Tupac Amaru II (born José Gabriel Condorcanqui Noguera, – 18 May 1781) was an Indigenous ''
cacique
A cacique, sometimes spelled as cazique (; ; feminine form: ), was a tribal chieftain of the Taíno people, who were the Indigenous inhabitants of the Bahamas, the Greater Antilles, and the northern Lesser Antilles at the time of European cont ...
'' who led a
large Andean rebellion against the
Spanish in Peru as
self-proclaimed
Self-proclaimed describes a legal title that is recognized by the declaring person but not necessarily by any recognized legal authority. It can be the status of a noble title or the status of a nation. The term is used informally for anyone declar ...
Sapa Inca
The Sapa Inca (from ; ) was the monarch of the Inca Empire (''Tawantinsuyu'' "the region of the four rovinces), as well as ruler of the earlier Kingdom of Cusco and the later Neo-Inca State at Vilcabamba, Peru, Vilcabamba. While the origins ...
of the new
Inca Empire
The Inca Empire, officially known as the Realm of the Four Parts (, ), was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America. The administrative, political, and military center of the empire was in the city of Cusco. The History of the Incas, Inca ...
. He was later elevated to a mythical status in the
Peruvian struggle for independence and
indigenous rights movement, as well as an inspiration to
myriad causes in
Spanish America
Spanish America refers to the Spanish territories in the Americas during the Spanish colonization of the Americas. The term "Spanish America" was specifically used during the territories' Spanish Empire, imperial era between 15th and 19th centur ...
and beyond.
Early life
Tupac Amaru II was born José Gabriel Condorcanqui Noguera in around 1742
in
Surimana,
Tungasuca , in the
province of Cusco, to Miguel Condorcanqui Usquionsa Tupac Amaru, ''
kuraka
A ''kuraka'' ( Quechua for the principal governor of a province or a communal authority in the Tawantinsuyu), or curaca (Hispanicized spelling), was an official of the Andean civilizations, unified by the Inca Empire in 1438, who held the role o ...
'' of three towns in the Tinta district, and María Rosa Noguera. On 1 May 1742, Tupac Amaru II was baptized by Santiago José Lopez in a church in Tungasuca. Prior to his father's death, Amaru II spent his childhood in the Vilcamayu Valley; he accompanied his father to community functions, such as the temple, the market, and processions. Tupac's parents died when he was twelve years old and he was raised by his aunt and uncle. When he was 16, he received a
Jesuit
The Society of Jesus (; abbreviation: S.J. or SJ), also known as the Jesuit Order or the Jesuits ( ; ), is a religious order (Catholic), religious order of clerics regular of pontifical right for men in the Catholic Church headquartered in Rom ...
education at the ''San Francisco de Borja'' School, founded to educate the sons of ''kurakas''. The Jesuits "impressed upon him his social standing as future ''kuraka'' and someone of royal
Inca blood." When he was 22, Amaru II married
Micaela Bastidas. Shortly after his marriage, Amaru II succeeded his father as ''kuraka'', giving him rights to land. Like his father, he was both the head of several
Quechua communities and a regional merchant and
muleteer
An ''arriero'', muleteer, or more informally a muleskinner (; ;) is a person who transports goods using pack animals, especially mules.
Distribution and function
In Latin America, muleskinners transport coffee, maize, maize (corn), cork (mat ...
, inheriting 350 mules from his father's estate. His regional trading gave him contacts in many other indigenous communities and access to information about economic conditions. His personal contacts and knowledge of the region were useful in the rebellion of 1780–1781.
He was recognised as an elite Quechua from a
''kuraka'' family and was educated at a school in
Cuzco
Cusco or Cuzco (; or , ) is a city in southeastern Peru, near the Sacred Valley of the Andes mountain range and the Huatanay river. It is the capital of the eponymous province and department.
The city was the capital of the Inca Empire unti ...
for sons of indigenous leaders. He spoke
Quechua and
Spanish and learned
Latin
Latin ( or ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally spoken by the Latins (Italic tribe), Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio), the lower Tiber area aroun ...
from the
Jesuits
The Society of Jesus (; abbreviation: S.J. or SJ), also known as the Jesuit Order or the Jesuits ( ; ), is a religious order (Catholic), religious order of clerics regular of pontifical right for men in the Catholic Church headquartered in Rom ...
