The 1966 flood of the Arno ( it, Alluvione di Firenze del 4 novembre 1966) in
Florence
Florence ( ; it, Firenze ) is a city in Central Italy and the capital city of the Tuscany region. It is the most populated city in Tuscany, with 383,083 inhabitants in 2016, and over 1,520,000 in its metropolitan area.Bilancio demografico an ...
killed 101 people and damaged or destroyed millions of masterpieces of art and rare books. It is considered the worst
flood
A flood is an overflow of water ( or rarely other fluids) that submerges land that is usually dry. In the sense of "flowing water", the word may also be applied to the inflow of the tide. Floods are an area of study of the discipline hydrol ...
in the city's history since 1557. With the combined effort of Italian and foreign volunteers alike, or ''
angeli del fango
Angeli may refer to:
Surname In arts and media
*Alfredo Angeli (born 1927), Italian director and screenwriter
*Angeli (cartoonist), Brazilian comic book writer and illustrator
*Ève Angeli (born 1980), French pop singer
*Filippo d'Angeli (1600– ...
'' ("Mud Angels"), many of these fine works have been restored. New methods in
conservation
Conservation is the preservation or efficient use of resources, or the conservation of various quantities under physical laws.
Conservation may also refer to:
Environment and natural resources
* Nature conservation, the protection and manageme ...
were devised and
restoration
Restoration is the act of restoring something to its original state and may refer to:
* Conservation and restoration of cultural heritage
** Audio restoration
** Film restoration
** Image restoration
** Textile restoration
* Restoration ecology
...
laboratories established. However, even decades later, much work remains to be done.
Overview
Located in the
Tuscany
Tuscany ( ; it, Toscana ) is a Regions of Italy, region in central Italy with an area of about and a population of about 3.8 million inhabitants. The regional capital is Florence (''Firenze'').
Tuscany is known for its landscapes, history, art ...
region of
Central Italy
Central Italy ( it, Italia centrale or just ) is one of the five official statistical regions of Italy used by the National Institute of Statistics (ISTAT), a first-level NUTS region, and a European Parliament constituency.
Regions
Central It ...
, the
Arno
The Arno is a river in the Tuscany region of Italy. It is the most important river of central Italy after the Tiber.
Source and route
The river originates on Monte Falterona in the Casentino area of the Apennines, and initially takes a s ...
river is approximately long. It flows from the Mount Falterona hills of the
Apennine Mountains
The Apennines or Apennine Mountains (; grc-gre, links=no, Ἀπέννινα ὄρη or Ἀπέννινον ὄρος; la, Appenninus or – a singular with plural meaning;''Apenninus'' (Greek or ) has the form of an adjective, which wou ...
to the
Ligurian Sea
The Ligurian Sea ( it, Mar Ligure; french: Mer Ligurienne; lij, Mâ Ligure) is an arm of the Mediterranean Sea. It lies between the Italian Riviera (Liguria) and the island of Corsica. The sea is thought to have been named after the ancient L ...
, just west of
Pisa
Pisa ( , or ) is a city and ''comune'' in Tuscany, central Italy, straddling the Arno just before it empties into the Ligurian Sea. It is the capital city of the Province of Pisa. Although Pisa is known worldwide for its leaning tower, the cit ...
.
Lush vineyards and olive groves line the river's scenic course to the west, out to sea. Principally utilized for
irrigation
Irrigation (also referred to as watering) is the practice of applying controlled amounts of water to land to help grow Crop, crops, Landscape plant, landscape plants, and Lawn, lawns. Irrigation has been a key aspect of agriculture for over 5,00 ...
purposes, only of the river is used for navigation.
The highest flows of the river generally occur in spring and autumn of every year, when rainfall in the Apennines is at its greatest. The intensity of the 1966 flood was further increased by both the
topography
Topography is the study of the forms and features of land surfaces. The topography of an area may refer to the land forms and features themselves, or a description or depiction in maps.
Topography is a field of geoscience and planetary sci ...
of the Apennines, which contributed to the high run-off rates and river discharges, and urban development. Roads, such as the Via de Calzaiuoli, served as narrow channels for floodwaters, allowing for their greater speed and destruction within the city; bridges, on the other hand, hindered river flow where it was needed, allowing water to pour over the
floodplain
A floodplain or flood plain or bottomlands is an area of land adjacent to a river which stretches from the banks of its channel to the base of the enclosing valley walls, and which experiences flooding during periods of high discharge.Goudi ...
with great force.
