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Catecholaminergic Cell Groups
Catecholaminergic cell groups refers to collections of neurons in the central nervous system that have been demonstrated by histochemical fluorescence to contain one of the neurotransmitters dopamine or norepinephrine. Thus, it represents the combination of dopaminergic cell groups and noradrenergic cell groups. Some authors include in this category 'putative' adrenergic cell groups, collections of neurons that stain for PNMT, the enzyme that converts norepinephrine to epinephrine (adrenalin). Catecholaminergic cell groups and Parkinson's disease have an interactive relationship. Catecholaminergic neurons containing neuromelanin are more susceptible to Parkinson's related cell death than nonmelanized catecholaminergic neurons. Neuromelanin is an autoxidation byproduct of catecholamines, and it has been suggested that catecholaminergic neurons surrounded by a low density of glutathione peroxidase cells are more susceptible to degeneration in Parkinson's disease than those protected ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Catecholaminergic
Catecholaminergic means "related to catecholamines". The catecholamine neurotransmitters include dopamine, epinephrine (adrenaline), and norepinephrine (noradrenaline). A catecholaminergic agent (or drug) is a chemical which functions to directly modulate the catecholamine systems in the body or brain. Examples include adrenergics and dopaminergics. See also * Adenosinergic * Cannabinoidergic * Cholinergic * GABAergic * Glutamatergic * Glycinergic * Histaminergic * Monoaminergic * Opioidergic An opioidergic agent (or drug) is a chemical which functions to directly modulate the opioid neuropeptide systems (i.e., endorphin, enkephalin, dynorphin, nociceptin) in the body or brain. Examples include opioid analgesics such as morphine and ... References Neurochemistry Neurotransmitters {{nervous-system-drug-stub ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Adrenergic Cell Groups
Adrenergic cell groups refers to collections of neurons in the central nervous system that stain for PNMT, the enzyme that converts norepinephrine to epinephrine (adrenaline). Thus, it is postulated that the neurotransmitter they produce may be epinephrine (adrenaline). Located in the medulla, they are named adrenergic cell group C1, adrenergic cell group C2, and adrenergic cell group C3. See also *Noradrenergic cell groups Noradrenergic cell groups refers to collections of neurons in the central nervous system that have been demonstrated by histochemical fluorescence to contain the neurotransmitter norepinephrine (noradrenalin). They are named * Noradrenergic cell ... References External links * More information aBrainInfo Adrenaline {{neuroanatomy-stub ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Oxidative Stress
Oxidative stress reflects an imbalance between the systemic manifestation of reactive oxygen species and a biological system's ability to readily Detoxification, detoxify the reactive intermediates or to repair the resulting damage. Disturbances in the normal redox state of cells can cause toxic effects through the production of peroxides and free radicals that damage all components of the cell, including proteins, lipids, and DNA. Oxidative stress from Cellular respiration, oxidative metabolism causes base damage, as well as DNA damage (naturally occurring), strand breaks in DNA. Base damage is mostly indirect and caused by the reactive oxygen species generated, e.g., O2− (superoxide radical), OH (hydroxyl radical) and H2O2 (hydrogen peroxide). Further, some reactive oxidative species act as cellular messengers in redox signaling. Thus, oxidative stress can cause disruptions in normal mechanisms of cellular signaling. In humans, oxidative stress is thought to be involved in the ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Degeneration (medical)
Degeneration is deterioration in the medical sense. Generally, it is the change from a higher to a lower form. More specifically, it is the change of tissue to a lower or less functionally active form. *True degeneration: when there is actual chemical change of the tissue itself. *Infiltration: when the change consists of the deposit of abnormal matter in the tissues *Degenerative disease See also *macular degeneration *neurodegenerative disease A neurodegenerative disease is caused by the progressive loss of structure or function of neurons, in the process known as neurodegeneration. Such neuronal damage may ultimately involve cell death. Neurodegenerative diseases include amyotrophic ... References Dorland's Illustrated Medical Dictionary (Twenty-sixth Edition) () Medical terminology {{med-stub ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Glutathione Peroxidase
Glutathione peroxidase (GPx) () is the general name of an enzyme family with peroxidase activity whose main biological role is to protect the organism from oxidative damage. The biochemical function of glutathione peroxidase is to reduce lipid hydroperoxides to their corresponding alcohols and to reduce free hydrogen peroxide to water. Isozymes Several isozymes are encoded by different genes, which vary in cellular location and substrate specificity. Glutathione peroxidase 1 (GPx1) is the most abundant version, found in the cytoplasm of nearly all mammalian tissues, whose preferred substrate is hydrogen peroxide. Glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPx4) has a high preference for lipid hydroperoxides; it is expressed in nearly every mammalian cell, though at much lower levels. Glutathione peroxidase 2 is an intestinal and extracellular enzyme, while glutathione peroxidase 3 is extracellular, especially abundant in plasma. So far, eight different isoforms of glutathione peroxidase ( ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Neuromelanin
Neuromelanin (NM) is a dark pigment found in the brain which is structurally related to melanin. It is a polymer of Melanin#Eumelanin, 5,6-dihydroxyindole monomers. Neuromelanin is found in large quantities in catecholaminergic cell groups, catecholaminergic cells of the substantia nigra#Pars compacta, substantia nigra pars compacta and locus coeruleus, giving a dark color to the structures. Physical properties and structure Neuromelanin gives specific brain sections, such as the substantia nigra or the locus coeruleus, distinct color. It is a type of melanin and similar to other forms of peripheral melanin. It is insoluble in organic compounds, and can be labeled by silver staining. It is called neuromelanin because of its function and the color change that appears in tissues containing it. It contains black/brown pigmented granules. Neuromelanin is found to accumulate during aging, noticeably after the toddler, first 2–3 years of life. It is believed to protect neurons in the s ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Parkinson's Disease