. He was upwardly socially mobile, and in Cuzco he had connections with distinguished
Spanish and Spanish American (
creole) residents. "The upper classes in
Lima
Lima ( ; ), founded in 1535 as the Ciudad de los Reyes (, Spanish for "City of Biblical Magi, Kings"), is the capital and largest city of Peru. It is located in the valleys of the Chillón River, Chillón, Rímac River, Rímac and Lurín Rive ...
saw him as a well-educated Indian".
Between 1776 and 1780 Condorcanqui went into litigation with the Betancur family over the right of succession of the Marquisate of Oropesa and lost the case. In 1760, he married
Micaela Bastidas Puyucahua of
Afro-Peruvian
Black Peruvians or Afro-Peruvians are Peruvians of mostly or partially African descent. They mostly descend from enslaved Africans brought to Peru after the arrival of the conquistadors.
Early history
The first Africans arrived, as enslaved ...
and indigenous descent. Amaru II inherited the
cacique
A cacique, sometimes spelled as cazique (; ; feminine form: ), was a tribal chieftain of the Taíno people, who were the Indigenous inhabitants of the Bahamas, the Greater Antilles, and the northern Lesser Antilles at the time of European cont ...
ship, or hereditary chiefdom of
Tungasuca and
Pampamarca from his older brother, governing on behalf of the Spanish governor.
At the end of the 1770s, the trade relations between
Buenos Aires
Buenos Aires, controlled by the government of the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires, is the Capital city, capital and largest city of Argentina. It is located on the southwest of the Río de la Plata. Buenos Aires is classified as an Alpha− glob ...
and the Upper Peru ended with the commercial monopoly of Lima, which caused greater competition for the manufacturers of Cuzco. They needed to sell their merchandise in
Potosí
Potosí, known as Villa Imperial de Potosí in the colonial period, is the capital city and a municipality of the Potosí Department, Department of Potosí in Bolivia. It is one of the list of highest cities in the world, highest cities in the wo ...
, but had to compete with producers of
Buenos Aires
Buenos Aires, controlled by the government of the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires, is the Capital city, capital and largest city of Argentina. It is located on the southwest of the Río de la Plata. Buenos Aires is classified as an Alpha− glob ...
and
Spain
Spain, or the Kingdom of Spain, is a country in Southern Europe, Southern and Western Europe with territories in North Africa. Featuring the Punta de Tarifa, southernmost point of continental Europe, it is the largest country in Southern Eur ...
. On the other hand, the widespread overproduction throughout the Andes pushed prices down. Furthermore, in the years 1778 and 1779, extremely cold weather damaged crops and made travel difficult. In 1780, Amaru, who also experienced this crisis, had considerable resources but also numerous debts. He also witnessed the economic discomforts the others were going through, from merchants who were on the brink of bankruptcy to communities that could not afford the growing
tribute
A tribute (; from Latin ''tributum'', "contribution") is wealth, often in kind, that a party gives to another as a sign of submission, allegiance or respect. Various ancient states exacted tribute from the rulers of lands which the state con ...
.
Condorcanqui lived the typical situation of the ''
kuraka
A ''kuraka'' ( Quechua for the principal governor of a province or a communal authority in the Tawantinsuyu), or curaca (Hispanicized spelling), was an official of the Andean civilizations, unified by the Inca Empire in 1438, who held the role o ...
s'' (tribal chiefs): he had to mediate between the local commander and the indigenous people in his charge. However, he was affected, like the rest of the population, due to the establishment of customs and the rise of the ''
alcabalas'' (taxes). He voiced his objection against these issues. He also demanded that the indigenous people be freed from compulsory work in the mines. claims directed through the regular channels to the colonial authorities in Tinta, Cusco and later in Lima, obtaining negatives or indifference.
In addition, he adopted the name Tupac Amaru II, in honor of his ancestor
Tupac Amaru I
Tupac Amaru Shakur (; born Lesane Parish Crooks; June 16, 1971 – September 13, 1996), also known by his stage names 2Pac and Makaveli, was an American rapper and actor, regarded as one of the greatest and most influential rappers of all tim ...
, the last Sapa Inca of the
Neo-Inca State
The Neo-Inca State, also known as the Neo-Inca state of Vilcabamba, was the Inca state established in 1537 at Vilcabamba, Peru, Vilcabamba by Manco Inca Yupanqui (the son of Inca emperor Huayna Capac). It is considered a rump state of the Inca ...
, seeking to be recognized for his royal Inca lineage.
The ''Corregidores'' and the exploitation of the natives
Although the Spanish trusteeship labor system, or , had been abolished in 1720, a seventh of the population living in native communities () as well as permanent indigenous workers at the time living in the Andean region of what is now Ecuador and Bolivia, who made up nine tenths of the population, were still pushed into
forced labor
Forced labour, or unfree labour, is any work relation, especially in modern or early modern history, in which people are employed against their will with the threat of destitution, detention, or violence, including death or other forms of ...
for what were legally labeled as public work projects.