Timeline of events
3 November
* After a long period of steady rain, the Levane and La Penna dams in Valdarno began to discharge more than of water per second toward Florence.
* At 14:30, the Civil Engineering Department reported "'an exceptional quantity of water.'"
* Cellars in the
Santa Croce and San Frediano areas began to flood.
* Police received calls for assistance from villagers up the Arno Valley.
* The flood's first victim, a 52-year-old worker, died at the Anconella
water treatment plant
Water treatment is any process that improves the quality of water to make it appropriate for a specific end-use. The end use may be drinking, industrial water supply, irrigation, river flow maintenance, water recreation or many other uses, includ ...
.
4 November
* At 04:00, engineers, fearing that the Valdarno dam would burst, discharged a mass of water that eventually reached the outskirts of Florence at a rate of .
* At 07:26, the Lungarno delle Grazie cut off gas, electricity and water supplies to affected areas.
* By 08:00, army barracks were flooded.
* By 09:00, hospital emergency generators (the only source of electrical power remaining) failed.
* Landslides obstructed roads leading to Florence, while narrow streets within city limits funneled floodwaters, increasing their height and velocity.
* By 09:45, the
Piazza del Duomo was flooded.
* The powerful waters ruptured central heating oil tanks, and the oil mixed with the water and mud, causing greater damage.
* Florence was divided in two, and officials were unable to immediately reach citizens of the city past the Piazza Michelangelo.
* At its highest, the water reached over in the Santa Croce area.
* By 20:00, the water began to lower.
Impact
The flood has had a lasting impact on Florence, economically and culturally. City officials and citizens were unprepared for the storm and the widespread devastation that it caused. There were virtually no emergency measures in place, at least partially because Florence is located in an area where the frequency of flooding is relatively low. In fact, approximately 90% of the city's population were completely unaware of the imminent disaster.
Residents were set to celebrate their country's World War I victory over
Austria
Austria, , bar, Östareich officially the Republic of Austria, is a country in the southern part of Central Europe, lying in the Eastern Alps. It is a federation of nine states, one of which is the capital, Vienna, the most populous ...
on 4 November,
Armed Forces Day
Many nations around the world observe some kind of Armed Forces Day to honor their military forces. This day is not to be confused with Veterans Day or Memorial Day.
Africa
Egypt
In Egypt, Armed Forces Day is celebrated on 6 October, ...
. In commemoration, businesses were closed and many of their employees were out of town for the public holiday. While many lives were likely spared as a result, the locked buildings greatly inhibited the salvaging of valuable materials from numerous institutions and shops, with the exception of a number of jewellery stores whose owners were warned by their nightwatchmen.
5,000 families were left homeless by the storm, and 6,000 stores were forced out of business.
Approximately 600,000 tons of mud, rubble and sewage severely damaged or destroyed numerous collections of books, manuscripts and fine art. It is estimated that between books and manuscripts were damaged, as well as 14,000 movable works of art.
Artist
Marco Sassone
Marco Sassone, OMRI (born 1942, in Campi Bisenzio) is an American-Italian painter. He moved to Florence in 1954, where his interest in painting began. He studied architectural drafting at the Istituto Galileo Galilei, and sold his first works, w ...
, in a 1969 interview, recalled the impact of the flood on Florence's residents: "The only thing you could do was watch and be helpless. Nature was master...the women became crazy with fear. They began throwing things from the windows and screaming 'who is going to save my children?'" It was reported that 101 people lost their lives in the flood waters.
Collections affected
![National Library manuscripts being washed in Florence after the 1966 flood of the Arno - UNESCO - PHOTO 0000001407 0001 - Restoration](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/National_Library_manuscripts_being_washed_in_Florence_after_the_1966_flood_of_the_Arno_-_UNESCO_-_PHOTO_0000001407_0001_-_Restoration.jpg)
* Archives of the Opera del
Duomo
''Duomo'' (, ) is an Italian term for a church with the features of, or having been built to serve as, a cathedral, whether or not it currently plays this role. Monza Cathedral, for example, has never been a diocesan seat and is by definition not ...
(Archivio di Opera del Duomo): 6,000 volumes of documents and 55 illuminated manuscripts were damaged.
*
Gabinetto Vieusseux Library (Biblioteca del Gabinetto Vieusseux): All 250,000 volumes were damaged, including titles of romantic literature and Risorgimento history; submerged in water, they became swollen and distorted. Pages, separated from their text blocks, were found pressed upon the walls and ceiling of the building.
