events
January–March
* January 1 – Ottawa, Ontario, is incorporated as a city.
* January 5 – Ramón Castilla begins his third term as President of Peru.
* January 23
** The first bridge over the Mississippi River opens ...
:
Frederick Douglass publishes the first edition of ''My Bondage and My Freedom''.
*
1862
Events
January–March
* January 1 – The United Kingdom annexes Lagos Island, in modern-day Nigeria.
* January 6 – French intervention in Mexico: French, Spanish and British forces arrive in Veracruz, Mexico.
* January ...
: Victor Hugo publishes ''Les Misérables''.
*
1863
Events
January–March
* January 1 – Abraham Lincoln signs the Emancipation Proclamation during the third year of the American Civil War, making the abolition of slavery in the Confederate states an official war goal. It proclaims t ...
: Jules Verne begins publishing his collection of stories and novels, ''Voyages extraordinaires'', with the novel ''Cinq semaines en ballon''.
*
1865
Events
January–March
* January 4 – The New York Stock Exchange opens its first permanent headquarters at Broad Street (Manhattan), 10-12 Broad near Wall Street, in New York City.
* January 13 – American Civil War : Sec ...
: Lewis Carroll publishes Alice's Adventures in Wonderland.
*
1869
Events
January–March
* January 3 – Abdur Rahman Khan is defeated at Tinah Khan, and exiled from Afghanistan.
* January 5 – Scotland's oldest professional football team, Kilmarnock F.C., is founded.
* January 20 – E ...
: Leo Tolstoy publishes ''War and Peace''.
*
1875
Events
January–March
* January 1 – The Midland Railway of England abolishes the Second Class passenger category, leaving First Class and Third Class. Other British railway companies follow Midland's lead during the rest of the ...
: Georges Bizet's opera Carmen premiers in Paris.
*
1876
Events
January–March
* January 1
** The Reichsbank opens in Berlin.
** The Bass Brewery Red Triangle becomes the world's first registered trademark symbol.
* February 2 – The National League of Professional Base Ball Clubs i ...
: Richard Wagner's ''Ring Cycle'' is first performed in its entirety.
*
1883
Events
January–March
* January 4 – ''Life'' magazine is founded in Los Angeles, California, United States.
* January 10 – A fire at the Newhall Hotel in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States, kills 73 people.
* Ja ...
: Robert Louis Stevenson's ''Treasure Island'' is published.
*
1884
Events
January–March
* January 4 – The Fabian Society is founded in London.
* January 5 – Gilbert and Sullivan's ''Princess Ida'' premières at the Savoy Theatre, London.
* January 18 – Dr. William Price atte ...
: Mark Twain publishes the ''Adventures of Huckleberry Finn''.
* 1886: "Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde" by Robert Louis Stevenson is published.
*
1887
Events
January–March
* January 11 – Louis Pasteur's anti-rabies treatment is defended in the Académie Nationale de Médecine, by Dr. Joseph Grancher.
* January 20
** The United States Senate allows the Navy to lease Pearl Har ...
: Sir Arthur Conan Doyle publishes his first Sherlock Holmes story, ''A Study in Scarlet''.
*
1889
Events
January–March
* January 1
** The total solar eclipse of January 1, 1889 is seen over parts of California and Nevada.
** Paiute spiritual leader Wovoka experiences a vision, leading to the start of the Ghost Dance movement in the ...
: Vincent van Gogh paints ''The Starry Night''.
*
1889
Events
January–March
* January 1
** The total solar eclipse of January 1, 1889 is seen over parts of California and Nevada.
** Paiute spiritual leader Wovoka experiences a vision, leading to the start of the Ghost Dance movement in the ...
: Moulin Rouge opens in Paris.
* 1892: Tchaikovsky's ''Nutcracker Suite'' premières in St Petersberg.
*
1894
Events January–March
* January 4 – A military alliance is established between the French Third Republic and the Russian Empire.
* January 7 – William Kennedy Dickson receives a patent for motion picture film in the United S ...
: Rudyard Kipling's ''The Jungle Book'' is published
*
1895
Events
January–March
* January 5 – Dreyfus affair: French officer Alfred Dreyfus is stripped of his army rank, and sentenced to life imprisonment on Devil's Island.
* January 12 – The National Trust for Places of Histor ...
: Trial of Oscar Wilde and premiere of his play ''The Importance of Being Earnest''.
* 1897: Bram Stoker writes Dracula.
* 1900: L. Frank Baum publishes The Wonderful Wizard of Oz.
Literature
On the literary front the new century opens with romanticism, a movement that spread throughout Europe in reaction to 18th-century rationalism, and it develops more or less along the lines of the Industrial Revolution, with a design to react against the dramatic changes wrought on nature by the steam engine and the railway. William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge are considered the initiators of the new school in England, while in the continent the German ''Sturm und Drang'' spreads its influence as far as Italy and Spain. French arts had been hampered by the
Napoleonic Wars but subsequently developed rapidly. Modernism began.
The Goncourts and Émile Zola in France and Giovanni Verga in Italy produce some of the finest Naturalism (literature), naturalist novels. Italian naturalist novels are especially important in that they give a social map of the new unified Italy to a people that until then had been scarcely aware of its ethnic and cultural diversity. There was a huge literary output during the 19th century. Some of the most famous writers included the Russians Alexander Pushkin, Nikolai Gogol, Leo Tolstoy, Anton Chekhov and Fyodor Dostoyevsky; the English Charles Dickens, John Keats, Alfred, Lord Tennyson and Jane Austen; the Scottish Sir Walter Scott, Thomas Carlyle and Arthur Conan Doyle (creator of the character Sherlock Holmes); the Irish Oscar Wilde; the Americans Edgar Allan Poe, Ralph Waldo Emerson, and Mark Twain; and the French Victor Hugo, Honoré de Balzac, Jules Verne, Alexandre Dumas and Charles Baudelaire.
Some American literary writers, poets and novelists were: Walt Whitman, Mark Twain, Harriet Ann Jacobs, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Herman Melville,
Frederick Douglass, Harriet Beecher Stowe, Joel Chandler Harris, and Emily Dickinson to name a few.
