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All-one Polynomial
In mathematics, an all one polynomial (AOP) is a polynomial in which all coefficients are one. Over the finite field of order two, conditions for the AOP to be irreducible are known, which allow this polynomial to be used to define efficient algorithms and circuits for multiplication in finite fields of characteristic two.. The AOP is a 1- equally spaced polynomial. Definition An AOP of degree ''m'' has all terms from ''x''''m'' to ''x''0 with coefficients of 1, and can be written as :AOP_m(x) = \sum_^ x^i or :AOP_m(x) = x^m + x^ + \cdots + x + 1 or :AOP_m(x) = . Thus the roots of the all one polynomial of degree ''m'' are all (''m''+1)th roots of unity other than unity itself. Properties Over GF(2) the AOP has many interesting properties, including: *The Hamming weight of the AOP is ''m'' + 1, the maximum possible for its degree *The AOP is irreducible if and only if ''m'' + 1 is prime and 2 is a primitive root modulo ''m'' + 1 (over GF(''p'') with prime ''p'', it is irre ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Mathematics
Mathematics is an area of knowledge that includes the topics of numbers, formulas and related structures, shapes and the spaces in which they are contained, and quantities and their changes. These topics are represented in modern mathematics with the major subdisciplines of number theory, algebra, geometry, and analysis, respectively. There is no general consensus among mathematicians about a common definition for their academic discipline. Most mathematical activity involves the discovery of properties of abstract objects and the use of pure reason to prove them. These objects consist of either abstractions from nature orin modern mathematicsentities that are stipulated to have certain properties, called axioms. A ''proof'' consists of a succession of applications of deductive rules to already established results. These results include previously proved theorems, axioms, andin case of abstraction from naturesome basic properties that are considered true starting points of ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Roots Of Unity
In mathematics, a root of unity, occasionally called a de Moivre number, is any complex number that yields 1 when raised to some positive integer power . Roots of unity are used in many branches of mathematics, and are especially important in number theory, the theory of group characters, and the discrete Fourier transform. Roots of unity can be defined in any field. If the characteristic of the field is zero, the roots are complex numbers that are also algebraic integers. For fields with a positive characteristic, the roots belong to a finite field, and, conversely, every nonzero element of a finite field is a root of unity. Any algebraically closed field contains exactly th roots of unity, except when is a multiple of the (positive) characteristic of the field. General definition An ''th root of unity'', where is a positive integer, is a number satisfying the equation :z^n = 1. Unless otherwise specified, the roots of unity may be taken to be complex numbers (incl ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Cyclotomic Polynomial
In mathematics, the ''n''th cyclotomic polynomial, for any positive integer ''n'', is the unique irreducible polynomial with integer coefficients that is a divisor of x^n-1 and is not a divisor of x^k-1 for any Its roots are all ''n''th primitive roots of unity e^ , where ''k'' runs over the positive integers not greater than ''n'' and coprime to ''n'' (and ''i'' is the imaginary unit). In other words, the ''n''th cyclotomic polynomial is equal to : \Phi_n(x) = \prod_\stackrel \left(x-e^\right). It may also be defined as the monic polynomial with integer coefficients that is the minimal polynomial over the field of the rational numbers of any primitive ''n''th-root of unity ( e^ is an example of such a root). An important relation linking cyclotomic polynomials and primitive roots of unity is :\prod_\Phi_d(x) = x^n - 1, showing that is a root of x^n - 1 if and only if it is a ''d''th primitive root of unity for some ''d'' that divides ''n''. Examples If ''n'' is a prim ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Cryptography
Cryptography, or cryptology (from grc, , translit=kryptós "hidden, secret"; and ''graphein'', "to write", or ''-logia'', "study", respectively), is the practice and study of techniques for secure communication in the presence of adversarial behavior. More generally, cryptography is about constructing and analyzing protocols that prevent third parties or the public from reading private messages. Modern cryptography exists at the intersection of the disciplines of mathematics, computer science, information security, electrical engineering, digital signal processing, physics, and others. Core concepts related to information security ( data confidentiality, data integrity, authentication, and non-repudiation) are also central to cryptography. Practical applications of cryptography include electronic commerce, chip-based payment cards, digital currencies, computer passwords, and military communications. Cryptography prior to the modern age was effectively synonymo ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Coding Theory
Coding theory is the study of the properties of codes and their respective fitness for specific applications. Codes are used for data compression, cryptography, error detection and correction, data transmission and data storage. Codes are studied by various scientific disciplines—such as information theory, electrical engineering, mathematics, linguistics, and computer science—for the purpose of designing efficient and reliable data transmission methods. This typically involves the removal of redundancy and the correction or detection of errors in the transmitted data. There are four types of coding: # Data compression (or ''source coding'') # Error control (or ''channel coding'') # Cryptographic coding # Line coding Data compression attempts to remove unwanted redundancy from the data from a source in order to transmit it more efficiently. For example, ZIP data compression makes data files smaller, for purposes such as to reduce Internet traffic. Data compression a ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Primitive Polynomial (field Theory)