*
National Central Library
The National Central Library (NCL; ) is the national library of the Taiwan, Republic of China (Taiwan), which is located at No. 20, Zhongshan S. Rd., Zhongzheng District, Taipei City 10001, Taiwan. It will soon have a subsidiary called Southe ...
(Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale Firenze):
Located alongside the Arno, the National Library was cut off from the rest of the city by the flood. 1,300,000 items (a third of their holdings) were damaged, including prints, maps, posters, newspapers and a majority of works in the Palatine and Magliabechi collections.
* The State Archives (
Archivio di Stato): Roughly 40% of the collection was damaged, including property and financial records; birth, marriage and death records; judicial and administrative documents; and police records, among others.
*
Biblioteca e Archivio del Risorgimento
Biblioteca e Archivio del Risorgimento ''Library and Archive of the Risorgimento">Risorgimento.html" ;"title="''Library and Archive of the Risorgimento">''Library and Archive of the Risorgimento located in the Historic Center of Florence, house ...
(Library and Archive of the Italian Unification): 7,000 volumes were inundated. The facility and collections were restored and the Library and Archive reopened in 1969.
Others:
* Academy of Agriculturists (
Accademia dei Georgofili
The Accademia dei Georgofili (Academy of Georgofili) is an educational institution in Florence, Italy. It was established in 1753. The academy has been a historic institution for over 250 years, and is best known for promoting, amongst scholars a ...
)
* Historic Institute of the Resistance (Istituto Storico della Resistenza)
* Hospital of the Innocents (
Ospedale degli Innocenti
The Ospedale degli Innocenti (;) 'Hospital of the Innocents', also known in old Tuscan dialect as the ''Spedale degli Innocenti'', is a historic building in Florence, Italy. It was designed by Filippo Brunelleschi, who received the commission in ...
)
* Institute and Museum of the History of Science (
Istituto e Museo di Storia della Scienza
Museo Galileo, the former ''Istituto e Museo di Storia della Scienza'' (Institute and Museum of the History of Science) is located in Florence, Italy, in Piazza dei Giudici, along the River Arno and close to the Uffizi Gallery. The museum, dedicate ...
)
*
Uffizi
The Uffizi Gallery (; it, Galleria degli Uffizi, italic=no, ) is a prominent art museum located adjacent to the Piazza della Signoria in the Historic Centre of Florence in the region of Tuscany, Italy. One of the most important Italian museums ...
Gallery
* Book shops and antique book dealers, many in possession of rare materials
* Numerous private collections
* The collections of numerous
churches and cathedrals
Works affected
*
''Crucifix'' by
Giovanni Cimabue
* ''
Gates of Paradise'' by
Lorenzo Ghiberti
Lorenzo Ghiberti (, , ; 1378 – 1 December 1455), born Lorenzo di Bartolo, was an Italian Renaissance sculptor from Florence, a key figure in the Early Renaissance, best known as the creator of two sets of bronze doors of the Florence Baptistery ...
* ''
Magdalene Penitent
The ''Penitent Magdalene'' is a wooden sculpture of Mary Magdalene by the Italian Renaissance sculptor Donatello, created around 1453–1455. The sculpture was probably commissioned for the Baptistery of Florence. The piece was received with asto ...
'' by
Donatello
Donato di Niccolò di Betto Bardi ( – 13 December 1466), better known as Donatello ( ), was a Republic of Florence, Florentine sculptor of the Renaissance period. Born in Republic of Florence, Florence, he studied classical sculpture and use ...
Funding and assistance
Realizing the immense wealth and importance of Florentine culture in a global context, many individuals and organizations contributed to the conservation mission, providing both funding and manpower. Art historian and professor
Carlo Ludovico Ragghianti
Carlo Ludovico Ragghianti (18 March 1910 – 3 August 1987) was an Italian art critic, historian, philosopher of art and politician. Life
Born in Lucca, Ragghianti studied in Pisa, where he was a pupil of Matteo Marangoni. His education was inf ...
assembled a committee with
Mayor Piero Bargellini as chairman to raise awareness of the needs of Florence's art and academic institutions. Members included prominent figures from around the world, representatives of their own respective institutions.
A number of other international committees were formed with the intention of sponsoring various institutions in Florence:
* The Franco-Italian Committee aided the Church of Santa Maria Maddalena di Pazzi in Borgo Pinti.
* The U.S. Committee to Rescue Italian Art,
composed of 25 sub-committees and chaired by
Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis
Jacqueline Lee Kennedy Onassis ( ; July 28, 1929 – May 19, 1994) was an American socialite, writer, photographer, and book editor who served as first lady of the United States from 1961 to 1963, as the wife of President John F. Kennedy. A pop ...