Photography
*Ottomar Anschütz, chronophotographer
*Mathew Brady, documented the
American Civil War
*Edward S. Curtis, documented the American West notably Native Americans in the United States, Native Americans
*Louis Daguerre, inventor of daguerreotype process of photography, chemist
*Thomas Eakins, pioneer motion photographer
*George Eastman, inventor of Photographic film, roll film
*Hércules Florence, pioneer inventor of photography
*Auguste and Louis Lumière, pioneer film-makers, inventors
*Étienne-Jules Marey, pioneer motion photographer, chronophotographer
*Eadweard Muybridge, pioneer motion photographer, chronophotographer
*Nadar (photographer), Nadar a.k.a. Gaspard-Félix Tournachon, portrait photographer
*Nicéphore Niépce, pioneer inventor of photography
*Louis Le Prince, motion picture inventor and pioneer film-maker
*Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky, chemist and photographer
*William Fox Talbot, inventor of the negative / positive photographic process.
Visual artists, painters, sculptors
![Affiche Biscuits Lefèvre-Utile Mucha](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/62/Affiche_Biscuits_Lef%C3%A8vre-Utile_Mucha.jpg)
The Realism (arts), Realism and Romanticism of the early 19th century gave way to Impressionism and Post-Impressionism in the later half of the century, with Paris being the dominant art capital of the world. In the United States the Hudson River School was prominent. 19th-century painters included:
*Ivan Aivazovsky
*Léon Bakst
*Albert Bierstadt
*William Blake
*Arnold Böcklin
*Rosa Bonheur
*William Burges
*Mary Cassatt
*Camille Claudel
*Paul Cézanne
*Frederic Edwin Church
*Thomas Cole
*Jan Matejko
*John Constable
*Camille Corot
*Gustave Courbet
*Honoré Daumier
*Edgar Degas
*Eugène Delacroix
*Thomas Eakins
*Caspar David Friedrich
*Paul Gauguin
*Théodore Géricault
*Vincent van Gogh
*William Morris
*Francisco Goya
*Andō Hiroshige
*Hokusai
*Winslow Homer
*Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres
*Isaac Levitan
*Édouard Manet
*Claude Monet
*Gustave Moreau
*Berthe Morisot
*Edvard Munch
*Mikhail Nesterov
*Camille Pissarro
*Augustus Pugin
*Pierre-Auguste Renoir
*Ilya Repin
*Auguste Rodin
*Albert Pinkham Ryder
*John Singer Sargent
*Valentin Serov
*Georges Seurat
*Ivan Shishkin
*Vasily Surikov
*James Tissot
*Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec
*J. M. W. Turner, Joseph Mallord William Turner
*Viktor Vasnetsov
*Eugène Viollet-le-Duc
*Mikhail Vrubel
*James Abbott McNeill Whistler
*Tsukioka Yoshitoshi
Music
![Porträt des Komponisten Pjotr I](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/Portr%C3%A4t_des_Komponisten_Pjotr_I._Tschaikowski_%281840-1893%29.jpg)
Sonata form matured during the Classical era to become the primary form of instrumental compositions throughout the 19th century. Much of the music from the 19th century was referred to as being in the Romantic music, Romantic style. Many great composers lived through this era such as Ludwig van Beethoven, Franz Liszt, Frédéric Chopin, Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky and Richard Wagner. The list includes:
*Mily Balakirev
*Ludwig van Beethoven
*Hector Berlioz
*Georges Bizet
*Alexander Borodin
*Johannes Brahms
*Anton Bruckner
*Frédéric Chopin
*Claude Debussy
*Antonín Dvořák
*Mikhail Glinka
*Edvard Grieg
*Scott Joplin
*Alexandre Levy
*Franz Liszt
*Gustav Mahler
*Felix Mendelssohn
*Modest Mussorgsky
*Jacques Offenbach
*Niccolò Paganini
*Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov
*Gioachino Rossini
*Anton Rubinstein
*Camille Saint-Saëns
*Antonio Salieri
*Franz Schubert
*Robert Schumann
*Alexander Scriabin
*Arthur Sullivan
*Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky
*Giuseppe Verdi
*Richard Wagner
Sports
*
1867
Events
January–March
* January 1 – The Covington–Cincinnati Suspension Bridge opens between Cincinnati, Ohio, and Covington, Kentucky, in the United States, becoming the longest single-span bridge in the world. It was renamed a ...
: The Marquess of Queensberry Rules for boxing are published.
* 1872: The first recognised international Association football, football match, between England and Scotland, is played.
*
1877
Events
January–March
* January 1 – Queen Victoria is proclaimed ''Empress of India'' by the ''Royal Titles Act 1876'', introduced by Benjamin Disraeli, the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom .
* January 8 – Great Sio ...
: The first test cricket match, between England and Australia, is played.
* 1891: Basketball is invented by James Naismith.
*
1895
Events
January–March
* January 5 – Dreyfus affair: French officer Alfred Dreyfus is stripped of his army rank, and sentenced to life imprisonment on Devil's Island.
* January 12 – The National Trust for Places of Histor ...
: Volleyball is invented.
*
1896
Events
January–March
* January 2 – The Jameson Raid comes to an end, as Jameson surrenders to the Boers.
* January 4 – Utah is admitted as the 45th U.S. state.
* January 5 – An Austrian newspaper reports that Wil ...
: Olympic Games#Revival, Olympic Games revived in Athens.
Events
1801–1850
*
1801
Events
January–March
* January 1
** The legislative union of Great Britain and Ireland is completed under the Act of Union 1800, bringing about the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and the abolition of the Parliament of I ...
: The Kingdom of Great Britain and the Kingdom of Ireland merge to form the
United Kingdom.
*
1802
Events
January–March
* January 5 – Thomas Bruce, 7th Earl of Elgin, British ambassador to the Ottoman Empire, begins removal of the Elgin Marbles from the Parthenon in Athens, claiming they were at risk of destruction during the Ot ...
: The Wahhabis of the First Saudi State Wahhabi sack of Karbala, sack Karbala.
*
1803
Events
* January 1 – The first edition of Alexandre Balthazar Laurent Grimod de La Reynière's ''Almanach des gourmands'', the first guide to restaurant cooking, is published in Paris.
* January 5 – William Symington demonstrates his ...
: William Symington demonstrates his ''Charlotte Dundas'', the "first practical steamboat".
*
1803
Events
* January 1 – The first edition of Alexandre Balthazar Laurent Grimod de La Reynière's ''Almanach des gourmands'', the first guide to restaurant cooking, is published in Paris.
