Temple Of Asclepius, Epidaurus
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The Sanctuary of Asclepius was a sanctuary in
Epidaurus Epidaurus () was a small city (''polis'') in ancient Greece, on the Argolid Peninsula at the Saronic Gulf. Two modern towns bear the name Epidavros: ''Palaia Epidavros'' and ''Nea Epidavros''. Since 2010 they belong to the new municipality of Epi ...
dedicated to
Asclepius Asclepius (; ''Asklēpiós'' ; ) is a hero and god of medicine in ancient Religion in ancient Greece, Greek religion and Greek mythology, mythology. He is the son of Apollo and Coronis (lover of Apollo), Coronis, or Arsinoe (Greek myth), Ars ...
. Especially in the Classical and Hellenistic periods, it was the main holy site of Asclepius. The sanctuary at Epidaurus was the rival of such major cult sites as the Sanctuary of Zeus at Olympia and
Apollo at Delphi Apollo is one of the Twelve Olympians, Olympian deities in Ancient Greek religion, ancient Greek and Ancient Roman religion, Roman religion and Greek mythology, Greek and Roman mythology. Apollo has been recognized as a god of archery, mu ...
. The temple was built in the early 4th century BC. If still in use by the 4th century AD, the temple would have been closed during the
persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire began during the reign of Constantine the Great (306–337) in the military colony of Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem), when he destroyed a pagan temple for the purpose of constructing a Christian church ...
, when the Christian Emperors issued edicts prohibiting non-Christian worship. In 1988, the temple was inscribed on the
UNESCO The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO ) is a List of specialized agencies of the United Nations, specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) with the aim of promoting world peace and International secur ...
World Heritage List World Heritage Sites are landmarks and areas with legal protection under an international treaty administered by UNESCO for having cultural, historical, or scientific significance. The sites are judged to contain "cultural and natural heritag ...
because of its exceptional architecture and its importance in the development and spread of healing sanctuaries () throughout
classical antiquity Classical antiquity, also known as the classical era, classical period, classical age, or simply antiquity, is the period of cultural History of Europe, European history between the 8th century BC and the 5th century AD comprising the inter ...
. It was excavated between 1881 and 1928 by
Panagiotis Kavvadias Panagiotis Kavvadias or Cawadias (; – 20 July 1928) was a Greek Archaeology, archaeologist. He was responsible for the excavation of ancient sites in Greece, including Epidaurus in Argolis and the Acropolis of Athens, as well as archaeolog ...
(and, from 1887,
Valerios Stais Valerios Stais (; Kythira, 1857 – Athens, 1923) was a Greek archaeologist. Biography He initially studied medicine but later switched to archaeology obtaining his Doctorate from the University of Halle (Saale) in 1885. He worked for the Nation ...
), and between 1948 and 1951 by
John Papadimitriou John K. Papadimitriou (; – April 11, 1963) was a Greek archaeologist. Along with George E. Mylonas, George Mylonas, he excavated Grave Circle B, Mycenae, Grave Circle B, the oldest known monumentalized burials at the Bronze Age site of Myc ...
.


Myth

The 2nd century AD geographer Pausanias described the myth around the foundation of the temple, as well as its religious significance to the worship of Asclepius (''Description of Greece'' 2.26-28). According to him, Coronis, daughter of
Phlegyas In Greek mythology, Phlegyas (; Ancient Greek: Φλεγύας means 'fiery') was a king of the Lapiths (or the Phlegyans). Family Phlegyas was the son of Ares and Chryse, daughter of Halmus, or of Dotis. In one account, he was mentioned as ...
, had been impregnated by
Apollo Apollo is one of the Twelve Olympians, Olympian deities in Ancient Greek religion, ancient Greek and Ancient Roman religion, Roman religion and Greek mythology, Greek and Roman mythology. Apollo has been recognized as a god of archery, mu ...
and gave birth to Asclepius at Epidaurus, exposing the newborn baby on Mount Myrtion, where he was nursed by a goat (usually identified with Kynortion hill to the west of the main sanctuary, where the sanctuary of
Apollo Maleatas The Sanctuary of Apollo Maleatas () is located on a low hill on Mount Kynortion, east of the sanctuary of Asklepios at Epidaurus. At the peak of the hill was a small Early Helladic settlement, which was never built on in later periods. At th ...
was located). The baby Asclepius is depicted with his goat on 2nd century AD Epidauran coinage.


