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Weil Restriction
In mathematics, restriction of scalars (also known as "Weil restriction") is a functor which, for any finite extension of fields ''L/k'' and any algebraic variety ''X'' over ''L'', produces another variety Res''L''/''k''''X'', defined over ''k''. It is useful for reducing questions about varieties over large fields to questions about more complicated varieties over smaller fields. Definition Let ''L/k'' be a finite extension of fields, and ''X'' a variety defined over ''L''. The functor \operatorname_ X from ''k''- schemesop to sets is defined by :\operatorname_X(S) = X(S \times_k L) (In particular, the ''k''-rational points of \operatorname_X are the ''L''-rational points of ''X''.) The variety that represents this functor is called the restriction of scalars, and is unique up to unique isomorphism if it exists. From the standpoint of sheaves of sets, restriction of scalars is just a pushforward along the morphism \operatorname(L) \to \operatorname(k) and is right adjoint t ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Mathematics
Mathematics is an area of knowledge that includes the topics of numbers, formulas and related structures, shapes and the spaces in which they are contained, and quantities and their changes. These topics are represented in modern mathematics with the major subdisciplines of number theory, algebra, geometry, and analysis, respectively. There is no general consensus among mathematicians about a common definition for their academic discipline. Most mathematical activity involves the discovery of properties of abstract objects and the use of pure reason to prove them. These objects consist of either abstractions from nature orin modern mathematicsentities that are stipulated to have certain properties, called axioms. A ''proof'' consists of a succession of applications of deductive rules to already established results. These results include previously proved theorems, axioms, andin case of abstraction from naturesome basic properties that are considered true starting points of ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Tannakian Category
In mathematics, a Tannakian category is a particular kind of monoidal category ''C'', equipped with some extra structure relative to a given field ''K''. The role of such categories ''C'' is to approximate, in some sense, the category of linear representations of an algebraic group ''G'' defined over ''K''. A number of major applications of the theory have been made, or might be made in pursuit of some of the central conjectures of contemporary algebraic geometry and number theory. The name is taken from Tadao Tannaka and Tannaka–Krein duality, a theory about compact groups ''G'' and their representation theory. The theory was developed first in the school of Alexander Grothendieck. It was later reconsidered by Pierre Deligne, and some simplifications made. The pattern of the theory is that of Grothendieck's Galois theory, which is a theory about finite permutation representations of groups ''G'' which are profinite groups. The gist of the theory, which is rather elaborate in ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Witt Vector
In mathematics, a Witt vector is an infinite sequence of elements of a commutative ring. Ernst Witt showed how to put a ring structure on the set of Witt vectors, in such a way that the ring of Witt vectors W(\mathbb_p) over the finite field of order p is the ring of p-adic integers. They have a highly non-intuitive structure upon first glance because their additive and multiplicative structure depends on an infinite set of recursive formulas which do not behave like addition and multiplication formulas for standard p-adic integers. The main idea behind Witt vectors is instead of using the standard p-adic expansiona = a_0+a_1p+a_2p^2 + \cdotsto represent an element in \mathbb_p, we can instead consider an expansion using the Teichmüller character\omega: \mathbb_p^* \to \mathbb_p^*which sends each element in the solution set of x^-1 in \mathbb_p to an element in the solution set of x^-1 in \mathbb_p. That is, we expand out elements in \mathbb_p in terms of roots of unity instead of ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Hyperelliptic Curve
In algebraic geometry, a hyperelliptic curve is an algebraic curve of genus ''g'' > 1, given by an equation of the form y^2 + h(x)y = f(x) where ''f''(''x'') is a polynomial of degree ''n'' = 2''g'' + 1 > 4 or ''n'' = 2''g'' + 2 > 4 with ''n'' distinct roots, and ''h''(''x'') is a polynomial of degree 3. Therefore, in giving such an equation to specify a non-singular curve, it is almost always assumed that a non-singular model (also called a smooth completion), equivalent in the sense of birational geometry, is meant. To be more precise, the equation defines a quadratic extension of C(''x''), and it is that function field that is meant. The singular point at infinity can be removed (since this is a curve) by the normalization ( integral closure) process. It turns out that after doing this, there is an open cover of the curve by two affine charts: the one already given by y^2 = f(x) and another one given by w^2 = v^f(1/v) . The glueing maps between the two charts are given by (x, ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Jacobian Variety
In mathematics, the Jacobian variety ''J''(''C'') of a non-singular algebraic curve ''C'' of genus ''g'' is the moduli space of degree 0 line bundles. It is the connected component of the identity in the Picard group of ''C'', hence an abelian variety. Introduction The Jacobian variety is named after Carl Gustav Jacobi, who proved the complete version of the Abel–Jacobi theorem, making the injectivity statement of Niels Abel into an isomorphism. It is a principally polarized abelian variety, of dimension ''g'', and hence, over the complex numbers, it is a complex torus. If ''p'' is a point of ''C'', then the curve ''C'' can be mapped to a subvariety of ''J'' with the given point ''p'' mapping to the identity of ''J'', and ''C'' generates ''J'' as a group. Construction for complex curves Over the complex numbers, the Jacobian variety can be realized as the quotient space ''V''/''L'', where ''V'' is the dual of the vector space of all global holomorphic differentials on ''C'' ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Discrete Logarithm Problem