* January 5 – William Symington demonstrates his ...
: The Wahhabis of the First Saudi State capture Mecca and Medina.
*
1804
Events
January–March
* January 1 – Haiti gains independence from France, and becomes the first black republic, having the only successful slave revolt ever.
* February 4 – The Sokoto Caliphate is founded in West Africa.
* Februa ...
: Austrian Empire founded by Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor, Francis I.
*
1804
Events
January–March
* January 1 – Haiti gains independence from France, and becomes the first black republic, having the only successful slave revolt ever.
* February 4 – The Sokoto Caliphate is founded in West Africa.
* Februa ...
: World population reaches 1 billion.
* 1805: The Battle of Trafalgar eliminates the French and Spanish naval fleets and allows for British dominance of the seas, a major factor for the success of the
British Empire later in the century.
* 1805–
1848
1848 is historically famous for the wave of revolutions, a series of widespread struggles for more liberal governments, which broke out from Brazil to Hungary; although most failed in their immediate aims, they significantly altered the polit ...
: Muhammad Ali of Egypt, Muhammad Ali modernizes Egypt.
![StamfordRaffles](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/81/StamfordRaffles.jpeg)
*
1810
Events
January–March
* January 1 – Major-General Lachlan Macquarie officially becomes Governor of New South Wales.
* January 4 – Australian seal hunter Frederick Hasselborough discovers Campbell Island, in the Subantarctic.
* Janua ...
: The Humboldt University of Berlin, University of Berlin was founded. Among its students and faculty are Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Hegel, Karl Marx, Marx, and Otto von Bismarck, Bismarck. The German university reform proves to be so successful that its model is copied around the world (see History of European universities#European university models in the 19th and 20th centuries, History of European research universities).
*
1814
Events January
* January 1 – War of the Sixth Coalition – The Royal Prussian Army led by Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher crosses the Rhine.
* January 3
** War of the Sixth Coalition – Siege of Cattaro: French garrison s ...
: Elisha Collier invents the Flintlock Revolver.
*
1814
Events January
* January 1 – War of the Sixth Coalition – The Royal Prussian Army led by Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher crosses the Rhine.
* January 3
** War of the Sixth Coalition – Siege of Cattaro: French garrison s ...
: February 1 Eruption of Mayon Volcano
*
1815
Events
January
* January 2 – Lord Byron marries Anna Isabella Milbanke in Seaham, county of Durham, England.
* January 3 – Austria, Britain, and Bourbon-restored France form a secret defensive alliance treaty against Prussi ...
: April, Mount Tambora in Sumbawa island erupts, becoming the largest volcanic eruption in recorded history, destroying Tambora culture, and killing at least 71,000 people, including its aftermath. The eruption created global climate anomalies known as "volcanic winter".
*
1816
This year was known as the ''Year Without a Summer'', because of low temperatures in the Northern Hemisphere, possibly the result of the Mount Tambora volcanic eruption in Indonesia in 1815, causing severe global cooling, catastrophic in s ...
: Year Without a Summer: Unusually cold conditions wreak havoc throughout the Northern Hemisphere, likely influenced by the 1815 explosion of Mount Tambora.
*
1816
This year was known as the ''Year Without a Summer'', because of low temperatures in the Northern Hemisphere, possibly the result of the Mount Tambora volcanic eruption in Indonesia in 1815, causing severe global cooling, catastrophic in s ...
–
1828
Events
January–March
* January 4 – Jean Baptiste Gay, vicomte de Martignac succeeds the Comte de Villèle, as Prime Minister of France.
* January 8 – The Democratic Party of the United States is organized.
* January 22 – Arthu ...
: Shaka's
Zulu Kingdom
The Zulu Kingdom (, ), sometimes referred to as the Zulu Empire or the Kingdom of Zululand, was a monarchy in Southern Africa. During the 1810s, Shaka established a modern standing army that consolidated rival clans and built a large following ...
becomes the largest in Southern Africa.
*
1819
Events
January–March
* January 2 – The Panic of 1819, the first major peacetime financial crisis in the United States, begins.
* January 25 – Thomas Jefferson founds the University of Virginia.
* January 29 – Si ...
: The Colombia, Republic of Colombia (
Gran Colombia) achieves independence after Simón Bolívar's triumph at the Battle of Boyacá.
*
1819
Events
January–March
* January 2 – The Panic of 1819, the first major peacetime financial crisis in the United States, begins.
* January 25 – Thomas Jefferson founds the University of Virginia.
* January 29 – Si ...
: The modern city of Singapore is established by the British East India Company.
*
1820
Events
January–March
*January 1 – Nominal beginning of the Trienio Liberal in Spain: A constitutionalist military insurrection at Cádiz leads to the summoning of the Spanish Parliament (March 7).
*January 8 – General Maritime T ...
: Discovery of Antarctica.
*
1820
Events
January–March
*January 1 – Nominal beginning of the Trienio Liberal in Spain: A constitutionalist military insurrection at Cádiz leads to the summoning of the Spanish Parliament (March 7).
*January 8 – General Maritime T ...
: History of Liberia, Liberia founded by the American Colonization Society for freed American slaves.
*
1820
Events
January–March
*January 1 – Nominal beginning of the Trienio Liberal in Spain: A constitutionalist military insurrection at Cádiz leads to the summoning of the Spanish Parliament (March 7).
*January 8 – General Maritime T ...
: Dissolution of the Maratha Empire.
*
1821
Events
January–March
* January 21 – Peter I Island in the Antarctic is first sighted, by Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen.
* January 28 – Alexander Island, the largest in Antarctica, is first discovered by Fabian Gottlieb von Be ...
–
1823
Events January–March
* January 22 – By secret treaty signed at the Congress of Verona, the Quintuple Alliance gives France a mandate to invade Spain for the purpose of restoring Ferdinand VII (who has been captured by armed revolutio ...
: First Mexican Empire, as Mexico's first post-independent government, ruled by Emperor Agustín de Iturbide, Agustín I of Mexico.
* 1822: Pedro I of Brazil declared Brazil's independence from Portugal on 7 September.
*
1823
Events January–March
* January 22 – By secret treaty signed at the Congress of Verona, the Quintuple Alliance gives France a mandate to invade Spain for the purpose of restoring Ferdinand VII (who has been captured by armed revolutio ...