, assisted in restoring frescoes around the city.
* The Viennese armory was responsible for restoring the arms and armor of the
Bargello
The Bargello, also known as the Palazzo del Bargello, Museo Nazionale del Bargello, or Palazzo del Popolo (Palace of the People), was a former barracks and prison, now an art museum, in Florence, Italy.
Terminology
The word ''bargello'' appears ...
Museum.
* A Dutch committee sponsored the Buonarroti House Museum.
* A group of Germans repaired the musical instruments of the Bardini Museum.
*The UK Italian Art and Archives Rescue Fund (IAARF) under the chairmanship of Sir Ashley Clarke, former Ambassador to Rome and chairman of the British Italian Society.
The work of and contributions made by these committees were supervised by a central committee in Rome.
Additional funding came from various governments,
UNESCO
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) aimed at promoting world peace and security through international cooperation in education, arts, sciences and culture. It ...
, and the International Committee for the Assistance of Museums, Works of Art, Libraries and Archives, among others. The city of
Edinburgh
Edinburgh ( ; gd, Dùn Èideann ) is the capital city of Scotland and one of its 32 Council areas of Scotland, council areas. Historically part of the county of Midlothian (interchangeably Edinburghshire before 1921), it is located in Lothian ...
(Scotland), twinned with Florence, sent practical help for the citizens in the form of double-decker buses to temporarily replace those which had been lost in the floods. When these eventually returned home, they operated with the international 'GB' registration plate still affixed to the rear; each also carried a small plaque presented by the Florentine transport authorities indicating their gratitude for the gesture made by the people of Edinburgh.
Charity auctions were also organised. In a show of support for the Florentine art community,
Pablo Picasso
Pablo Ruiz Picasso (25 October 1881 – 8 April 1973) was a Spanish painter, sculptor, printmaker, ceramicist and Scenic design, theatre designer who spent most of his adult life in France. One of the most influential artists of the 20th ce ...
had one of his paintings, ''Recumbent Woman Reading'', auctioned off on an internationally televised programme. He donated the $105,000 it earned to restoration efforts in Italy. Similarly,
Pietro Annigoni
Pietro Annigoni, OMRI (7 June 1910 – 28 October 1988) was an Italian artist, portrait painter, fresco painter and medallist, best known for his painted portraits of Queen Elizabeth II. His work was in the Renaissance tradition, contrasting ...
and
Luciano Guarnieri
Luciano is an Italian, Spanish and Portuguese given name and surname. It is derived from Latin ''Lucianus'', patronymic of ''Lucius'' ("Light"). The French language, French form is ''Lucien'', while the Basque language, Basque form is ''Luken''.
...
donated the money they earned from selling 575 colour
lithographs
Lithography () is a planographic method of printing originally based on the immiscibility of oil and water. The printing is from a stone (lithographic limestone) or a metal plate with a smooth surface. It was invented in 1796 by the German a ...
(depicting the events surrounding the flood and its aftermath), produced from 13 of their drawings.
Florentine native
Franco Zeffirelli
Gian Franco Corsi Zeffirelli (12 February 1923 – 15 June 2019), was an Italian stage and film director, producer, production designer and politician. He was one of the most significant opera and theatre directors of the post-World War II era, ...
produced the short documentary ''
Florence: Days of Destruction'' to raise awareness of the flood. Released a month after the disaster, it reputedly raised more than $20 million for reconstruction efforts.
The film was narrated in English and Italian by actor
Richard Burton
Richard Burton (; born Richard Walter Jenkins Jr.; 10 November 1925 – 5 August 1984) was a Welsh actor. Noted for his baritone voice, Burton established himself as a formidable Shakespearean actor in the 1950s, and he gave a memorable pe ...
.
People from
Aberfan
Aberfan () is a former coal mining village in the Taff Valley south of the town of Merthyr Tydfil, Wales.
On 21 October 1966, it became known for the Aberfan disaster, when a colliery spoil tip collapsed into homes and a school, killing 116 ch ...
,
Wales
Wales ( cy, Cymru ) is a Countries of the United Kingdom, country that is part of the United Kingdom. It is bordered by England to the Wales–England border, east, the Irish Sea to the north and west, the Celtic Sea to the south west and the ...
sent parcels with toys and clothes to Florence, which had belonged to the children who had died during the
Aberfan disaster
The Aberfan disaster was the catastrophic collapse of a colliery spoil tip on 21 October 1966. The tip had been created on a mountain slope above the Welsh village of Aberfan, near Merthyr Tydfil, and overlaid a natural spring. Heavy rain led t ...
two weeks earlier.