This shift from the to the state sponsored and controlled draft labor system consolidated the indigenous labor force in the hands of the local government and not in the individual . Most natives worked under the supervision of a master either tilling soil, mining or working in textile mills. What little wage that was acquired by workers was heavily taxed and cemented Native American indebtedness to Spanish masters. The
Roman Catholic Church
The Catholic Church (), also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the List of Christian denominations by number of members, largest Christian church, with 1.27 to 1.41 billion baptized Catholics Catholic Church by country, worldwid ...
also had a hand in extorting these natives through collections for saints, masses for the dead, domestic and parochial work on certain days, forced gifts, etc.
[John Crow, ''The Epic of Latin America'', p. 405] Those not employed in forced labor were still subject to the Spanish provincial governors, or who also heavily taxed and overpriced commodities to any free natives, similarly ensuring their financial instability.
In addition, the middle of the 18th century mining production intensified, putting more and more of a burden on the , or draft labor, system.
While Potosi's mining ''mita'' had already been dangerous and labor-intensive work as well as forcing a migration by both the native worker and sometimes their families to Potosi to work, the labor became more extractive during this time, even though no new veins of ore had been discovered.
Indeed, many future rebellious areas centered around Potosi and the mining district.
Condorcanqui's interest in the Native American cause had been spurred by the re-reading of one of the
''Royal Commentaries of the Incas'', a romantic and heroic account of the history and culture of the ancient Incas. The book was outlawed at the time by the Lima viceroy for fear of it inspiring renewed interest in the lost
Inca culture and inciting rebellion.
[John Crow, ''The Epic of Latin America'' (University of California Press Berkeley), p. 406] The marquis's native pride coupled with his hate for the Spanish colonial system, caused him to sympathize and frequently petition for the improvement of native labor in the mills, farms and mines; even using his own wealth to help alleviate the taxes and burdens of the natives. After many of his requests for the alleviation of the native conditions fell on deaf ears, Condorcanqui decided to organize a rebellion. He began to stall on collecting reparto debts and tribute payments, for which the Tinta ''corregidor'' and governor Antonio de Arriaga threatened him with death. Condorcanqui changed his name to Tupac Amaru II and claimed he was descended from the last Inca ruler,
Túpac Amaru.
[Native Insurgencies and the Genocidal Impulse in the Americas, Nicholas A. Robins]
Rebellion

The
Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II
The Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II (4 November 1780 – 15 March 1783) was an uprising by ''cacique''-led Aymara, Quechua, and ''mestizo'' rebels aimed at overthrowing Spanish colonial rule in Peru. The causes of the rebellion included opposit ...
was an Inca revival movement that sought to improve the rights of indigenous Peruvians suffering under the Spanish
Bourbon Reforms. The rebellion was one of many indigenous Peruvian uprisings in the latter half of the 18th century. It began with the capture and killing of the
Tinta Corregidor
Corregidor (, , ) is an island located at the entrance of Manila Bay in the southwestern part of Luzon in the Philippines, and is considered part of Cavite City and thus the province of Cavite. It is located west of Manila, the nation's capi ...
and Governor Antonio de Arriaga on 4 November 1780, after a banquet attended by both Tupac Amaru II and Governor Arriaga. The immediate cause of the rebellion lay in grievances caused by a series of modernising reforms of the colonial administration implemented by the Bourbon monarchy in Spain under
Charles III of Spain
Charles III (; 20 January 1716 – 14 December 1788) was King of Spain in the years 1759 to 1788. He was also Duke of Parma and Piacenza, as Charles I (1731–1735); King of Naples, as Charles VII; and King of Sicily, as Charles III (or V) (1735� ...
(1759–1788), centralising administrative and economic control and placing heavier tax and labour burdens on both the Indian and Creole populations. The focus of discontent was the main representative of the crown in Peru, the visitador general José Antonio Areche. Ideologically, the rebellion was complex. At one level, it expressed simply a demand on the Spanish authorities for changes and reforms within the structure of colonial rule, often speaking in the name of the king himself, for example. At another, it envisioned an overthrow of European rule and something like a restoration of the pre-conquest Inca empire, the
Tahuantinsuyo. Tupac Amaru's claim to be the legitimate descendant of the Inca suggested the possibility of an aristocratic state similar to the one envisioned in the sixteenth century by the
mestizo
( , ; fem. , literally 'mixed person') is a term primarily used to denote people of mixed European and Indigenous ancestry in the former Spanish Empire. In certain regions such as Latin America, it may also refer to people who are culturall ...
writer,
Inca Garcilaso de la Vega
Inca Garcilaso de la Vega (12 April 1539 – 23 April 1616), born Gómez Suárez de Figueroa and known as El Inca, was a chronicler and writer born in the Viceroyalty of Peru. Sailing to Spain at 21, he was educated informally there, where he li ...