History

In the 4th and 3rd centuries BC, the Greeks embarked on an ambitious building program for enlarging and reconstructing monumental buildings. Fame and prosperity continued throughout the Hellenistic period. In the third century BC, one Isyllus established a new procession to celebrate the birthday of Asclepius, including a new sacred hymn, which he had inscribed in the Sanctuary of Apollo Maleatas on Kynortion hill, which was believed to be Asclepius' birthplace. During the
Achaean War The Achaean War of 146 BC was fought between the Roman Republic and the Greek Achaean League, an alliance of Achaean and other Peloponnesian states in ancient Greece. It was the final stage of Rome's conquest of mainland Greece, taking place jus ...
in 146 BC, the Achaians converted the sanctuary into a stronghold. After
Lucius Mummius Lucius Mummius (2nd century BC) was a Roman statesman and general. He was consul in the year 146 BC along with Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus. Mummius was the first of his family to rise to the rank of consul thereby making him a novus homo. He r ...
defeated the Achaians and destroyed
Corinth Corinth ( ; , ) is a municipality in Corinthia in Greece. The successor to the ancient Corinth, ancient city of Corinth, it is a former municipality in Corinthia, Peloponnese (region), Peloponnese, which is located in south-central Greece. Sin ...
in 146 BC, he visited the sanctuary and left two dedications there. In 87 BC, the sanctuary was looted by the Roman general
Sulla Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix (, ; 138–78 BC), commonly known as Sulla, was a Roman people, Roman general and statesman of the late Roman Republic. A great commander and ruthless politician, Sulla used violence to advance his career and his co ...
. In 74 BC,
Marcus Antonius Creticus Marcus Antonius Creticus ( 74 - 72 BC), was a Roman politician during the late Roman Republic. He is best known for his failed pirate-hunting career and for being the father of the general Mark Antony. Biography Early life Creticus was the son of ...
installed a garrison in the city, causing a lack of grain. Sometime before 67 BC the sanctuary was plundered by pirates. Archaeological evidence reveals extensive damage in the first half of the first century BC. The guest house, gymnasium, and water supply system (required for most of the sanctuary's important rituals) were abandoned and the sanctuary of Apollo Maleatas was destroyed.
Livy Titus Livius (; 59 BC – AD 17), known in English as Livy ( ), was a Roman historian. He wrote a monumental history of Rome and the Roman people, titled , covering the period from the earliest legends of Rome before the traditional founding i ...
, in the early first century AD, speaks of how "Epidaurus ... was once rich with gifts for the god, which are now vestiges of wrecked dedications." Inscriptions claim that the town was rescued from total destruction by a series of gifts from a rich benefactor,
Euanthes son of Eunomus In Greek mythology, Ariadne (; ; ) was a Cretan princess, the daughter of King Minos of Crete. There are variations of Ariadne's myth, but she is known for helping Theseus escape from the Minotaur and being abandoned by him on the island of Na ...
, who was honoured with at least six monuments. In the first century AD, the town was dominated by the wealthy Statilius and Claudius-Cornelius families, who dominated the main priestly offices, sponsored some construction work, and funded celebrations of the Apolloneia Asclapieia Caesarea Games. In the 2nd century AD the sanctuary enjoyed a new upsurge, prompted by the visit of
Hadrian Hadrian ( ; ; 24 January 76 – 10 July 138) was Roman emperor from 117 to 138. Hadrian was born in Italica, close to modern Seville in Spain, an Italic peoples, Italic settlement in Hispania Baetica; his branch of the Aelia gens, Aelia '' ...
to the site in 124. Hadrian introduced a range of reforms, apparently influenced by the cult of Asclepius at