While many institutions from around the world financially compensated employees who travelled to Italy and aided in the restoration of Florence, many others volunteered their services for absolutely no pay. Collectively, these people have been fondly referred to as "Mud Angels", due to their commitment to working in such deplorable conditions.
The "Mud Angels"
Mario Primicerio, the mayor of Florence from 1995 to 1999, helped celebrate the Mud Angels' (''angeli del fango'') efforts during an anniversary celebration in 1996. Thirty years earlier, he was a professor who lent his assistance in preserving the priceless artifacts of Florence. The Angels cleaned the city of refuse, mud and oil, and retrieved works of art, books and other materials from flooded rooms; experts from around the world volunteered their time and knowledge in the conservation of the aforementioned materials.
In a 1996 interview, Primicerio offered three principal reasons as to why the Mud Angels felt compelled to help: a concern for future generations, a feeling of international unity and a pervasive sense of solidarity.
The "Flood Ladies"
The
Flood Ladies
The Flood Ladies were a group of international female artists who contributed artworks to the city of Florence following the catastrophic 1966 flood of the Arno as a sign of solidarity and to help repair the psychological damage done by the flood ...
were a group of international female artists who contributed artworks to the city of Florence following the catastrophic 1966 flood of the Arno as a sign of solidarity and to help repair the psychological damage done by the flood. The group was formed in
Florence
Florence ( ; it, Firenze ) is a city in Central Italy and the capital city of the Tuscany region. It is the most populated city in Tuscany, with 383,083 inhabitants in 2016, and over 1,520,000 in its metropolitan area.Bilancio demografico an ...
,
Italy
Italy ( it, Italia ), officially the Italian Republic, ) or the Republic of Italy, is a country in Southern Europe. It is located in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea, and its territory largely coincides with the homonymous geographical re ...
in 1966. Contributors to the collection lived all over the world. In 2014 the organization
Advancing Women Artists Foundation
Advancing Women Artists Foundation (AWA) was an American not-for-profit organization (501(c)3), with headquarters in Indianapolis, Indiana, and Florence, Italy. AWA is committed to identifying and restoring artwork by Florence's female artists i ...
headed an effort to preserve, exhibit and acknowledge the contribution of these women.
Conservation measures
![Ivo Bazzechi Cimabue Flood](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/Ivo_Bazzechi_Cimabue_Flood.jpg)
Many experts in the field of conservation, such as
Peter Waters
Peter Godfrey Waters (19 May 1930 – 26 June 2003), a former Conservation Officer at the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C., United States, worked in the areas of disaster recovery and preparedness, and the salvage of water-damaged paper ...
, utilised their knowledge in restoring the works of art and literature ravaged by the flood. Staff from the Central Institute of Restoration and Institute of Book Pathology, for example, volunteered their time, efforts, and expertise in this enormous undertaking. New concepts, such as "phased conservation", and methods in conservation, such as mass deacidification, were conceived during this period after the flood ravaged the city of Florence.
Books and records
Priorities were established during the process of conserving damaged books and records, the most critical of which became the retrieval of materials from flooded rooms. After they were rescued, books and records were typically washed and disinfected. In certain cases,
bindings were cut and sheets treated individually. Following a thorough cleansing, the materials were then dried in Florentine libraries, space permitting, or at locations outside of the city, such as
tobacco kilns and
granaries
A granary is a storehouse or room in a barn for threshed grain or animal feed. Ancient or primitive granaries are most often made of pottery. Granaries are often built above the ground to keep the stored food away from mice and other animals ...
. In some circumstances, large numbers of books were covered with sawdust, as a means of drawing out moisture. When not washed prior to drying, dried mud was then scraped off the exterior of the books.
One or both of two drying techniques was applied: interleaving by hand and/or drying with the aid of domestic heaters or other mechanical equipment. Interleaving involved the placement of blotting papers within the text-block of a book and replacing them once they were fully soaked; a variety of papers were used, including mimeograph paper and green blotting paper (the latter of which ultimately caused more damage). In kilns, the
humidity
Humidity is the concentration of water vapor present in the air. Water vapor, the gaseous state of water, is generally invisible to the human eye. Humidity indicates the likelihood for precipitation, dew, or fog to be present.