: Monroe Doctrine declared by US President James Monroe.
*
1825
Events
January–March
* January 4 – King Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies dies in Naples and is succeeded by his son, Francis.
* February 3 – Vendsyssel-Thy, once part of the Jutland peninsula forming westernmost Denmark, becomes a ...
: The Decembrist revolt.
![Kolman decembrists](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/Kolman_decembrists.jpg)
*
1829
Events
January–March
* January 19 – August Klingemann's adaptation of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's ''Faust'' premieres in Braunschweig.
* February 27 – Battle of Tarqui: Troops of Gran Colombia and Peru battle to a draw.
* March ...
: Sir Robert Peel founds the Metropolitan Police Service, the first modern police force.
![Emigrants Leave Ireland by Henry Doyle 1868](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/Emigrants_Leave_Ireland_by_Henry_Doyle_1868.jpg)
*
1830
It is known in European history as a rather tumultuous year with the Revolutions of 1830 in France, Belgium, Poland, Switzerland and Italy.
Events January–March
* January 11 – LaGrange College (later the University of North Alabama) b ...
: Anglo-Russian rivalry over Afghanistan, the Great Game, commences and concludes in 1895.
*
1831
Events
January–March
* January 1 – William Lloyd Garrison begins publishing '' The Liberator'', an anti-slavery newspaper, in Boston, Massachusetts.
* January 10 – Japanese department store, Takashimaya in Kyoto establ ...
: November Uprising ends with crushing defeat for Poland in the Battle of Warsaw (1831), Battle of Warsaw.
*
1832
Events
January–March
* January 6 – Abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison founds the New-England Anti-Slavery Society.
* January 13 – The Christmas Rebellion of slaves is brought to an end in Jamaica, after the island's white plan ...
: The British Parliament passes the Great Reform Act.
* 1834–
1859
Events
January–March
* January 21 – José Mariano Salas (1797–1867) becomes Conservative interim President of Mexico.
* January 24 ( O. S.) – Wallachia and Moldavia are united under Alexandru Ioan Cuza (Romania since 1866, final u ...
: Imam Shamil's rebellion in Russian-occupied
Caucasus.
*
1835
Events
January–March
* January 7 – anchors off the Chonos Archipelago on her second voyage, with Charles Darwin on board as naturalist.
* January 8 – The United States public debt contracts to zero, for the only time in history.
...
–
1836
Events
January–March
* January 1 – Queen Maria II of Portugal marries Prince Ferdinand Augustus Francis Anthony of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha.
* January 5 – Davy Crockett arrives in Texas.
* January 12
** , with Charles Darwin on board, r ...
: The
Texas Revolution in Mexico resulted in the short-lived Republic of Texas.
*
1836
Events
January–March
* January 1 – Queen Maria II of Portugal marries Prince Ferdinand Augustus Francis Anthony of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha.
* January 5 – Davy Crockett arrives in Texas.
* January 12
** , with Charles Darwin on board, r ...
: Samuel Colt popularizes the revolver and sets up a firearms company to manufacture his invention of the Colt Paterson revolver a six bullets firearm shot one by one without reloading manually.
*
1837
Events
January–March
* January 1 – The destructive Galilee earthquake causes 6,000–7,000 casualties in Ottoman Syria.
* January 26 – Michigan becomes the 26th state admitted to the United States.
* February – Charles Dickens's ...
–1838: Rebellions of 1837 in Canada.
* 1838: By this time, 46,000 Native Americans have been forcibly relocated in the Trail of Tears.
*
1839
Events
January–March
* January 2 – The first photograph of the Moon is taken, by French photographer Louis Daguerre.
* January 6 – Night of the Big Wind: Ireland is struck by the most damaging cyclone in 300 years.
* January 9 – T ...
–
1860
Events
January–March
* January 2 – The discovery of a hypothetical planet Vulcan is announced at a meeting of the French Academy of Sciences in Paris, France.
* January 10 – The Pemberton Mill in Lawrence, Massachusett ...
: After the First Opium War, First and Second Opium Wars, France, the United Kingdom, the United States and Russia gain many Treaty ports, trade and associated concessions from China resulting in the start of the decline of the
Qing dynasty.
*
1839
Events
January–March
* January 2 – The first photograph of the Moon is taken, by French photographer Louis Daguerre.
* January 6 – Night of the Big Wind: Ireland is struck by the most damaging cyclone in 300 years.
* January 9 – T ...
–1919: Anglo-Afghan Wars lead to stalemate and the establishment of the Durand line
*
1842
Events
January–March
* January
** Michael Alexander takes office, as the first appointee to the Anglican-German Bishopric in Jerusalem.
** American medical student William E. Clarke of Berkshire Medical College becomes the first pe ...
: Treaty of Nanking cedes Hong Kong to the British.
* 1843: The first wagon train sets out from Missouri.
*
1844
In the Philippines, it was the only leap year with 365 days, as December 31 was skipped when 1845 began after December 30.
Events
January–March
* January 15 – The University of Notre Dame, based in the city of the same name, receives ...
: Rochdale Society of Equitable Pioneers establish what is considered the first cooperative in the world.
* 1845–
1849
Events
January–March
* January 1 – France begins issue of the Ceres series, the nation's first postage stamps.
* January 5 – Hungarian Revolution of 1848: The Austrian army, led by Alfred I, Prince of Windisch-Grätz, enters in th ...
: The Great Famine (Ireland), Great Famine of Ireland leads to the Irish diaspora.
*
1848
1848 is historically famous for the wave of revolutions, a series of widespread struggles for more liberal governments, which broke out from Brazil to Hungary; although most failed in their immediate aims, they significantly altered the polit ...
: ''The Communist Manifesto'' published.
*
1848
1848 is historically famous for the wave of revolutions, a series of widespread struggles for more liberal governments, which broke out from Brazil to Hungary; although most failed in their immediate aims, they significantly altered the polit ...
: Seneca Falls Convention is the first women's rights convention in the United States and leads to the History of Women's Suffrage in the United States, battle for women's suffrage.
*
1848
1848 is historically famous for the wave of revolutions, a series of widespread struggles for more liberal governments, which broke out from Brazil to Hungary; although most failed in their immediate aims, they significantly altered the polit ...
–
1855
Events
January–March
* January 1 – Ottawa, Ontario, is incorporated as a city.