In mathematics, for given real numbers ''a'' and ''b'', the logarithm log''b'' ''a'' is a number ''x'' such that . Analogously, in any group ''G'', powers ''b''''k'' can be defined for all integers ''k'', and the discrete logarithm log''b'' ''a'' is an integer ''k'' such that . In number theory, the more commonly used term is index: we can write ''x'' = ind''r'' ''a'' (mod ''m'') (read "the index of ''a'' to the base ''r'' modulo ''m''") for ''r''''x'' ≡ ''a'' (mod ''m'') if ''r'' is a primitive root of ''m'' and gcd(''a'',''m'') = 1. Discrete logarithms are quickly computable in a few special cases. However, no efficient method is known for computing them in general. Several important algorithms in public-key cryptography, such as ElGamal base their security on the assumption that the discrete logarithm problem over carefully chosen groups has no efficient solution. Definition Let ''G'' be any group. Denote its group operation by mult ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Weil Descent
In mathematics, restriction of scalars (also known as "Weil restriction") is a functor which, for any finite extension of fields ''L/k'' and any algebraic variety ''X'' over ''L'', produces another variety Res''L''/''k''''X'', defined over ''k''. It is useful for reducing questions about varieties over large fields to questions about more complicated varieties over smaller fields. Definition Let ''L/k'' be a finite extension of fields, and ''X'' a variety defined over ''L''. The functor \operatorname_ X from ''k''- schemesop to sets is defined by :\operatorname_X(S) = X(S \times_k L) (In particular, the ''k''-rational points of \operatorname_X are the ''L''-rational points of ''X''.) The variety that represents this functor is called the restriction of scalars, and is unique up to unique isomorphism if it exists. From the standpoint of sheaves of sets, restriction of scalars is just a pushforward along the morphism \operatorname(L) \to \operatorname(k) and is right adjoint ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Elliptic Curve Cryptography
Elliptic-curve cryptography (ECC) is an approach to public-key cryptography based on the algebraic structure of elliptic curves over finite fields. ECC allows smaller keys compared to non-EC cryptography (based on plain Galois fields) to provide equivalent security.Commercial National Security Algorithm Suite and Quantum Computing FAQ U.S. National Security Agency, January 2016. Elliptic curves are applicable for , s, [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Algebraic Number Field
In mathematics, an algebraic number field (or simply number field) is an extension field K of the field of rational numbers such that the field extension K / \mathbb has finite degree (and hence is an algebraic field extension). Thus K is a field that contains \mathbb and has finite dimension when considered as a vector space over The study of algebraic number fields, and, more generally, of algebraic extensions of the field of rational numbers, is the central topic of algebraic number theory. This study reveals hidden structures behind usual rational numbers, by using algebraic methods. Definition Prerequisites The notion of algebraic number field relies on the concept of a field. A field consists of a set of elements together with two operations, namely addition, and multiplication, and some distributivity assumptions. A prominent example of a field is the field of rational numbers, commonly denoted together with its usual operations of addition and multiplication. A ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Birch And Swinnerton-Dyer Conjecture
In mathematics, the Birch and Swinnerton-Dyer conjecture (often called the Birch–Swinnerton-Dyer conjecture) describes the set of rational solutions to equations defining an elliptic curve. It is an open problem in the field of number theory and is widely recognized as one of the most challenging mathematical problems. It is named after mathematicians Bryan John Birch and Peter Swinnerton-Dyer, who developed the conjecture during the first half of the 1960s with the help of machine computation. , only special cases of the conjecture have been proven. The modern formulation of the conjecture relates arithmetic data associated with an elliptic curve ''E'' over a number field ''K'' to the behaviour of the Hasse–Weil ''L''-function ''L''(''E'', ''s'') of ''E'' at ''s'' = 1. More specifically, it is conjectured that the rank of the abelian group ''E''(''K'') of points of ''E'' is the order of the zero of ''L''(''E'', ''s'') at ''s'' = 1, and the first non-zero ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Elliptic Curve
In mathematics, an elliptic curve is a smooth, projective, algebraic curve of genus one, on which there is a specified point . An elliptic curve is defined over a field and describes points in , the Cartesian product of with itself. If the field's characteristic is different from 2 and 3, then the curve can be described as a plane algebraic curve which consists of solutions for: :y^2 = x^3 + ax + b for some coefficients and in . The curve is required to be non-singular, which means that the curve has no cusps or self-intersections. (This is equivalent to the condition , that is, being square-free in .) It is always understood that the curve is really sitting in the projective plane, with the point being the unique point at infinity. Many sources define an elliptic curve to be simply a curve given by an equation of this form. (When the coefficient field has characteristic 2 or 3, the above equation is not quite general enough to include all non-singular cubic cu ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Abelian Variety
In mathematics, particularly in algebraic geometry, complex analysis and algebraic number theory, an abelian variety is a projective algebraic variety that is also an algebraic group, i.e., has a group law that can be defined by regular functions. Abelian varieties are at the same time among the most studied objects in algebraic geometry and indispensable tools for much research on other topics in algebraic geometry and number theory. An abelian variety can be defined by equations having coefficients in any field; the variety is then said to be defined ''over'' that field. Historically the first abelian varieties to be studied were those defined over the field of complex numbers. Such abelian varieties turn out to be exactly those complex tori that can be embedded into a complex projective space. Abelian varieties defined over algebraic number fields are a special case, which is important also from the viewpoint of number theory. Localization techniques lead naturally fr ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