Humidity depe ...
level was slowly lowered from ninety to forty percent. If deemed necessary, bindings were removed and dried separately. Removed pages were hung out to dry on an apparatus similar to a
clothes line
A clothes line or washing line is any type of rope, cord, or twine that has been stretched between two points (e.g. two sticks), outside or indoors, above the level of the ground. Clothing that has recently been washed is hung along the line t ...
.
Fearing the spread of
mold
A mold () or mould () is one of the structures certain fungus, fungi can form. The dust-like, colored appearance of molds is due to the formation of Spore#Fungi, spores containing Secondary metabolite#Fungal secondary metabolites, fungal seco ...
, workers completed these tasks with the greatest speed possible. After they were disinfected and dried, the items were then reassembled, restored and, if necessary, rebound.
Card catalogs
A library catalog (or library catalogue in British English) is a register of all bibliographic items found in a library or group of libraries, such as a network of libraries at several locations. A catalog for a group of libraries is also c ...
and in some cases, the actual books and documents were reproduced by reprinting on early
presses,
photocopying
A photocopier (also called copier or copy machine, and formerly Xerox machine, the generic trademark) is a machine that makes copies of documents and other visual images onto paper or plastic film quickly and cheaply. Most modern photocopiers u ...
, or copying by hand.
The National Library Centers of Florence: a case study
Initially the transportation of large numbers of books to other institutes (to repair and rebind) was considered, but decided against on logistical grounds. Within six months of the flood, the National Library of Florence had 144 workers on hand: three binders, eight binder trainees, two librarians, forty-two workmen, eighty-one student volunteers and eight other library staff members.
Together they devised a logical and efficient method of book repair, involving nine separate and clearly defined steps:
* Books were selected for treatment. The details of work to be done were recorded on a formatted card that accompanied its respective book throughout its treatment. Once work was completed, the card was permanently filed. A universal language utilising symbols, created with
foreign worker
Foreign workers or guest workers are people who work in a country other than one of which they are a citizen. Some foreign workers use a guest worker program in a country with more preferred job prospects than in their home country. Guest worker ...
s in mind, was employed in the formatting of this card. Symbols were assigned to key phrases that communicated the condition of each book and how its repair was to be conducted, such as:
** historically important – only to be dealt with by experts
** incomplete
** medium mud
** rebind
** collation part missing
* The book was photographed.
* The book's collation was verified and its covers removed and stored in a marked case (if they were to be used in a new binding).
* If necessary, the book was carefully taken apart to wash it in warm water and disinfect it with Topane (
pentachlorophenol
Pentachlorophenol (PCP) is an organochlorine compound used as a pesticide and a disinfectant. First produced in the 1930s, it is marketed under many trade names. It can be found as pure PCP, or as the sodium salt of PCP, the latter of which diss ...
).
* In certain cases, the leaves of the book were
deacidified and buffered.
* The text-block was pressed.
* The text-block was dried in specially designed cabinets.
* Sections of the book were then reconstructed and the text-blocks collated.
* Finally, each book was wrapped in a paper sheet that had been impregnated with an antimicrobial substance, then they were set aside for any later repair or rebinding. The binding was completed in the main reading room of the library, which had been converted (temporarily) for this purpose.
This methodical nine-part system enabled workers to process between seventy and a hundred books a day.
After the Florence flood, the Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale was not allowed to put books back into the lower levels.
Paintings
Many panel paintings were critically damaged as a result of water saturating their wood, causing the glue and
gesso
Gesso (; "chalk", from the la, gypsum, from el, γύψος) is a white paint mixture consisting of a binder mixed with chalk, gypsum, pigment, or any combination of these. It is used in painting as a preparation for any number of substrates suc ...
, which compose the priming layer, to dissolve. Consequently, the paintings' colours dissolved as well. In addition, the moisture caused paintings to buckle and crack or develop blisters, and the paint to chip and fall. Actions were taken to stabilize the problem by applying
rice paper
"Rice paper" has many varieties such as rice paper made from tree bark to make drawing and writing paper or from rice flour and tapioca flour and then mixed with salt and water to produce a thin rice cake and dried to become harder and paper-like ...
to the affected paintings and storing them in cool, stable environments where humidity was slowly decreased. In extreme cases, the paint layer was extracted from the wood and gesso and then reapplied to a new support.
Nystatin
Nystatin, sold under the brandname Mycostatin among others, is an antifungal medication. It is used to treat '' Candida'' infections of the skin including diaper rash, thrush, esophageal candidiasis, and vaginal yeast infections. It may also be ...