Pergamum Pergamon or Pergamum ( or ; ), also referred to by its modern Greek form Pergamos (), was a rich and powerful ancient Greek city in Aeolis. It is located from the modern coastline of the Aegean Sea on a promontory on the north side of the river ...
, which he was closely involved with. The priesthood of Asclepius was reformed, so that it became an annual office selected by allotment, rather than a lifetime office. The emperor reorganised the Asclepieia Games and moved their date so that they would not clash with other festival games in Greece. New cults were introduced, dedicated to "All the gods," Zeus Olympius, Zeus Panhellenius,
Telesphorus Telesphorus may refer to: * Telesphorus (general), 4th century BC general in ancient Greece * Pope Telesphorus (died ), Bishop of Rome and Christian saint * Telesphorus of Cosenza, a name assumed by a 14th-century pseudo-prophet during the time o ...
(closely associated with the Pergamene Asclepieium). Asclepius was increasingly syncretised with Zeus and with Hadrian as Zeus Asclepius
Soter Soter derives from the Ancient Greek epithet (''Sōtḗr''), meaning a saviour, a deliverer. The feminine form is Soteira (Σώτειρα, ''Sṓteira'') or sometimes Soteria (Σωτηρία, ''Sōtería''). Soter was used as: * A title of gods ...
(). Contemporary coinage seems to depict Hadrian and Asclepius as interchangeable. The Epidaurians honoured Hadrian with a new
era An era is a span of time. Era or ERA may also refer to: * Era (geology), a subdivision of geologic time * Calendar era Education * Academy of European Law (German: '), an international law school * ERA School, in Melbourne, Australia * E ...
, in which documents were dated by the number of years since Hadrian's visit. In the 160s and 170s, a Roman senator from Nysa in
Asia Minor Anatolia (), also known as Asia Minor, is a peninsula in West Asia that makes up the majority of the land area of Turkey. It is the westernmost protrusion of Asia and is geographically bounded by the Mediterranean Sea to the south, the Aegean ...
, Sextus Julius Major Antoninus Pythodorus donated heavily to the sanctuary, which is recorded by Pausanias (2.27.6-7), honorific inscriptions and rooftiles stamped with his name found throughout the sanctuary. His donations included a
bathhouse Bathhouse may refer to: * Public baths, public facilities for bathing * Gay bathhouse A gay bathhouse, also known as a gay sauna or a gay steambath, is a public bath targeted towards Gay men, gay and Bisexuality, bisexual men. In gay slang, a ...
of Asclepius ("the north-east baths") and a temple to
Hygieia Hygieia is a goddess from Greek mythology (more commonly spelled Hygeia, sometimes Hygiea; ; or , or ). Hygieia is a goddess of health ( – ''hugieia''), cleanliness and hygiene. Her name is the source for the word "hygiene". Hygieia devel ...
, Egyptian Asclepius, and Egyptian Apollo. He also restored the Stoa of Cotys, the sanctuary of the Epidotae ("Helping gods" such as Machaon,
Podalirius In Greek mythology, Podalirius or Podaleirius or Podaleirios () was a son of Asclepius. Mythology Trojan war With Machaon, his brother, he led thirty ships from Tricca, Thessaly in the Trojan War on the side of the Greeks. Like Machao ...
, the "
hero doctor A hero (feminine: heroine) is a real person or fictional character who, in the face of danger, combats adversity through feats of ingenuity, courage, or strength. The original hero type of classical epics did such things for the sake of ...
",
Heracles Heracles ( ; ), born Alcaeus (, ''Alkaios'') or Alcides (, ''Alkeidēs''), was a Divinity, divine hero in Greek mythology, the son of ZeusApollodorus1.9.16/ref> and Alcmene, and the foster son of Amphitryon.By his adoptive descent through ...
,
Tyche Tyche (; Ancient Greek: Τύχη ''Túkhē'', 'Luck', , ; Roman mythology, Roman equivalent: Fortuna) was the presiding tutelary deity who governed the fortune and prosperity of a city, its destiny. In Classical Greek mythology, she is the dau ...
,
Agathos Daimon Agathos Daimon (, , ) originally was a lesser deity (''daemon'') of classical ancient Greek religion and Graeco-Egyptian religion. In his original Greek form, he served as a household god, to whom, along with Zeus Soter, libations were made aft ...