, who saw the Incas as sharing rule with the Spanish aristocracy. But there were also strong millenarian, proto-
Jacobin
The Society of the Friends of the Constitution (), renamed the Society of the Jacobins, Friends of Freedom and Equality () after 1792 and commonly known as the Jacobin Club () or simply the Jacobins (; ), was the most influential political cl ...
and even proto-communist elements in the rebellion. In the main, the soldiers of the Tupamarista armies were poor Indian peasants, artisans and women, who saw the rebellion not so much as a question of reforms or power sharing but as an opportunity to "turn the world upside down". The restoration of the Inca Empire meant for them the possibility of an egalitarian society, based economically on the Inca communal agricultural system, the
ayllu
The ''ayllu'', a family clan, is the traditional form of a community in the Andes, especially among Quechuas and Aymaras. They are an indigenous local government model across the Andes region of South America, particularly in Bolivia and Peru.
...
, and one without
castas (racial divisions), rich and poor, or forced labour in haciendas, mines and factories, particularly the dreaded textile mills".
When Arriaga left the party drunk, Tupac Amaru II and several of his allies captured him and forced him to write letters to a large number of Spaniards and
kuraka
A ''kuraka'' ( Quechua for the principal governor of a province or a communal authority in the Tawantinsuyu), or curaca (Hispanicized spelling), was an official of the Andean civilizations, unified by the Inca Empire in 1438, who held the role o ...
s. When about 200 of them gathered within the next few days, Tupac Amaru II surrounded them with approximately 4,000 natives. Claiming that he was acting under direct orders from the Spanish Crown, Amaru II gave Arriaga's slave Antonio Oblitas the privilege of executing his master.
A platform in the middle of a local town plaza was erected, and the initial attempt at hanging the failed when the noose snapped. Arriaga then ran for his life to try to reach a nearby church, but was not quick enough to escape, and was successfully hanged on the second attempt.
After the execution of de Arriaga, Amaru II continued his insurrection. Releasing his first proclamation, Tupac Amaru II announced, "that there have been repeated outcries directed to me by the indigenous peoples of this and surrounding provinces, outcries against the abuses committed by European-born crown officials... Justified outcries that have produced no remedy from the royal courts" to all the inhabitants of the Spanish provinces. He went on in the same proclamation to state, "I have acted ... only against the mentioned abuses and to preserve the peace and well-being of Indians, mestizos, mambos, as well as
native-born whites and
blacks. I must now prepare for the consequences of these actions." Tupac Amaru II then went on to quickly assemble an army of 6,000 natives who had abandoned their work to join the revolt. As they marched towards Cuzco, the rebels occupied the provinces of
Quispicanchis,
Tinta,
Cotabambas,
Calca, and
Chumbivilcas. The rebels looted the Spaniards' houses and killed their occupants.
The movement was supremely anti-royalist since, upon arriving at a town, the rebels would upturn Spanish authority.
"Women, as much as men, were affected by these injustices."
[Sonya Lipsett-Rivera, "Gender from 1750 to World War I - Latin America and the Caribbean", in Teresa Meade and M. Wiesner-Hanks (Eds.) ''A Companion to Gender History'', (Oxford, Blackwell, 2006), p. 481] In fact, Tupac Amaru II's wife, Micaela Bastidas, commanded a battalion of insurgents and was responsible for the uprising in the San Felipe de Tungasuca region. She is also often credited to being more daring and a superior strategist, compared to Tupac Amaru II. It is told that she scolded her husband for his weakness and refusal to set up a surprise attack against the Spaniards in Cusco to catch the weakened city defenders off guard. Instead of listening to his wife, Tupac Amaru II lost precious time by encircling the country in hopes that he could gather more recruits for his army. So, by the time the insurgents had attacked the city, the Spaniards had already brought in reinforcements and were able to control and stop the uprising. This led to Tupac Amaru II, Micaela Bastidas, and several others to be captured while the rebels scattered.