, an antifungal, was sprayed on the wood to prevent mold from growing. Treatment facilities were established at locations such as the Boboli Garden Lemon-House, where over two hundred of these panel paintings were restored.
Similar measures were necessary to conserve canvas paintings. First, an original canvas was relined and gauze applied to the painted surface, which was then ironed. This process is referred to as the ''rintelatura'', or "new canvas" method. Relatively minor surface work was often completed with a variety of solvents and/or types of
resin
In polymer chemistry and materials science, resin is a solid or highly viscous substance of plant or synthetic origin that is typically convertible into polymers. Resins are usually mixtures of organic compounds. This article focuses on natu ...
.
Frescoes
Fresco
Fresco (plural ''frescos'' or ''frescoes'') is a technique of mural painting executed upon freshly laid ("wet") lime plaster. Water is used as the vehicle for the dry-powder pigment to merge with the plaster, and with the setting of the plaste ...
es demanded more complicated treatment. Normally water, once it evaporates, will leave a layer of residual salt on the surface of the wall that absorbed it. In some instances, the resultant
efflorescence
In chemistry, efflorescence (which means "to flower out" in French) is the migration of a salt to the surface of a porous material, where it forms a coating. The essential process involves the dissolving of an internally held salt in water, or ...
obscured painted images. In other cases, the impermeability of the fresco plaster caused the salt to become trapped beneath the surface, causing bubbles to form and erupt, and the paint to fall. The adhesion of the plaster to the wall was often also seriously compromised. A fresco could only be detached when fully dry. To dry a fresco, workers cut narrow tunnels beneath it, in which heaters were placed to draw out moisture from below (instead of outwards, which would have further damaged the paintings). Within a few days, the fresco was ready to be detached.
Fuel oil, which coated many painted works of art, was removed by using Japanese tissue paper to apply a solvent, which dissolved the tar. An
absorbent, such as
talcum powder
Talc, or talcum, is a clay mineral, composed of hydrated magnesium silicate with the chemical formula Mg3Si4O10(OH)2. Talc in powdered form, often combined with corn starch, is used as baby powder. This mineral is used as a thickening age ...
, was then distributed on the tissue paper.
Sculpture and other objects
It became imperative to clean sculpture immediately, before it fully absorbed the oil. Flaking sculpture was sprayed with a
silicate
In chemistry, a silicate is any member of a family of polyatomic anions consisting of silicon and oxygen, usually with the general formula , where . The family includes orthosilicate (), metasilicate (), and pyrosilicate (, ). The name is al ...
mixture, while wooden pieces were treated with
insecticides
Insecticides are substances used to kill insects. They include ovicides and larvicides used against insect eggs and larvae, respectively. Insecticides are used in agriculture, medicine, industry and by consumers. Insecticides are claimed to b ...
and toxic gases to kill insects and prevent future infestation.
Weapon
A weapon, arm or armament is any implement or device that can be used to deter, threaten, inflict physical damage, harm, or kill. Weapons are used to increase the efficacy and efficiency of activities such as hunting, crime, law enforcement, s ...
ry, like firearms and swords, were taken apart, cleaned with
paraffin Paraffin may refer to:
Substances
* Paraffin wax, a white or colorless soft solid that is used as a lubricant and for other applications
* Liquid paraffin (drug), a very highly refined mineral oil used in cosmetics and for medical purposes
* Alkane ...
, and finally lubricated to prevent future rusting.
Bronze
Bronze is an alloy consisting primarily of copper, commonly with about 12–12.5% tin and often with the addition of other metals (including aluminium, manganese, nickel, or zinc) and sometimes non-metals, such as phosphorus, or metalloids such ...
objects were kept in dehumidification chambers for a few weeks and cleaned with distilled water or polished. For more severely damaged pieces, experts completed "depth cleaning", which entailed the use of small drills and vacuuming. Similar measures were taken with gold. Broken objects were reassembled using photographs and other retrieved documentation.
Effect on preservation and conservation awareness
The disastrous results of the flood established an international awareness of the need for preservation and conservation education and facilities. In the United States, for example, it is no coincidence that the
National Historic Preservation Act
The National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA; Public Law 89-665; 54 U.S.C. 300101 ''et seq.'') is legislation intended to preserve historic and archaeological sites in the United States of America. The act created the National Register of Historic ...
was passed in 1966. During the next twenty years:
Work outstanding
A significant amount of restorative work remains to be done in Florence. Due to a lack of awareness, funding, and manpower, a great number of works of art and books lie in storage, dirty and damaged. Christopher Clarkson, noted conservator, called attention to this problem in a 2007 letter, stating that the National Library still has a "warehouse" full of books to be repaired and bound; many others need cleaning or reassembling. According to a 1993 report, approximately 25% of the 80,000 items belonging to the Magliabecchi and Palatino collections had not been fully restored in the nearly thirty years since the flood. The number of conservators that work at the library presently is only about a tenth of the amount that worked there immediately after the flood.