Parkinson's disease (PD), or simply Parkinson's, is a long-term degenerative disorder of the central nervous system that mainly affects the motor system. The symptoms usually emerge slowly, and as the disease worsens, non-motor symptoms become more common. The most obvious early symptoms are tremor, rigidity, slowness of movement, and difficulty with walking. Cognitive and behavioral problems may also occur with depression, anxiety, and apathy occurring in many people with PD. Parkinson's disease dementia becomes common in the advanced stages of the disease. Those with Parkinson's can also have problems with their sleep and sensory systems. The motor symptoms of the disease result from the death of cells in the substantia nigra, a region of the midbrain, leading to a dopamine deficit. The cause of this cell death is poorly understood, but involves the build-up of misfolded proteins into Lewy bodies in the neurons. Collectively, the main motor symptoms are also known as ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Epinephrine
Adrenaline, also known as epinephrine, is a hormone and medication which is involved in regulating visceral functions (e.g., respiration). It appears as a white microcrystalline granule. Adrenaline is normally produced by the adrenal glands and by a small number of neurons in the medulla oblongata. It plays an essential role in the fight-or-flight response by increasing blood flow to muscles, heart output by acting on the SA node, pupil dilation response, and blood sugar level. It does this by binding to alpha and beta receptors. It is found in many animals, including humans, and some single-celled organisms. It has also been isolated from the plant ''Scoparia dulcis'' found in Northern Vietnam. Medical uses As a medication, it is used to treat several conditions, including allergic reaction anaphylaxis, cardiac arrest, and superficial bleeding. Inhaled adrenaline may be used to improve the symptoms of croup. It may also be used for asthma when other treatments are not e ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
PNMT
Phenylethanolamine ''N''-methyltransferase (PNMT) is an enzyme found primarily in the adrenal medulla that converts norepinephrine (noradrenaline) to epinephrine (adrenaline). It is also expressed in small groups of neurons in the human brain and in selected populations of cardiomyocytes. Structure PNMT is a protein whose encoding gene is found on chromosome 17 in humans. It consists of 4 exons and is a 30 kDa protein. It shares many properties found among the other methyltransferases. It is closest in sequence to glycine-''N''-methyl transferase ( GNMT). It also shares many structural properties like the shape of the folding lip with catechol-O-methyl transferase (COMT), though it shares less sequence identity. Several features of the structure like this folding lip suggest that PNMT is a recent adaptation to the catecholamine synthesizing enzyme family, evolving later than COMT, but before other methyltransferases like GNMT. ''S''-adenosyl-L-methionine (SAM) is a requi ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Noradrenergic Cell Groups
Noradrenergic cell groups refers to collections of neurons in the central nervous system that have been demonstrated by histochemical fluorescence to contain the neurotransmitter norepinephrine (noradrenalin). They are named * Noradrenergic cell group A1 * Noradrenergic cell group A2 * Noradrenergic cell group A4 * Noradrenergic cell group A5 * Noradrenergic cell group A6 * Noradrenergic cell group A7 Noradrenergic cell group A7 is a group of cells fluorescent for norepinephrine that is located in the pontine reticular formation ventral to the superior cerebellar peduncle of the pons The pons (from Latin , "bridge") is part of the brains ... * Noradrenergic cell group A6sc * Noradrenergic cell group Acg See also * Adrenergic cell groups References External links * More information aBrainInfo Norepinephrine {{neuroanatomy-stub ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Neuron
A neuron, neurone, or nerve cell is an electrically excitable cell that communicates with other cells via specialized connections called synapses. The neuron is the main component of nervous tissue in all animals except sponges and placozoa. Non-animals like plants and fungi do not have nerve cells. Neurons are typically classified into three types based on their function. Sensory neurons respond to stimuli such as touch, sound, or light that affect the cells of the sensory organs, and they send signals to the spinal cord or brain. Motor neurons receive signals from the brain and spinal cord to control everything from muscle contractions to glandular output. Interneurons connect neurons to other neurons within the same region of the brain or spinal cord. When multiple neurons are connected together, they form what is called a neural circuit. A typical neuron consists of a cell body (soma), dendrites, and a single axon. The soma is a compact structure, and the axon and dend ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Dopaminergic Cell Groups
Dopaminergic cell groups, DA cell groups, or dopaminergic nuclei are collections of neurons in the central nervous system that synthesize the neurotransmitter dopamine. In the 1960s, dopaminergic neurons or ''dopamine neurons'' were first identified and named by Annica Dahlström and Kjell Fuxe, who used histochemical fluorescence. The subsequent discovery of genes encoding enzymes that synthesize dopamine, and transporters that incorporate dopamine into synaptic vesicles or reclaim it after synaptic release, enabled scientists to identify dopaminergic neurons by labeling gene or protein expression that is specific to these neurons. In the mammalian brain, dopaminergic neurons form a semi-continuous population extending from the midbrain through the forebrain, with eleven named collections or clusters among them. Cell group A8 Group A8 is a small group of dopaminergic cells in rodents and primates. It is located in the midbrain reticular formation dorsolateral to the substa ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