,
Nemesis In ancient Greek religion and myth, Nemesis (; ) also called Rhamnousia (or Rhamnusia; ), was the goddess who personified retribution for the sin of hubris: arrogance before the gods. Etymology The name ''Nemesis'' is derived from the Greek ...
,
Artemis Enodia In ancient Greek religion and Greek mythology, mythology, Artemis (; ) is the goddess of the hunting, hunt, the wilderness, wild animals, transitions, nature, vegetation, childbirth, Kourotrophos, care of children, and chastity. In later tim ...
,
Artemis Lysaea In ancient Greek religion and Greek mythology, mythology, Artemis (; ) is the goddess of the hunting, hunt, the wilderness, wild animals, transitions, nature, vegetation, childbirth, Kourotrophos, care of children, and chastity. In later tim ...
, Pan,
Leto In ancient Greek mythology and Ancient Greek religion, religion, Leto (; ) is a childhood goddess, the daughter of the Titans Coeus and Phoebe (Titaness), Phoebe, the sister of Asteria, and the mother of Apollo and Artemis.Hesiod, ''Theogony' ...
,
Hypnos In Greek mythology, Hypnos (; Ancient Greek: , 'sleep'), also spelled Hypnus, is the personification of sleep. The Roman equivalent is Somnus. His name is the origin of the word hypnosis. Pausanias (geographer), Pausanias wrote that Hypnos was t ...
, and
Oneiros In Greek mythology, dreams were sometimes personified as Oneiros () or Oneiroi (). In the ''Iliad'' of Homer, Zeus sends an Oneiros to appear to Agamemnon in a dream, while in Hesiod's ''Theogony'', the Oneiroi are the sons of Nyx (Night), and ...
), and the guest house. Other buildings of this period include the Library of Rufus and a small odeon in the gymnasium for "sacred theatre." As with the reforms under Hadrian, much of this work seems to have been inspired by the sanctuary at Pergamum. Other work focussed on reviving or restoring earlier Epidaurian cults and practices. Most notably, Pythodorus carried out extensive repairs to the Sanctuary of Apollo Maleatas, which had been abandoned since the early first century BC, adding a
propylon In ancient Greek architecture, a propylaion, propylaeon or, in its Latinized form, ''propylaeum''—often used in the plural forms propylaia or propylaea (; Greek: προπύλαια)—is a monumental gateway. It serves as a partition, separat ...
, a
nymphaeum A ''nymphaeum'' (Latin : ''nymphaea'') or ''nymphaion'' (), in ancient Greece and Rome, was a monument consecrated to the nymphs, especially those of springs. These monuments were originally natural grottoes, which tradition assigned as habit ...
, and a vast subterranean cistern ("the Skanà"). These repairs allowed the procession for Asclepius' birthday, instituted by Isyllus in the third century BC, to be revived. In AD 395 the
Goths The Goths were a Germanic people who played a major role in the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the emergence of medieval Europe. They were first reported by Graeco-Roman authors in the 3rd century AD, living north of the Danube in what is ...
raided the sanctuary. Even after the introduction of
Christianity Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion, which states that Jesus in Christianity, Jesus is the Son of God (Christianity), Son of God and Resurrection of Jesus, rose from the dead after his Crucifixion of Jesus, crucifixion, whose ...
and the silencing of the
oracle An oracle is a person or thing considered to provide insight, wise counsel or prophetic predictions, most notably including precognition of the future, inspired by deities. If done through occultic means, it is a form of divination. Descript ...
s, the sanctuary at Epidaurus was still known as late as the mid 5th century as a
Christian A Christian () is a person who follows or adheres to Christianity, a Monotheism, monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus in Christianity, Jesus Christ. Christians form the largest religious community in the wo ...
healing centre.