In finite field theory, a branch of mathematics, a primitive polynomial is the minimal polynomial of a primitive element of the finite field . This means that a polynomial of degree with coefficients in is a ''primitive polynomial'' if it has a root in such that is the entire field . This implies that is a primitive ()-root of unity in . Properties * Because all minimal polynomials are irreducible, all primitive polynomials are also irreducible. * A primitive polynomial must have a non-zero constant term, for otherwise it will be divisible by ''x''. Over GF(2), is a primitive polynomial and all other primitive polynomials have an odd number of terms, since any polynomial mod 2 with an even number of terms is divisible by (it has 1 as a root). * An irreducible polynomial ''F''(''x'') of degree ''m'' over GF(''p''), where ''p'' is prime, is a primitive polynomial if the smallest positive integer ''n'' such that ''F''(''x'') divides is . * Over GF(''p''''m'') t ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Primitive Root Modulo N
In modular arithmetic, a number is a primitive root modulo if every number coprime to is congruent to a power of modulo . That is, is a ''primitive root modulo'' if for every integer coprime to , there is some integer for which ≡ (mod ). Such a value is called the index or discrete logarithm of to the base modulo . So is a ''primitive root modulo'' if and only if is a generator of the multiplicative group of integers modulo . Gauss defined primitive roots in Article 57 of the ''Disquisitiones Arithmeticae'' (1801), where he credited Euler with coining the term. In Article 56 he stated that Lambert and Euler knew of them, but he was the first to rigorously demonstrate that primitive roots exist for a prime . In fact, the ''Disquisitiones'' contains two proofs: The one in Article 54 is a nonconstructive existence proof, while the proof in Article 55 is constructive. Elementary example The number 3 is a primitive root modulo 7 because :: \ ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Prime Number
A prime number (or a prime) is a natural number greater than 1 that is not a product of two smaller natural numbers. A natural number greater than 1 that is not prime is called a composite number. For example, 5 is prime because the only ways of writing it as a product, or , involve 5 itself. However, 4 is composite because it is a product (2 × 2) in which both numbers are smaller than 4. Primes are central in number theory because of the fundamental theorem of arithmetic: every natural number greater than 1 is either a prime itself or can be factorized as a product of primes that is unique up to their order. The property of being prime is called primality. A simple but slow method of checking the primality of a given number n, called trial division, tests whether n is a multiple of any integer between 2 and \sqrt. Faster algorithms include the Miller–Rabin primality test, which is fast but has a small chance of error, and the AKS primality test, which always pr ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
If And Only If
In logic and related fields such as mathematics and philosophy, "if and only if" (shortened as "iff") is a biconditional logical connective between statements, where either both statements are true or both are false. The connective is biconditional (a statement of material equivalence), and can be likened to the standard material conditional ("only if", equal to "if ... then") combined with its reverse ("if"); hence the name. The result is that the truth of either one of the connected statements requires the truth of the other (i.e. either both statements are true, or both are false), though it is controversial whether the connective thus defined is properly rendered by the English "if and only if"—with its pre-existing meaning. For example, ''P if and only if Q'' means that ''P'' is true whenever ''Q'' is true, and the only case in which ''P'' is true is if ''Q'' is also true, whereas in the case of ''P if Q'', there could be other scenarios where ''P'' is true and ''Q'' is ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Hamming Weight
The Hamming weight of a string is the number of symbols that are different from the zero-symbol of the alphabet used. It is thus equivalent to the Hamming distance from the all-zero string of the same length. For the most typical case, a string of bits, this is the number of 1's in the string, or the digit sum of the binary representation of a given number and the ''ℓ''₁ norm of a bit vector. In this binary case, it is also called the population count, popcount, sideways sum, or bit summation. History and usage The Hamming weight is named after Richard Hamming although he did not originate the notion. The Hamming weight of binary numbers was already used in 1899 by James W. L. Glaisher to give a formula for the number of odd binomial coefficients in a single row of Pascal's triangle. Irving S. Reed introduced a concept, equivalent to Hamming weight in the binary case, in 1954. Hamming weight is used in several disciplines including information theory, coding theor ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Root Of A Polynomial
In mathematics, a zero (also sometimes called a root) of a real-, complex-, or generally vector-valued function f, is a member x of the domain of f such that f(x) ''vanishes'' at x; that is, the function f attains the value of 0 at x, or equivalently, x is the solution to the equation f(x) = 0. A "zero" of a function is thus an input value that produces an output of 0. A root of a polynomial is a zero of the corresponding polynomial function. The fundamental theorem of algebra shows that any non-zero polynomial has a number of roots at most equal to its degree, and that the number of roots and the degree are equal when one considers the complex roots (or more generally, the roots in an algebraically closed extension) counted with their multiplicities. For example, the polynomial f of degree two, defined by f(x)=x^2-5x+6 has the two roots (or zeros) that are 2 and 3. f(2)=2^2-5\times 2+6= 0\textf(3)=3^2-5\times 3+6=0. If the function maps real numbers to real numbers, then it ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Polynomial
In mathematics, a polynomial is an expression consisting of indeterminates (also called variables) and coefficients, that involves only the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and positive-integer powers of variables. An example of a polynomial of a single indeterminate is . An example with three indeterminates is . Polynomials appear in many areas of mathematics and science. For example, they are used to form polynomial equations, which encode a wide range of problems, from elementary word problems to complicated scientific problems; they are used to define polynomial functions, which appear in settings ranging from basic chemistry and physics to economics and social science; they are used in calculus and numerical analysis to approximate other functions. In advanced mathematics, polynomials are used to construct polynomial rings and algebraic varieties, which are central concepts in algebra and algebraic geometry. Etymology The word ''polynomial'' join ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