Environmental measures
Regional officials in Tuscany are responsible for organizing a massive project, the purpose of which is to not only protect the area from future flooding but to maintain high water quality and effectively utilize water resources.
Work commenced in 1984, with the construction of the Bilancino Dam, near Florence. The Sieve tributary and spillway at
Pontedera
Pontedera (; la, Pons Herae) is an italian comune with a population of 29.270 inhabitants, located in the province of Pisa, Tuscany, Central Italy, central Italy.
The town is located 20 km (12 miles) from Pisa and 50 km (31 miles) from Florenc ...
are among other developments. The national government has funded a majority of these various subprojects, with the city of Florence being the primary recipient of the money.
See also
*
1966 Venice flood
The 1966 Venice flood ( it, Alluvione di Venezia del 1966) was an unprecedented high water, known in Venice as an "''acqua alta"'', with waters reaching up to 194 cm.
Overview
On November 4, 1966, an abnormal occurrence of high tides, rain- ...
*
Architectural conservation
Conservation and restoration of immovable cultural property describes the process through which the material, historical, and design integrity of any Cultural property, immovable cultural property are prolonged through carefully planned interve ...
*
Byron Gallery
The Byron Gallery was an art gallery founded in 1961 by Charles Byron and was located on Madison Avenue, New York, New York in the United States. Byron Gallery exhibited primarily Surrealism, Surrealist masters, emerging contemporary art, contemp ...
; New York based art gallery that hosted a benefit for flood victims in 1967.
*
Conservation and restoration of cultural heritage
The conservation and restoration of cultural property focuses on protection and care of cultural property (tangible cultural heritage), including artworks, architecture, archaeology, and museum collections. Conservation activities include preve ...
*
Historic preservation
Historic preservation (US), built heritage preservation or built heritage conservation (UK), is an endeavor that seeks to preserve, conserve and protect buildings, objects, landscapes or other artifacts of historical significance. It is a philos ...
*
History of Florence
Florence ( it, Firenze) weathered the decline of the Western Roman Empire to emerge as a financial hub of Europe, home to several banks including that of the politically powerful Medici family. The city's wealth supported the development of ar ...
*
History of Italy
The history of Italy covers the ancient period, the Middle Ages, and the modern era. Since classical antiquity, ancient Etruscan civilization, Etruscans, various Italic peoples (such as the Latins, Samnites, and Umbri), Celts, ''Magna Graecia'' ...
*
Natural disaster
A natural disaster is "the negative impact following an actual occurrence of natural hazard in the event that it significantly harms a community". A natural disaster can cause loss of life or damage property, and typically leaves some econ ...
*
Preservation (library and archival science)
In Library science, library and archival science, preservation is a set of preventive conservation activities aimed at prolonging the life of a record, book, or object while making as few changes as possible. Preservation activities vary widely ...
Bibliography
Inline references
General references
-
Further reading
*Sheila Waters. ''Waters Rising: Letters from Florence; Peter Waters and Book Conservation at the Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale di Firenze after the 1966 Flood.'' Introduction by Randy Silverman. Ann Arbor: The Legacy Press, 2016
*Special Issue of ''
The Book Collector
''The Book Collector'' is a London based journal that deals with all aspects of the book.
It is published quarterly and exists in both paper and digital form. It prints independent opinions on subjects ranging from typography to national heritage ...
'' Spring 1967. "Mario M. Witt, "The Flood of 4 November, 1966;" Nicolai Rubenstein, "Return to Florence, January, 1967;"Howard M.Nixon,"British Aid for Florence;" Dennis E. Rhodes, "The Libraries of Florence."
External links
Speciale AlluvioneImages of the flood and interviews with notable figures regarding its impact
The Florence Flood News, archives, and photos for the Florence flood of 1966
A summary of events surrounding the flood.
Preliminary inventory to the Harold W. Tribolet. Archive on the Florence Flood 1929–1990sat th
University of Chicago Special Collections Research Center
{{Authority control
Floods in Italy
Flood of the River Arno, 1966
Preservation (library and archival science)
Conservation and restoration of paintings
1966 floods
November 1966 events in Europe
20th century in Florence
Events in Florence