[ Teresa Meade, ''A History of Modern South America - 1800 to the Present'', ]John Wiley & Sons
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., commonly known as Wiley (), is an American Multinational corporation, multinational Publishing, publishing company that focuses on academic publishing and instructional materials. The company was founded in 1807 and pr ...
, 2016.
During a stage of his rebellion, Tupac Amaru II was able to convince the Quechua speakers to join him. Therefore, under his command, the Quechua speakers fought alongside him with Aymara-speaking rebels from Puno on Lake Titicaca and on the Bolivian side of the lake. Unfortunately, the alliance did not last that long and this led the Aymara leader, Túpac Katari, to lead his army alone which ultimately led to his capture in October 1781. His partner and female commander, Bartola Sisa, took control after his capture and lead an astonishing number of 2,000 soldiers for several months. Soon after that in early 1782, the Spanish military defeated the rebels in Peru and Bolivia. According to modern sources, out of the 73 leaders, 32 were women, who were all executed privately.
On 18 November 1780,
Cusco
Cusco or Cuzco (; or , ) is a city in southeastern Peru, near the Sacred Valley of the Andes mountain range and the Huatanay river. It is the capital of the eponymous Cusco Province, province and Cusco Region, department.
The city was the cap ...
dispatched over 1,300 Spanish and Native loyalist troops. The two opposing forces
clashed in the town of Sangarará. It was an absolute victory for Amaru II and his Native rebels; all 578 Spanish soldiers were killed and the rebels took possession of their weapons and supplies. The victory however, also came with a price. The battle revealed that Amaru II was unable to fully control his rebel followers, as they viciously slaughtered without direct orders. Reports of such violence and the rebels' insistence on the death of Spaniards eliminated any chances for support by the class.
The victory achieved at
Sangarará would be followed by a string of defeats. The gravest defeat came in Amaru II's failure to capture Cuzco, where his 40,000–60,000 indigenous followers were repelled by the fortified town consisting of a combined force of loyalist Native troops and reinforcements from Lima. "After being repelled from the capital of the ancient Inca empire and intellectual hub of colonial Peru" Amaru and his men marched through the countryside attempting to recruit any native to his cause, in doing so bolstering his forces. Amaru II's army was surrounded between Tinta and Sangarara and he was betrayed by two of his officers, Colonel Ventura Landaeta and Captain Francisco Cruz, which led to his capture.
When his captors attempted to procure the names of his rebel accomplices from him in exchange for promises, Amaru II scornfully replied "There are no accomplices here other than you and I. You as oppressor, I as liberator, deserve to die."
Death

Amaru II was sentenced to be executed. He was forced to watch the deaths of his wife
Micaela Bastidas, his eldest son Hipólito, his uncle Francisco Tupa Amaro, his brother-in-law Antonio Bastidas, and some of his captains before his own death.
On 18 May 1781, they were taken to the
Plaza de Armas in Cuzco to be executed one by one. His son Hipólito first had his tongue cut out for having spoken against the Spanish, and then he was hanged. Micaela and José Gabriel were forced to witness the death of their son; Micaela was then made to climb to the platform. In front of her husband and her son Fernando, Micaela fought against her executioners until they finally subdued her and cut off her tongue. Her thin neck could not reach the winch, so they threw ties around her neck that pulled it from side to side to strangle her. They hit her with a club and finally killed her with kicks in the stomach and breasts.
The following is an extract from the official judicial death issued by the Spanish authorities which condemns Tupac Amaru II to torture and death. It was ordered that Tupac Amaru II be condemned to have his tongue cut out after watching the executions of his family and to have his hands and feet tied:
After the failed dismemberment by the four horses, his body was quartered, and he was then beheaded on the
main plaza in
Cuzco
Cusco or Cuzco (; or , ) is a city in southeastern Peru, near the Sacred Valley of the Andes mountain range and the Huatanay river. It is the capital of the eponymous province and department.
The city was the capital of the Inca Empire unti ...
, in the same place his ancestor
Túpac Amaru had been beheaded.
His youngest son, 10-year-old Fernando, was not executed but was forced to witness the torture and death of his entire family and to pass under the gallows of those executed. He was later exiled to
Africa
Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent after Asia. At about 30.3 million km2 (11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 20% of Earth's land area and 6% of its total surfac ...
for life imprisonment. However, the ship taking him there was capsized and he ended up in
Cádiz
Cádiz ( , , ) is a city in Spain and the capital of the Province of Cádiz in the Autonomous communities of Spain, autonomous community of Andalusia. It is located in the southwest of the Iberian Peninsula off the Atlantic Ocean separated fr ...
to be imprisoned in the dungeons of the city. Viceroy
Agustín de Jáuregui suggested that he should be kept in Spain, fearing that some enemy power might rescue him on the way to Africa.