* January 5 – Ramón Castilla begins his third term as President of Peru.
* January 23
** The first bridge over the Mississippi River opens ...
: California Gold Rush.
*
1849
Events
January–March
* January 1 – France begins issue of the Ceres series, the nation's first postage stamps.
* January 5 – Hungarian Revolution of 1848: The Austrian army, led by Alfred I, Prince of Windisch-Grätz, enters in th ...
: Earliest recorded Airstrike, air raid, as Austria employs The Austrian balloons, 200 balloons to deliver ordnance against Venice.
* 1850: The Little Ice Age ends around this time.
* 1850: Franz Hermann Schulze-Delitzsch establishes the first cooperative banking, cooperative financial institution.
1851–1900
* 1851: The Great Exhibition in London was the world's first international Expo or World's fair, World Fair.
*
1852
Events
January–March
* January 14 – President Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte proclaims a new constitution for the French Second Republic.
* January 15 – Nine men representing various Jewish charitable organizations come tog ...
:
Frederick Douglass delivers his speech "The Meaning of July Fourth for the Negro" in Rochester, New York.
*
1857
Events January–March
* January 1 – The biggest Estonian newspaper, ''Postimees'', is established by Johann Voldemar Jannsen.
* January 7 – The partly French-owned London General Omnibus Company begins operating.
* Janua ...
: Sir Joseph Whitworth designs the first long-range sniper rifle.
*
1857
Events January–March
* January 1 – The biggest Estonian newspaper, ''Postimees'', is established by Johann Voldemar Jannsen.
* January 7 – The partly French-owned London General Omnibus Company begins operating.
* Janua ...
–
1858
Events
January–March
* January –
**Benito Juárez (1806–1872) becomes Liberal President of Mexico. At the same time, conservatives install Félix María Zuloaga (1813–1898) as president.
**William I of Prussia becomes regent f ...
:
Indian Rebellion of 1857. The British Empire assumes control of India from the
East India Company.
*
1858
Events
January–March
* January –
**Benito Juárez (1806–1872) becomes Liberal President of Mexico. At the same time, conservatives install Félix María Zuloaga (1813–1898) as president.
**William I of Prussia becomes regent f ...
: Construction of Big Ben is completed.
*
1859
Events
January–March
* January 21 – José Mariano Salas (1797–1867) becomes Conservative interim President of Mexico.
* January 24 ( O. S.) – Wallachia and Moldavia are united under Alexandru Ioan Cuza (Romania since 1866, final u ...
–
1869
Events
January–March
* January 3 – Abdur Rahman Khan is defeated at Tinah Khan, and exiled from Afghanistan.
* January 5 – Scotland's oldest professional football team, Kilmarnock F.C., is founded.
* January 20 – E ...
:
Suez Canal
The Suez Canal ( arz, قَنَاةُ ٱلسُّوَيْسِ, ') is an artificial sea-level waterway in Egypt, connecting the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea through the Isthmus of Suez and dividing Africa and Asia. The long canal is a popular ...
is constructed.
![SuezCanalKantara](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/SuezCanalKantara.jpg)
*
1860
Events
January–March
* January 2 – The discovery of a hypothetical planet Vulcan is announced at a meeting of the French Academy of Sciences in Paris, France.
* January 10 – The Pemberton Mill in Lawrence, Massachusett ...
: Giuseppe Garibaldi launches the Expedition of the Thousand.
*
1861
Statistically, this year is considered the end of the whale oil industry and (in replacement) the beginning of the petroleum oil industry.
Events
January–March
* January 1
** Benito Juárez captures Mexico City.
** The first steam-p ...
: Russia Emancipation reform of 1861 in Russia, abolishes serfdom.
*
1862
Events
January–March
* January 1 – The United Kingdom annexes Lagos Island, in modern-day Nigeria.
* January 6 – French intervention in Mexico: French, Spanish and British forces arrive in Veracruz, Mexico.
* January ...
–
1877
Events
January–March
* January 1 – Queen Victoria is proclaimed ''Empress of India'' by the ''Royal Titles Act 1876'', introduced by Benjamin Disraeli, the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom .
* January 8 – Great Sio ...
: Dungan revolt (1862–1877), Muslim Rebellion in north-west China.
*
1863
Events
January–March
* January 1 – Abraham Lincoln signs the Emancipation Proclamation during the third year of the American Civil War, making the abolition of slavery in the Confederate states an official war goal. It proclaims t ...
: Formation of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, International Red Cross is followed by the adoption of the First Geneva Convention in 1864.
*
1865
Events
January–March
* January 4 – The New York Stock Exchange opens its first permanent headquarters at Broad Street (Manhattan), 10-12 Broad near Wall Street, in New York City.
* January 13 – American Civil War : Sec ...
–
1877
Events
January–March
* January 1 – Queen Victoria is proclaimed ''Empress of India'' by the ''Royal Titles Act 1876'', introduced by Benjamin Disraeli, the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom .
* January 8 – Great Sio ...
: Reconstruction era of the United States, Reconstruction in the United States; Slavery is banned in the United States by the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution.
*
1868
Events
January–March
* January 2 – British Expedition to Abyssinia: Robert Napier leads an expedition to free captive British officials and missionaries.
* January 3 – The 15-year-old Mutsuhito, Emperor Meiji of Jap ...
: Michael Barrett (Fenian), Michael Barrett is the last person to be publicly hanged in England.
*
1869
Events
January–March
* January 3 – Abdur Rahman Khan is defeated at Tinah Khan, and exiled from Afghanistan.
* January 5 – Scotland's oldest professional football team, Kilmarnock F.C., is founded.
* January 20 – E ...
: The
Suez Canal
The Suez Canal ( arz, قَنَاةُ ٱلسُّوَيْسِ, ') is an artificial sea-level waterway in Egypt, connecting the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea through the Isthmus of Suez and dividing Africa and Asia. The long canal is a popular ...
opens linking the Mediterranean Sea, Mediterranean to the Red Sea.
![Schwarzer Freitag Wien 1873](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/07/Schwarzer_Freitag_Wien_1873.jpg)
*
1870
Events
January–March
* January 1
** The first edition of ''The Northern Echo'' newspaper is published in Priestgate, Darlington, England.
** Plans for the Brooklyn Bridge are completed.
* January 3 – Construction of the Broo ...
