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Muscarine
Muscarine, L-(+)-muscarine, or muscarin is a natural product found in certain mushrooms, particularly in '' Inocybe'' and '' Clitocybe'' species, such as the deadly '' C. dealbata''. Mushrooms in the genera '' Entoloma'' and '' Mycena'' have also been found to contain levels of muscarine which can be dangerous if ingested. Muscarine has been found in harmless trace amounts in '' Boletus'', '' Hygrocybe'', ''Lactarius'' and ''Russula''. Trace concentrations of muscarine are also found in ''Amanita muscaria'', though the pharmacologically more relevant compound from this mushroom is the Z-drug-like alkaloid muscimol. ''A. muscaria'' fruitbodies contain a variable dose of muscarine, usually around 0.0003% fresh weight. This is very low and toxicity symptoms occur very rarely. ''Inocybe'' and ''Clitocybe'' contain muscarine concentrations up to 1.6%. Muscarine is a nonselective agonist of the muscarinic acetylcholine receptors. History The name ''muscarine'' derives fro ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Amanita Muscaria
''Amanita muscaria'', commonly known as the fly agaric or fly amanita, is a basidiomycete of the genus ''Amanita''. It is also a muscimol mushroom. Native throughout the temperate and boreal ecosystem, boreal regions of the Northern Hemisphere, ''Amanita muscaria'' has been unintentionally introduced species, introduced to many countries in the Southern Hemisphere, generally as a symbiont with pine and birch plantations, and is now a true Cosmopolitan distribution, cosmopolitan species. It mycorrhiza, associates with various deciduous and coniferous trees. Arguably the most iconic toadstool species, the fly agaric is a large white-lamella (mycology), gilled, white-spotted, usually red mushroom, and is one of the most recognizable and widely encountered in popular culture, including in video games—e.g., the extensive use of a recognizable ''Amanita muscaria'' in the Mario (franchise), Mario franchise and its Super Mushroom power-up—and television—e.g., the houses in The Smu ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Clitocybe
''Clitocybe'' is a genus of mushrooms characterized by white, off-white, buff, cream, pink, or light-yellow spores, gills running down the stem, and pale white to brown or lilac coloration. They are primarily saprotrophic, decomposing forest ground litter. There are estimated to be around 300 species in the widespread genus. ''Clitocybe'' means ''sloping head''. A few members of the genus are considered edible; many others are poisonous, containing the toxin muscarine among others. Distinguishing individual species of ''Clitocybe'' is generally prohibitively difficult to non-experts, requiring the analysis of microscopic characters. Therefore, with the exception of a few charismatic and readily identified members, ''Clitocybe'' mushrooms are rarely collected for consumption. Taxonomy ''Clitocybe'' was originally proposed by Elias Fries in 1821 as a tribe in the genus ''Agaricus''. Friedrich Staude elevated it to generic status in 1857. Recent molecular work has shown the ge ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Muscarinic Acetylcholine Receptor
Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors, or mAChRs, are acetylcholine receptors that form G protein-coupled receptor, G protein-coupled receptor complexes in the cell membranes of certain neurons and other Cell (biology), cells. They play several roles, including acting as the main end-receptor stimulated by acetylcholine released from postganglionic fibers in the parasympathetic nervous system. Muscarinic receptors are so named because they are more sensitive to muscarine than to nicotine. Their counterparts are nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs), receptor ion channels that are also important in the autonomic nervous system. Many drugs and other substances (for example pilocarpine and Hyoscine hydrobromide, scopolamine) manipulate these two distinct receptors by acting as selective agonists or receptor antagonist, antagonists. Function acetylcholine, Acetylcholine (ACh) is a neurotransmitter found in the brain, neuromuscular junctions and the autonomic ganglia. Muscarini ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Acetylcholine