Scientists who have studied this dismemberment attempt concluded that due to the physical build and resistance of Tupac Amaru II, it would not have been possible to dismember him in that way. However, his
arms and
legs were
dislocated, as was his
pelvis
The pelvis (: pelves or pelvises) is the lower part of an Anatomy, anatomical Trunk (anatomy), trunk, between the human abdomen, abdomen and the thighs (sometimes also called pelvic region), together with its embedded skeleton (sometimes also c ...
.
Despite the execution of Tupac Amaru II and his family, the vice regal government failed to quell the rebellion, which continued under the leadership of his cousin Diego Cristóbal Tupac Amaru at the same time that it extended through
Upper Peru
Upper Peru (; ) is a name for the land that was governed by the Real Audiencia of Charcas. The name originated in Buenos Aires towards the end of the 18th century after the Audiencia of Charcas was transferred from the Viceroyalty of Peru to th ...
and the
Jujuy region. Likewise, disaffection of the Spanish Crown towards the
Creoles became evident, especially for the Oruro Case. The lawsuit were filed against Juan José Segovia, born in Lima, and Colonel
Ignacio Flores, born in
Quito
Quito (; ), officially San Francisco de Quito, is the capital city, capital and second-largest city of Ecuador, with an estimated population of 2.8 million in its metropolitan area. It is also the capital of the province of Pichincha Province, P ...
, who had served as president of the
Real Audiencia of Charcas and as the Governor Intendant of La Plata (
Chuquisaca or Charcas, currently
Sucre
Sucre (; ) is the ''de jure'' capital city of Bolivia, the capital of the Chuquisaca Department and the sixth most populous city in Bolivia. Located in the south-central part of the country, Sucre lies at an elevation of . This relatively high ...
).
Aftermath

When the revolt continued, the Spaniards executed the remainder of his family, except his 12-year-old son Fernando, who had been condemned to die with him but was instead imprisoned in Spain for the rest of his life. It is not known if any members of the Inca royal family survived this final purge. Amaru's body parts were strewn across the towns loyal to him as ordered, his houses were demolished, their sites
strewn with salt, his goods confiscated, his relatives declared infamous, and all documents relating to his descent burnt.
At the same time, on 18 May 1781,
Incan clothing and cultural traditions, and self-identification as "Inca" were outlawed, along with other measures to convert the population to Western European Spanish culture and government until
Peru's independence as a republic. However, even after the death of Amaru, Native revolts still seized much of what is today southern Peru, Bolivia and Argentina, as Native revolutionaries captured Spanish towns and beheaded many inhabitants. In one instance, a Native-American army under rebel leader
Túpac Katari
Túpac Katari or Catari (also Túpaj Katari) ( – 13 November 1781), born Julián Apasa Nina, was the Indigenous peoples of the Americas, indigenous Aymara people, Aymara leader of a major insurrection in colonial-era Upper Peru (now Bolivia), ...
besieged the city of
La Paz
La Paz, officially Nuestra Señora de La Paz (Aymara language, Aymara: Chuqi Yapu ), is the seat of government of the Bolivia, Plurinational State of Bolivia. With 755,732 residents as of 2024, La Paz is the List of Bolivian cities by populati ...
for 109 days before troops sent from
Buenos Aires
Buenos Aires, controlled by the government of the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires, is the Capital city, capital and largest city of Argentina. It is located on the southwest of the Río de la Plata. Buenos Aires is classified as an Alpha− glob ...
stepped in to relieve the city.
Consequences
Although Tupac Amaru II's rebellion was not a success, it marked the first large-scale rebellion in the Spanish colonies and inspired the revolt of many Natives and Peruvians in the surrounding area. The rebellion took on important manifestations in "Upper Peru" or what is today modern Bolivia including the region South and East of Lake Titicaca. Indeed, Tupac Amaru II inspired the indigenous peoples to such an extent that even the official document wherein he is condemned to death, it is remarked that "the Indians stood firm in the place of our gunfire, despite their enormous fear of it" and that despite being captured, his followers remained steadfast in their beliefs in his immortality and heritage.