: Official dismantling of the Cultivation System and beginning of a 'Liberal Period (Dutch East Indies), Liberal Policy' of deregulated exploitation of the Netherlands East Indies.
[Vickers (2005), page xii]
*
1870
Events
January–March
* January 1
** The first edition of ''The Northern Echo'' newspaper is published in Priestgate, Darlington, England.
** Plans for the Brooklyn Bridge are completed.
* January 3 – Construction of the Broo ...
–1890: Long Depression in Western Europe and North America.
*
1871
Events January–March
* January 3 – Franco-Prussian War – Battle of Bapaume: Prussians win a strategic victory.
* January 18 – Proclamation of the German Empire: The member states of the North German Confederation and the sout ...
–1872: List of famines, Famine in Iran, Persia is believed to have caused the death of 2 million.
*
1871
Events January–March
* January 3 – Franco-Prussian War – Battle of Bapaume: Prussians win a strategic victory.
* January 18 – Proclamation of the German Empire: The member states of the North German Confederation and the sout ...
: The Paris Commune briefly rules the French capital.
* 1872: Yellowstone National Park, the first national park, is created.
* 1874: The ''Société Anonyme Coopérative des Artistes Peintres, Sculpteurs, and Graveurs'', better known as the Impressionists, organize and present their first public group exhibition at the Paris studio of the photographer Nadar (photographer), Nadar.
* 1874: The Home Rule Movement is established in Ireland.
*
1875
Events
January–March
* January 1 – The Midland Railway of England abolishes the Second Class passenger category, leaving First Class and Third Class. Other British railway companies follow Midland's lead during the rest of the ...
: ''HMS Challenger'' surveys the deepest point in the Earth's oceans, the Challenger Deep
*
1876
Events
January–March
* January 1
** The Reichsbank opens in Berlin.
** The Bass Brewery Red Triangle becomes the world's first registered trademark symbol.
* February 2 – The National League of Professional Base Ball Clubs i ...
: Battle of the Little Bighorn leads to the death of General Custer and victory for the alliance of Lakota people, Lakota, Northern Cheyenne, Cheyenne and Arapaho
*
1876
Events
January–March
* January 1
** The Reichsbank opens in Berlin.
** The Bass Brewery Red Triangle becomes the world's first registered trademark symbol.
* February 2 – The National League of Professional Base Ball Clubs i ...
–1914: The massive expansion in population, territory, industry and wealth in the United States is referred to as the Gilded Age.
*
1877
Events
January–March
* January 1 – Queen Victoria is proclaimed ''Empress of India'' by the ''Royal Titles Act 1876'', introduced by Benjamin Disraeli, the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom .
* January 8 – Great Sio ...
: Great Railroad Strike in the United States may have been the world's first nationwide Strike action, labour strike.
*
1881
Events
January–March
* January 1– 24 – Siege of Geok Tepe: Russian troops under General Mikhail Skobelev defeat the Turkomans.
* January 13 – War of the Pacific – Battle of San Juan and Chorrillos: The C ...
: Wave of Anti-Jewish pogroms in the Russian Empire, pogroms begins in the Russian Empire.
*
1881
Events
January–March
* January 1– 24 – Siege of Geok Tepe: Russian troops under General Mikhail Skobelev defeat the Turkomans.
* January 13 – War of the Pacific – Battle of San Juan and Chorrillos: The C ...
–
1882
Events
January–March
* January 2
** The Standard Oil Trust is secretly created in the United States to control multiple corporations set up by John D. Rockefeller and his associates.
** Irish-born author Oscar Wilde arrives in ...
: The Jules Ferry laws are passed in French Third Republic, France establishing free, secular education.
*
1883
Events
January–March
* January 4 – ''Life'' magazine is founded in Los Angeles, California, United States.
* January 10 – A fire at the Newhall Hotel in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States, kills 73 people.
* Ja ...
: Krakatoa volcano explosion, one of the largest in modern history.
*
1883
Events
January–March
* January 4 – ''Life'' magazine is founded in Los Angeles, California, United States.
* January 10 – A fire at the Newhall Hotel in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States, kills 73 people.
* Ja ...
: The quagga is rendered extinct.
* 1886: Construction of the Statue of Liberty; Coca-Cola is developed.
* 1888: Founding of the shipping line ''Koninklijke Paketvaart-Maatschappij'' (KPM) that supported the unification and development of the colonial economy.
* 1888: The Golden Law abolishes slavery in Brazil.
*
1889
Events
January–March
* January 1
** The total solar eclipse of January 1, 1889 is seen over parts of California and Nevada.
** Paiute spiritual leader Wovoka experiences a vision, leading to the start of the Ghost Dance movement in the ...
: Eiffel Tower is inaugurated in Paris.
![Filipino Ilustrados Jose Rizal Marcelo del Pilar Mariano Ponce](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Filipino_Ilustrados_Jose_Rizal_Marcelo_del_Pilar_Mariano_Ponce.jpg)
*
1889
Events
January–March
* January 1
** The total solar eclipse of January 1, 1889 is seen over parts of California and Nevada.
** Paiute spiritual leader Wovoka experiences a vision, leading to the start of the Ghost Dance movement in the ...
: A republican military coup establishes the First Brazilian Republic. The Empire of Brazil, parliamentary constitutional monarchy is abolished.
*
1889
Events
January–March
* January 1
** The total solar eclipse of January 1, 1889 is seen over parts of California and Nevada.
** Paiute spiritual leader Wovoka experiences a vision, leading to the start of the Ghost Dance movement in the ...
-1890: 1889–1890 pandemic kills 1 million people.
* 1890: First use of the electric chair as a method of execution.
* 1892: The World's Columbian Exposition was held in
Chicago celebrating the 400th anniversary of Christopher Columbus's arrival in the New World.
* 1892: Fingerprinting is officially adopted for the first time.
* 1893:
New Zealand becomes the first country to enact women's suffrage.
* 1893: The Coremans-de Vriendt law is passed in
Belgium, creating legal equality for French language, French and Dutch languages.
*
1894
Events January–March
* January 4 – A military alliance is established between the French Third Republic and the Russian Empire.
* January 7 – William Kennedy Dickson receives a patent for motion picture film in the United S ...
: The Dutch intervention in Lombok and Karangasem
resulted in the looting and destruction of Cakranegara Palace in Mataram (city), Mataram.