Description

The main sanctuary consisted of the Temple and a number of structures clustered around it. The Theatre of Epidaurus is located on the hillside northwest of the sanctuary. To the west of the sanctuary was a sacred grove. Beyond the grove on Kynortion hill was the subsidiary sanctuary of Apollo Maleatas.


Temple

The temple was Doric, six columns by eleven, measuring ca. 80 feet in length. An inscription excavated near the temple (''Inscriptiones Graecae'' IV2 no. 102) gives a public record of the temple's construction. The inscription names Theodotus as architect. The project took nearly five years to complete. The temple had
pediment Pediments are a form of gable in classical architecture, usually of a triangular shape. Pediments are placed above the horizontal structure of the cornice (an elaborated lintel), or entablature if supported by columns.Summerson, 130 In an ...
al sculpture, front and back, and figural
acroteria An acroterion, acroterium, (pl. akroteria) is an architectural ornament placed on a flat pedestal called the ''acroter'' or plinth, and mounted at the apex or corner of the pediment of a building in the classical style. An acroterion placed ...
. These, the work of master sculptors of the period, occupy a prominent room in the National Archaeological Museum at Athens. The gold and ivory cult statue of the god is described by Pausanias, who described the sanctuary in the 2nd century: :The sacred grove of Asklepios is surrounded on all sides by boundary marks. No death or birth takes place within the enclosure; the same custom prevails also in the island of Delos. All the offerings, whether the offerer be one of the Epidaurians themselves or a stranger, are entirely consumed within the bounds. At Titane too, I know, there is this same rule. The image of Asklepios is, in size, half as big as Zeus Olympios at Athens, and is made of ivory and gold. An inscription tells us that the artist was Thrasymedes, a Parian, son of Arignotos. The god is sitting on a seat grasping a staff; the other hand he is holding above the head of the serpent; there is also a figure of a dog lying by his side. On the seat are wrought in relief the exploits of Argive heroes..." .."When I asked at Epidauros why they pour neither water nor olive oil on the image of Asklepios o keep the ivory in good condition the attendants at the sanctuary informed me that both the image of the god and the throne were built over a cistern. The temple is preserved in foundations only. Fragments of the upper structure, recovered in excavation, are in the
archaeological museum An archaeology museum is a museum that specializes in the display of archaeological artifacts. Many archaeology museum are in the open-air museum, open air, such as the Ancient Agora of Athens and the Roman Forum.David Watkin. ''The Roman Forum ...
at the site. The Temple of Asclepius itself was not alone on the site. Pausanias recorded several smaller buildings within the holy area and grove of the temple complex, such as a theatre, a temple of
Artemis In ancient Greek religion and Greek mythology, mythology, Artemis (; ) is the goddess of the hunting, hunt, the wilderness, wild animals, transitions, nature, vegetation, childbirth, Kourotrophos, care of children, and chastity. In later tim ...
, an image of
Epione In Greek mythology, Epione () is a minor health goddess, the wife of Asclepius, the Greek god of healing and medicine. Mythology Her name is derived from the word (, "soothing"). Epione was the personification of the soothing of pain and the ...
, a sanctuary of
Aphrodite Aphrodite (, ) is an Greek mythology, ancient Greek goddess associated with love, lust, beauty, pleasure, passion, procreation, and as her syncretism, syncretised Roman counterpart , desire, Sexual intercourse, sex, fertility, prosperity, and ...
and
Themis In Greek mythology and religion, Themis (; ) is the goddess and personification of justice, divine order, law, and custom. She is one of the twelve Titan children of Gaia and Uranus, and the second wife of Zeus. She is associated with oracles a ...
, "a race-course... and a fountain worth seeing for its roof and general splendour."Pausanias, Description of Greece 2. 26. 1 - 28. 1 (trans. Jones)