The rebellion gave indigenous Peruvians a new state of mind, a sort of indigenous nationalism that would re-emerge and change shape over the course of the country's future. They were now willing to join forces with anyone who opposed the Spanish. As well, few Peruvians had prosperous co-owned businesses and land with the Spaniards, and as such did not want to lose those interests in the event of a revolution. While Tupac Amaru II's revolt was spawned in the Vilcanota Valley and ended in the city of Cuzco, the legacy and ideology of his revolt had echoes throughout the Andean region.
Recognition
The fame of Tupac Amaru II spread to such an extent that for the indigenous rebels in the plains of
Casanare in the New Granada region, he was recognized as "King of America".
Later movements invoked the name of Tupac Amaru II to obtain the support of the indigenous, among others, Felipe Velasco Tupac Amaru Inca or Felipe Velasco Túpac Inca Yupanqui, who wanted to rise up in
Huarochirí (
Lima
Lima ( ; ), founded in 1535 as the Ciudad de los Reyes (, Spanish for "City of Biblical Magi, Kings"), is the capital and largest city of Peru. It is located in the valleys of the Chillón River, Chillón, Rímac River, Rímac and Lurín Rive ...
) in 1783. The rebellion of Tupac Amaru II marked the beginning of the
Peruvian War of Independence
The Peruvian War of Independence () was a series of military conflicts in Peru from 1809 to 1826 that resulted in the country's independence from the Spanish Empire. Part of the broader Spanish American wars of independence, it led to the dis ...
in the history of Peru.
This great rebellion produced a strong influence on the
Conspiracy of the Tres Antonios which came up in
Chile
Chile, officially the Republic of Chile, is a country in western South America. It is the southernmost country in the world and the closest to Antarctica, stretching along a narrow strip of land between the Andes, Andes Mountains and the Paci ...
on 1 January 1781, at the height of the insurrection. They were encouraged to act hearing the news of the advances of Tupac Amaru II in the
Viceroyalty of Peru
The Viceroyalty of Peru (), officially known as the Kingdom of Peru (), was a Monarchy of Spain, Spanish imperial provincial administrative district, created in 1542, that originally contained modern-day Peru and most of the Spanish Empire in ...
.
20th and 21st centuries
In Peru, the government of General
Juan Velasco Alvarado
Juan Francisco Velasco Alvarado (June 16, 1910 – December 24, 1977) was a Peruvian Army general, general who served as the President of Peru after a successful 1968 Peruvian coup d'état, coup d'état against Fernando Belaúnde's presidency ...
(1968-1975) welcomed the formalized effigy of Tupac Amaru II as a symbol of the Gobierno Revolucionario de la Fuerza Armada (Revolutionary Government of the Armed Forces) that he headed, to date, the only government of leftist ideology in the history of Peru. He recognized him as a national hero. In 1968, which was a novelty since independence the symbol of Tupac Amaru II was carried by Peruvian education and official historiography. In his honor one of the main rooms of the
Government Palace was named after him. That room until then was
Francisco Pizarro
Francisco Pizarro, Marquess of the Atabillos (; ; – 26 June 1541) was a Spanish ''conquistador'', best known for his expeditions that led to the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire.
Born in Trujillo, Cáceres, Trujillo, Spain, to a poor fam ...
room and that his picture was replaced by that of the indigenous rebel.
Legacy
In Peru
* During the
Revolutionary Government of the Armed Forces (1968–1980), Túpac Amaru was selected by
military
A military, also known collectively as armed forces, is a heavily armed, highly organized force primarily intended for warfare. Militaries are typically authorized and maintained by a sovereign state, with their members identifiable by a d ...
leaders as the symbolic representation for the ideals behind the ''Peruvian Revolution''.
* The
Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement (MRTA) was a
Peru
Peru, officially the Republic of Peru, is a country in western South America. It is bordered in the north by Ecuador and Colombia, in the east by Brazil, in the southeast by Bolivia, in the south by Chile, and in the south and west by the Pac ...
vian
Marxist-Leninist insurgent group, which became known worldwide for their involvement in the
Japanese embassy hostage crisis.
In music
* Tupac Amaru,
symphonic poem
A symphonic poem or tone poem is a piece of orchestral music, usually in a single continuous movement, which illustrates or evokes the content of a poem, short story, novel, painting, landscape, or other (non-musical) source. The German term ( ...
by the Venezuelan composer Alfredo del Mónaco premiered in 1977, has been performed at numerous international festivals.
* Tupac Amaru,
symphony
A symphony is an extended musical composition in Western classical music, most often for orchestra. Although the term has had many meanings from its origins in the ancient Greek era, by the late 18th century the word had taken on the meaning c ...
No. 5 by the Peruvian composer Armando Guevara Ochoa.