[Wahyu Ernawati: "Chapter 8: The Lombok Treasure", in ''Colonial collections Revisited'': Pieter ter Keurs (editor) Vol. 152, CNWS publications. Issue 36 of ''Mededelingen van het Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde'', Leiden. CNWS Publications, 2007. . 296 pages. pp. 186–203] J. L. A. Brandes, a Dutch philologist, discovers and secures Nagarakretagama manuscript in Lombok royal library.
*
1896
Events
January–March
* January 2 – The Jameson Raid comes to an end, as Jameson surrenders to the Boers.
* January 4 – Utah is admitted as the 45th U.S. state.
* January 5 – An Austrian newspaper reports that Wil ...
:
Philippine Revolution ends declaring Philippines free from Spanish rule.
*
1898
Events
January–March
* January 1 – New York City annexes land from surrounding counties, creating the City of Greater New York as the world's second largest. The city is geographically divided into five boroughs: Manhattan, B ...
: The United States gains control of
Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines after the
Spanish–American War.
*
1898
Events
January–March
* January 1 – New York City annexes land from surrounding counties, creating the City of Greater New York as the world's second largest. The city is geographically divided into five boroughs: Manhattan, B ...
: Empress Dowager Cixi of Qing Dynasty, China engineers a coup d'état, marking the end of the Hundred Days' Reform; the Guangxu Emperor is arrested.
* 1900: Exposition Universelle (1900), Exposition Universelle held in Paris, prominently featuring the growing art trend Art Nouveau.
* 1900–
1901
Events
January
* January 1 – The Crown colony, British colonies of New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria (Australia), Victoria and Western Australia Federation of Australia, federate as the Australia, ...
: Eight-Nation Alliance, Eight nations invade China at the same time and ransack Forbidden City.
Supplementary portrait gallery
File:Carl Friedrich Gauss 1840 by Jensen.jpg, Carl Friedrich Gauss
File:Charles Robert Darwin by John Collier cropped.jpg, Charles Darwin
File:Victor Hugo by Étienne Carjat 1876 - full.jpg, Victor Hugo c. 1876
File:Kramskoy Mendeleev 01.jpg, Dmitri Mendeleev
Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev (sometimes transliterated as Mendeleyev or Mendeleef) ( ; russian: links=no, Дмитрий Иванович Менделеев, tr. , ; 8 February Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates">O.S._27_January.html" ;"title="O ...
File:Louis Pasteur.jpg, Louis Pasteur
Louis Pasteur (, ; 27 December 1822 – 28 September 1895) was a French chemist and microbiologist renowned for his discoveries of the principles of vaccination, microbial fermentation and pasteurization, the latter of which was named afte ...
, 1878
File:Mariecurie.jpg, Marie Curie, c. 1898
File:Nikola Tesla by Sarony c1898.jpg, Nikola Tesla
File:Jose Rizal full.jpg, José Rizal
File:Jane Austen (chopped) 2.jpg, Jane Austen
File:Leo Tolstoy 1897, black and white, 37767u.jpg, Leo Tolstoy c. 1897
File:Edgar Allan Poe 2.jpg, Edgar Allan Poe
File:Félix_Nadar_1820-1910_portraits_Jules_Verne.jpg, Jules Verne
File:Charles Dickens 3.jpg, Charles Dickens
File:Carjat Arthur Rimbaud 1872 n2.jpg, Arthur Rimbaud c. 1872
File:Twain in Tesla's Lab.jpg, Mark Twain, 1894
File:RWEmerson.jpg, Ralph Waldo Emerson
File:Benjamin D. Maxham - Henry David Thoreau - Restored - greyscale - straightened.jpg, Henry David Thoreau, August 1861.
File:Emile Zola 2.jpg, Émile Zola, c. 1900
File:Chekhov 1903 ArM.jpg, Anton Chekhov
File:Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoyevsky 1876.jpg, Fyodor Dostoevsky, 1876
File:John L Sullivan.jpg, John L Sullivan in his prime, c. 1882
File:David Livingstone -1.jpg, David Livingstone 1864, left Great Britain, Britain for Africa in 1840
File:Jesse and Frank James.gif, Jesse James, Jesse and Frank James, 1872
File:William Notman studios - Sitting Bull and Buffalo Bill (1895) edit.jpg, Sitting Bull and Buffalo Bill Cody, Montreal, Quebec, 1885
File:Goyaale.jpg, Geronimo, 1887, prominent leader of the Chiricahua Apache
File:Billy the Kid corrected.jpg, William Bonney aka Henry McCarty aka Billy the Kid, c. late 1870s
File:Wyatt Earp und Bat Masterson 1876.jpg, Deputies Bat Masterson and Wyatt Earp in Dodge City, 1876
File:Mathew Brady 1875 cropped.jpg, Mathew Brady, Self-portrait, c. 1875
File:Alfred Lord Tennyson 1869.jpg, Alfred, Lord Tennyson
File:Thomas Nast - Brady-Handy.jpg, Thomas Nast, c. 1860–1875, photo by Mathew Brady or Levin Handy
File:Hadhrat Mirza Ghulam Ahmad2.jpg, Mirza Ghulam Ahmad
File:Bakunin.png, Mikhail Bakunin
File:Kierkegaard.jpg, Søren Kierkegaard
File:Solomon Northup 001 (cropped).jpg, Solomon Northup
File:Dred Scott photograph (circa 1857).jpg, Dred Scott
File:Madame CJ Walker.gif, Madam C. J. Walker
File:Claude Monet, Impression, soleil levant.jpg, Claude Monet's ''Impression, Sunrise'', 1872, gave the name to Impressionism
File:Paul Cézanne 159.jpg, Paul Cézanne, self-portrait, 1880–1881
File:Scott Joplin.jpg, Scott Joplin
File:NiccoloPaganini.jpeg, Niccolò Paganini, c.1819
File:Eugène Ferdinand Victor Delacroix 043.jpg, Frédéric Chopin, 1838
File:John D. Rockefeller, Sr.jpg, John D. Rockefeller
See also
*Timelines of modern history
*Long nineteenth century
*19th century in film
*19th century in games
*19th-century philosophy
*Nineteenth-century theatre
*International relations (1814–1919)
*List of wars: 1800–1899
*
Victorian era
*France in the long nineteenth century
*History of Spain (1808–1874)
