Bastion fortA bastion fort or trace italienne (a phrase derived from non-standard French, meaning 'Italian outline') is a fortification in a style developed during the early modern period in response to the ascendancy of gunpowder weapons such as cannon, which rendered earlier medieval approaches to fortification obsolete. It appeared in the mid-fifteenth century in Italy.
GlacisA glacis (, French:) in military engineering is an artificial slope as part of a medieval castle or in early modern fortresses. They may be constructed of earth as a temporary structure or of stone in more permanent structure. More generally, a glacis is any slope, natural or artificial, which fulfils the above requirements. The etymology of this French word suggests a slope made dangerous with ice, hence the relationship with glacier.
RavelinA ravelin is a triangular fortification or detached outwork, located in front of the innerworks of a fortress (the curtain walls and bastions). Originally called a demi-lune, after the lunette, the ravelin is placed outside a castle and opposite a fortification curtain wall. The ravelin is the oldest and at the same time the most important outer work of the bastion fortification system.
Gunpowder artillery in the Middle AgesGunpowder artillery in the Middle Ages primarily consisted of the introduction of the cannon, large tubular firearms designed to fire a heavy projectile over a long distance. Guns, bombs, rockets and cannons were first invented in China during the Han and Song dynasties and then later spread to Europe and the Middle East during the period.
Fortified towerA fortified tower (also defensive tower or castle tower or, in context, just tower) is one of the defensive structures used in fortifications, such as castles, along with defensive walls such as curtain walls. Castle towers can have a variety of different shapes and fulfil different functions. Shape of towersRectangular towersSquare or rectangular towers are easy to construct and give a good amount of usable internal space.
Fall of ConstantinopleBelligerentsOttoman EmpireSerbian DespotateByzantine EmpireRepublic of GenoaRepublic of VenicePapal StatesCrown of AragonKingdom of SicilyKingdom of FranceVarangian GuardOrhan Çelebi loyalistsCommanders and leadersMehmed IIHalil PashaZagan PashaSuleiman Baltoghlu (WIA)Karaca PashaHamza BeyMahmud PashaUlubatlı Hasan†Hadım ŞehabeddinConstantine XI†Loukas NotarasTheophilos Palaiologos†Demetrios KantakouzenosAndronikos KantakouzenosGiovanni Giustiniani (DOW)Gabriele Trevisano(POW)Alviso Diedo (WIA)Gabriele Orsini del Balzo†Cardinal Isidore(POW)Johannes Grant†Orhan ÇelebiStrengthLand forces: 100,000 soldiers in total, including:75,000 regulars20,000 irregulars5,000 JanissariesNaval forces:31 galleys95 large row boatsUnknown but large amount of Non-combatantsLand forces: Less than 8,000 soldiers in total, including:5,000 Byzantine soldiers2,000 Western soldiers600 Orhan Çelebi loyalists200 Catalan retinue200 Cretan archersNaval forces:26 ships10 Byzantine8 Venetian5 Genoese1 Catalan1 Anconitan1 ProvençalCasualties and losses Heavy Heavy 4,000 Byzantine civilians killed550+ Venetian civilians killed30,000 enslaved or soldConstantinople, the capital city of the Byzantine Empire, was captured by the Ottoman Empire on 29 May 1453 as part of the culmination of a 53-day siege which had begun on 6 April.
FortificationA fortification (also called a fort, fortress, fastness, or stronghold) is a military construction designed for the defense of territories in warfare, and is used to establish rule in a region during peacetime. The term is derived from Latin fortis ("strong") and facere ("to make"). From very early history to modern times, defensive walls have often been necessary for cities to survive in an ever-changing world of invasion and conquest.
Charles VII of FranceCharles VII (22 February 1403 – 22 July 1461), called the Victorious (French: le Victorieux) or the Well-Served (le Bien-Servi), was King of France from 1422 to his death in 1461. His reign saw the end of the Hundred Years' War and a de facto end of the English claims to the French throne. During the Hundred Years' War, Charles VII inherited the throne of France under desperate circumstances.
Curtain wall (fortification)A curtain wall is a defensive wall between fortified towers or bastions of a castle, fortress, or town.
Napoleonic Wars1803–1815 series of wars led by NapoleonBelligerentsCoalition forces: United Kingdom Habsburg monarchy Holy Roman Empire HanoverLiechtensteinand others... Austria Hungary Russia PrussiaSpainPortugalSwedenand others...
Military engineeringMilitary engineering is loosely defined as the art, science, and practice of designing and building military works and maintaining lines of military transport and military communications. Military engineers are also responsible for logistics behind military tactics. Military engineering is a predecessor of civil engineering, currently differing in its applications across disciplines and specialized work.
Hundred Years' WarThe Hundred Years' War (French: Guerre de Cent Ans; 1337–1453) was a series of conflicts between the kingdoms of England and France and a civil war in France during the late Middle Ages. It emerged from feudal disputes over the Duchy of Aquitaine and was triggered by a claim to the French throne made by Edward III of England.
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