* The song "Águila de thunder (part II)" from the album Kamikaze by
Luis Alberto Spinetta is inspired by the figure of Tupac Amaru II.
* The French hip-hop group Canelason released a song called "Libre", which tells the story of this revolutionary and his tragic assassination.
* Polish
reggae
Reggae () is a music genre that originated in Jamaica during the late 1960s. The term also denotes the modern popular music of Jamaica and its Jamaican diaspora, diaspora. A 1968 single by Toots and the Maytals, "Do the Reggay", was the first ...
music band NDK in their song Mafija mentions Tupac Amaru II's death as an example of Catholicism's cruelty.
* Argentinian jazz musician
Gato Barbieri's Fenix album begins with a song titled "Tupac Amaru".
* American rapper
Tupac Amaru Shakur (born Lesane Parish Crooks) was named after him.
* This Is Not America (featuring
Ibeyi) from
Residente, mentions Tupac Amaru II stating that prior to modern rapper Tupac there was already a Tupac in America (in the context that there is not an "American country" but only an American continent).
In novels
* In the book, ''Inca Gold'', by Clive Cussler, one of the main villains named himself Tupac Amaru and claims to be a descendant of the real Tupac Amaru.
* In the beginning of the book, ''The Book of Human Skin'', Tupac Amaru II's death is described, and a book said to be a bound in his skin plays a major role in the plot.
Around the world
* The
Tupamaros
The National Liberation Movement – Tupamaros (, MLN-T) was a Marxist–Leninist urban guerrilla group that operated in Uruguay during the 1960s and 1970s. In 1989, the group was admitted into the Broad Front and a large number of its membe ...
(also known as the National Liberation Movement) was the informal name of an urban guerilla that was active in the 1960s and early 1970s in Uruguay. The name was inspired by Tupac Amaru II and its ideals.
* The Venezuelan Marxist political party
Tupamaro.
*
Operation Tupac was launched by
Pakistan
Pakistan, officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by population, fifth-most populous country, with a population of over 241.5 million, having the Islam by country# ...
against
Indian-administered Kashmir.
* Chilean poet
Pablo Neruda
Pablo Neruda ( ; ; born Ricardo Eliécer Neftalí Reyes Basoalto; 12 July 190423 September 1973) was a Chilean poet-diplomat and politician who won the 1971 Nobel Prize in Literature. Neruda became known as a poet when he was 13 years old an ...
wrote a poem about Tupac Amaru II, titled "Tupac Amaru (1781)". The poem can be found in the
Canto General
''Canto General'' is Pablo Neruda, Pablo Neruda's tenth book of poems. It was first published in Mexico in 1950, by ''Talleres Gráficos de la Nación''. Neruda began to compose it in 1938.
"Canto General" ("General Song") consists of 15 secti ...
.
See also
*
Túpac Katari
Túpac Katari or Catari (also Túpaj Katari) ( – 13 November 1781), born Julián Apasa Nina, was the Indigenous peoples of the Americas, indigenous Aymara people, Aymara leader of a major insurrection in colonial-era Upper Peru (now Bolivia), ...
*
Mateo Pumacahua
*
Micaela Bastidas
References
Further reading
* Brown, Kendall W.; "Tupac Amaru (José Gabriel Condorcanqui)" in ''Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture'', vol. 5, pp.279–280.
*
Fisher, Lillian Estelle, ''The Last Inca Revolt, 1780-1783'', (1966).
* Robins, Nicholas A.; ''Native Insurgencies and the Genocidal Impulse in the Americas''.
* Charles F. Walker, ''The Tupac Amaru Rebellion'',
The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2014, (Print), (eBook).
* Pugh, Helen; "Andean Storm", (2020), ISBN 9781005701161.
* Means, Philip A.; "The Rebellion of Tupac-Amaru II, 1780-1781", The Hispanic American Historical Review, 2.1, (1919), 1–25.
External links
*
"BookRags Biography on José Gabriel Tupac Amaru", 1 January 2006.Orders for execution of Tupac Amaru II, 1781, by magistrate José Antonio de Areche."The Political Force of Images", Vistas, Visual Culture in Spanish America, 1520-1820.
{{DEFAULTSORT:Tupac Amaru 2
1781 deaths
People from Canas province
Peruvian people of Quechua descent
People of colonial Peru
Executed revolutionaries
People executed by dismemberment
Peruvian revolutionaries
Executed Peruvian people
People executed by New Spain
18th-century executions by Spain
18th-century Peruvian people
Rebellions in South America
Rebellions against the Spanish Empire
1740s births