*History of Russia (1855–1892)
*Slavery in the United States
*Timeline of 19th-century Muslim history
*Timeline of historic inventions#19th century, Timeline of historic inventions
References
Further reading
* Langer, William. ''An Encyclopedia of World History'' (5th ed. 1973); highly detailed outline of event
online free* Morris, Richard B. and Graham W. Irwin, eds. ''Harper Encyclopedia of the Modern World: A Concise Reference History from 1760 to the Present'' (1970
online frr
* ''New Cambridge Modern History'' (13 vol 1957–79), old but thorough coverage, mostly of Europe; strong on diplomacy
**Bury, J. P. T. ed. ''The New Cambridge Modern History: Vol. 10: the Zenith of European Power, 1830–70'' (1964
online**Crawley, C. W., ed. ''The New Cambridge Modern History Volume IX War and Peace In An Age of Upheaval 1793–1830'' (1965)
online**Darby, H. C. and H. Fullard ''The New Cambridge Modern History, Vol. 14: Atlas'' (1972)
**Hinsley, F.H., ed. ''The New Cambridge Modern History, vol. 11, Material Progress and World-Wide Problems 1870–1898'' (1979
online
Diplomacy and international relations
*
*
* Bridge, F. R. & Roger Bullen. ''The Great Powers and the European States System 1814–1914'', 2nd Ed. (2005)
*
* Herring, George C. ''Years of Peril and Ambition: U.S. Foreign Relations, 1776–1921'' (2017)
* Paul Kennedy, Kennedy, Paul. The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers, ''The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers Economic Change and Military Conflict From 1500–2000'' (1987), stress on economic and military factors
* Langer, William. ''European Alliances and Alignments 1870–1890'' (1950); advanced histor
online* Langer, William. ''The Diplomacy of Imperialism 1890–1902'' (1950); advanced histor
online* Mowat, R.B. ''A history of European diplomacy, 1815–1914'' (1922
online free*
* Porter, Andrew, ed. ''The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume III: The Nineteenth Century'' (2001)
* Sontag, Raymond. ''European Diplomatic History: 1871–1932'' (1933), basic summary; 425 p
online* Taylor, A.J.P. ''The Struggle for Mastery in Europe 1848–1918'' (1954) 638 pp; advanced history and analysis of major diplomacy
online free* Taylor, A.J.P. "International Relations" in F.H. Hinsley, ed., ''The New Cambridge Modern History: XI: Material Progress and World-Wide Problems, 1870–98'' (1962): 542–66
online*
Europe
* Anderson, M. S. ''The Ascendancy of Europe: 1815–1914'' (3rd ed. 2003)
* Blanning, T. C. W. ed. ''The Nineteenth Century: Europe 1789–1914'' (Short Oxford History of Europe) (2000) 320 pp
* Bruun, Geoffrey. ''Europe and the French Imperium, 1799–1814 '' (1938
online
* Cameron, Rondo. ''France and the Economic Development of Europe, 1800–1914: Conquests of Peace and Seeds of War'' (1961), awide-ranging economic and business history.
* Evans, Richard J. ''The Pursuit of Power: Europe 1815–1914'' (2016), 934 pp
* Gildea, Robert. ''Barricades and Borders: Europe 1800–1914'' (3rd ed. 2003) 544 pp,
online 2nd ed, 1996*
* Mason, David S. ''A Concise History of Modern Europe: Liberty, Equality, Solidarity'' (2011), since 1700
* Merriman, John, and J. M. Winter, eds. ''Europe 1789 to 1914: Encyclopedia of the Age of Industry and Empire'' (5 vol. 2006)
* Steinberg, Jonathan. ''Bismarck: A Life'' (2011)
* Salmi, Hannu. ''19th Century Europe: A Cultural History'' (2008).
Asia, Africa
* Ajayi, J. F. Ade, ed. ''UNESCO General History of Africa, Vol. VI, Abridged Edition: Africa in the Nineteenth Century until the 1880s'' (1998)
*
* Chamberlain. M.E. ''The Scramble for Africa'' (3rd ed. 2010)
* Collins, Robert O. and James M, Burns, eds. ''A History of Sub-Saharan Africa''.
*Basil Davidson, Davidson, Basil ''Africa In History, Themes and Outlines''. (2nd ed. 1991).
*
* Ludden, David. ''India and South Asia: A Short History'' (2013).
* McEvedy, Colin. ''The Penguin Atlas of African History'' (2nd ed. 1996)
excerpt* Mansfield, Peter, and Nicolas Pelham, ''A History of the Middle East'' (4th ed, 2013).
*
* Pakenham, Thomas. ''The Scramble for Africa: 1876 to 1912'' (1992)
North and South America
*Bakewell, Peter, ''A History of Latin America'' (Blackwell, 1997)
* Beezley, William, and Michael Meyer, eds. ''The Oxford History of Mexico'' (2010)
*
* Black, Conrad. ''Rise to Greatness: The History of Canada From the Vikings to the Present'' (2014)
* Burns, E. Bradford, ''Latin America: A Concise Interpretive History'', paperback, PrenticeHall 2001, 7th edition
* Howe, Daniel Walker. ''What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815–1848'' (2009), Pulitzer Prize
* Kirkland, Edward C. ''A History Of American Economic Life'' (3rd ed. 1960
online* Lynch, John, ed. ''Latin American revolutions, 1808–1826: old and new world origins'' (University of Oklahoma Press, 1994)
* McPherson, James M. ''Battle Cry of Freedom The CIvil War Era'' (1988) Pulitzer Prize for US history
* Parry, J.H. ''A Short History of the West Indies'' (1987)
* Paxson, Frederic Logan. ''History of the American frontier, 1763–1893'' (1924)
online Pulitzer Prize
* White, Richard. ''The Republic for Which It Stands: The United States during Reconstruction and the Gilded Age, 1865–1896'' (2017)
Primary sources
* de Bary, Wm. Theodore, ed. ''Sources of East Asian Tradition, Vol. 2: The Modern Period'' (2008), 1192 pp
* Kertesz, G.A. ed ''Documents in the Political History of the European Continent 1815–1939'' (1968), 507 pp; several hundred short documents
External links
*
{{Authority control
19th century,
2nd millennium
Centuries
Late modern period