Acetylcholine (ACh) is an organic chemical that functions in the brain and body of many types of animals (including humans) as a neurotransmitter. Its name is derived from its chemical structure: it is an ester of acetic acid and choline. Parts in the body that use or are affected by acetylcholine are referred to as cholinergic. Substances that increase or decrease the overall activity of the cholinergic system are called cholinergics and anticholinergics, respectively. Acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter used at the neuromuscular junction—in other words, it is the chemical that motor neurons of the nervous system release in order to activate muscles. This property means that drugs that affect cholinergic systems can have very dangerous effects ranging from paralysis to convulsions. Acetylcholine is also a neurotransmitter in the autonomic nervous system, both as an internal transmitter for the sympathetic nervous system and as the final product released by the para ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Inocybe
''Inocybe'' is a large genus of mushroom-forming fungi with over 1400 species, including all forms and variations. Members of ''Inocybe'' are mycorrhizal, and some evidence shows that the high degree of speciation in the genus is due to adaptation to different trees and perhaps even local environments. Etymology The name ''Inocybe'' means "fibrous hat". It is taken from the Greek words (in the genitive , meaning "muscle, nerve, fiber, strength, vigor") and ("head"). History The genus was first described as ''Agaricus'' trib. ''Inocybe'' by Swedish scholar Elias Magnus Fries in volume 1 of his work, ''Systema mycologicum'' (1821), and verified in the volume 2 of his book ''Monographia Hymenomycetum Sueciae'' in 1863. All other renaming attempts are accepted synonymous Description Typical mushrooms of the genus have various shades of brown, although some lilac or purplish species exist. Caps are small and conical, though flattening somewhat in age, generally with a pronounced ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Clitocybe Dealbata
''Clitocybe dealbata'', also known as the ivory funnel, is a small white funnel-shaped toadstool widely found in lawns, meadows and other grassy areas in Europe and North America. Also known as the sweating mushroom, it derives this name from the symptoms of poisoning. It contains potentially deadly levels of muscarine. Taxonomy and naming ''Clitocybe dealbata'' was initially described by British naturalist James Sowerby in 1799 as ''Agaricus dealbatus'', its specific epithet derived from the Late Latin verb ''dealbare'' 'to whitewash', inexorably calling to mind the Biblical "whited sepulchre", that is outwardly pleasing but inwardly toxic. It gained its current genus name in 1874 when reclassified by French naturalist Claude Casimir Gillet. However, this species is often considered a synonym of ''Clitocybe rivulosa'' and according to Bon the name ''C. dealbata'' may be invalid (a nomen dubium) as James Sowerby's definition conflicts with Elias Magnus Fries's. Des ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Muscimol
Muscimol (also known as agarin or pantherine) is one of the principal psychoactive constituents of ''Amanita muscaria'' and related species of mushroom. Muscimol is a potent and selective orthosteric agonist for the GABAA receptors and displays sedative-hypnotic, depressant and hallucinogenic psychoactivity. This colorless or white solid is classified as an isoxazole. Muscimol went under clinical trial phase I for epilepsy, but the trial was discontinued. Biochemistry Muscimol is one of the psychoactive compounds responsible for the effects of ''Amanita muscaria'' intoxication. Ibotenic acid, a neurotoxic secondary metabolite of ''Amanita muscaria'', serves as a prodrug to muscimol when the mushroom is ingested or dried, converting to muscimol via decarboxylation. Muscimol is produced in the mushrooms ''Amanita muscaria'' (fly agaric) and '' Amanita pantherina'', along with muscarine (which is present in trace amounts and it is not active), muscazone, and ibotenic acid. ' ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Oswald Schmiedeberg
Johann Ernst Oswald Schmiedeberg (10 October 1838 – 12 July 1921) was a Baltic German pharmacologist. In 1866 he earned his medical doctorate from the University of Dorpat with a thesis concerning the measurement of chloroform in blood, before becoming the first professor of pharmacology at the University of Strasbourg, where he remained for 46 years. In 1911, he testified in the '' United States v. Forty Barrels and Twenty Kegs of Coca-Cola'' trial, and later, was a major factor in the success of the German pharmaceutical industry prior to the Second World War, having trained most of the European professors at the time. Early life and family Oswald Schmiedeberg was born in Courland, one of the Baltic provinces of Russia. His father Wilhelm Ludwig (1809–1878) was a bailiff in Leidzen and later forester in Paggar (Estonia). His mother Anna Lucie Bernard (1813–1871) was the daughter of a watchmaker from Lausanne. Oswald was the eldest of six siblings of whom a brother Johan ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Entoloma
''Entoloma'' is a large genus of terrestrial pink-gilled mushrooms, with about 1,000 species. Most have a drab appearance, pink gills which are attached to the stem, a smooth thick cap, and angular spores. Many entolomas are saprobic but some are mycorrhizal. The best-known member of the genus is the livid agaric ('' Entoloma sinuatum''), responsible for a number of poisonings over the years in Europe and North America, and ''Entoloma rhodopolium'' in Japan. Some southern hemisphere species such as '' Entoloma rodwayi'' and ''Entoloma viridomarginatum'' from Australia, and ''Entoloma hochstetteri'' from New Zealand, are very colourful, with caps of unusual shades of green and blue-green. Most entolomas are dull shades of olive, brown, or grey. Etymology The part '' ἐντός'' means "within, inside". The part "loma" is a noun-forming element derived from Greek '' λῶμ(α)'', "fringe, hem" and used in the botanical taxonomy for naming plants distinguished by having a ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Mycena
''Mycena'' is a large genus of small saprotrophic mushrooms that are rarely more than a few centimeters in width. They are characterized by a white spore print, a small conical or bell-shaped cap, and a thin fragile stem. Most are gray or brown, but a few species have brighter colors. Most have a translucent and striate cap, which rarely has an incurved margin. The gills are attached and usually have cystidia. Some species, like '' Mycena haematopus'', exude a latex when the stem is broken, and many species have a chlorine or radish-like odor. Overview ''Mycenas'' are hard to identify to species and some are distinguishable only by microscopic features such as the shape of the cystidia. Some species are edible, while others contain toxins, but the edibility of most is not known, as they are likely too small to be useful in cooking. '' Mycena pura'' contains the mycotoxin muscarine, but the medical significance of this is unknown. Over 58 species are known to be bioluminesce ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Boletus
''Boletus'' is a genus of mushroom-producing fungi, comprising over 100 species. The genus ''Boletus'' was originally broadly defined and described by Carl Linnaeus in 1753, essentially containing all fungi with hymenial pores instead of gills. Since then, other genera have been defined gradually, such as '' Tylopilus'' by Petter Adolf Karsten in 1881, and old names such as ''Leccinum'' have been resurrected or redefined. Some mushrooms listed in older books as members of the genus have now been placed in separate genera. These include such as ''Boletus scaber'', now '' Leccinum scabrum'', ''Tylopilus felleus'', ''Chalciporus piperatus'' and ''Suillus luteus''. Most boletes have been found to be ectomycorrhizal fungi, which mean that they form a mutualistic relationship with the roots system of certain kinds of plants. More recently, ''Boletus'' has been found to be massively polyphyletic, with only a small percentage of the over 300 species that have been assigned to ''Boletu ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Parasympathomimetic
A parasympathomimetic drug, sometimes called a cholinomimetic drug or cholinergic receptor stimulating agent, is a substance that stimulates the parasympathetic nervous system (PSNS). These chemicals are also called cholinergic drugs because acetylcholine (ACh) is the neurotransmitter used by the PSNS. Chemicals in this family can act either directly by stimulating the nicotinic or muscarinic receptors (thus mimicking acetylcholine), or indirectly by inhibiting cholinesterase, promoting acetylcholine release, or other mechanisms. Common uses of parasympathomimetics include glaucoma, sjögren syndrome and underactive bladder. Some chemical weapons such as sarin or VX, non-lethal riot control agents such as tear gas, and insecticides such as diazinon fall into this category. Structure activity relationships for parasympathomimetic drugs For a cholinergic agent, the following criteria describe the structure activity relationship: # Ing's Rule of 5: there should be no more than five ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