Worship

The temple had major religious importance in the cult of Asclepius. It was a site for holy pilgrimage from the entire ancient world, and influenced the worship of Asclepius in many other sanctuaries dedicated to him. Pausanias described how serpents were considered sacred to the god on the site: "The serpents, including a peculiar kind of a yellowish colour, are considered sacred to Asklepios, and are tame with men." Pausanias described the worship and the site's importance as a pilgrimage in the 2nd century: :Over against the temple is the place where the suppliants of the god sleep. Near has been built a circular building of white marble, called Tholos (Round House) . . . Within the enclosure stood slabs; in my time six remained, but of old there were more. On them are inscribed the names of both the men and the women who have been healed by Asklepios, the disease also from which each suffered, and the means of cure. The dialect is Doric. Apart from the others is an old slab, which declares that Hippolytos dedicated twenty horses to the god. The Arikians tell a tale that agrees with the inscription on this slab, that when Hippolytos was killed, owing to the curses of Theseus, Asklepios raised him from the dead. On coming to life again he refused to forgive his father; rejecting his prayers, he went to the Arikians in Italy... There were many legends, stories and miracles said to have taken place in the temple during the centuries of pilgrimage to it.
Cicero Marcus Tullius Cicero ( ; ; 3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher, orator, writer and Academic skeptic, who tried to uphold optimate principles during the political crises tha ...
alluded the merciful nature of Asclepius when he recounted how
Dionysius I of Syracuse Dionysius I or Dionysius the Elder ( 432 – 367 BC) was a Greek tyrant of Syracuse, Sicily. He conquered several cities in Sicily and southern Italy, opposed Carthage's influence in Sicily and made Syracuse the most powerful of the Western ...
allegedly committed sacrilege at the sanctuary without divine punishment: "He gave orders for the removal of the golden beard of Aesculapius at Epidaurus, saying it was not fitting for the son to wear a beard when his father
pollo Pollo may refer to: * chicken in Spanish and Italian languages * pollo, or polo, is a rice dish in the Persian language People *Secondo Pollo (1908-1941), Italian priest *Stefanaq Pollo (1924-1977), Albanian academic *Genc Pollo (born 1963), Alba ...
appeared in all his temples beardless... Nor did Aesculapius cause him to waste away and perish of some painful and lingering disease." In the 3rd century,
Aelian Aelian or Aelianus may refer to: * Aelianus Tacticus, 2nd-century Greek military writer in Rome * Casperius Aelianus (13–98 AD), Praetorian Prefect, executed by Trajan * Claudius Aelianus Claudius Aelianus (; ), commonly Aelian (), born at Pr ...
describes a legendary miracle taking place in the sanctuary: :A woman suffered from an intestinal worm, and the cleverest doctors despaired of curing her. Accordingly, she went to Epidauros and prayed to the god sklepiosthat she might be rid of the complaint that was lodged in her. The god was not at hand. The attendants of the temple however made her lie down in the place where the god was in the habit of healing his petitioners. And the woman lay quiet as she was bid; and the ministers of the god addressed themselves to her cure: they severed her head from the neck, and one of them inserted his hand and drew out the worm, which was a monstrous creature. But to adjust the head and to restore it to its former setting, this they always failed to do. Well, the god arrived and was enraged with the ministers for undertaking a task beyond their skill, and himself with the irresistible power of a god restored the head to the body and raised the stranger up again. For my part, O King Asklepios, of all gods the kindliest to man, I do not set Wormwood s a cure for intestinal wormsagainst your skill (heaven forbid I should be so insensate!), but in considering Wormwood I was reminded of your beneficent action and of your astounding powers of healing. And there is no need to doubt that this herb also is a gift from you.Aelian, On Animals 9. 33 (trans. Scholfield)


Excavations

On ,
Panagiotis Kavvadias Panagiotis Kavvadias or Cawadias (; – 20 July 1928) was a Greek Archaeology, archaeologist. He was responsible for the excavation of ancient sites in Greece, including Epidaurus in Argolis and the Acropolis of Athens, as well as archaeolog ...
began excavations at Epidaurus on behalf of the
Archaeological Society of Athens The Archaeological Society of Athens () is an independent learned society. Also termed the Greek Archaeological Society, it was founded in 1837 by Konstantinos Bellios, just a few years after the establishment of the modern Greek State, with the ...
at Epidaurus, with the aim of uncovering the theatre described by Pausanias. These were the first excavations undertaken by the Society outside Athens, apart from minor and small-scale rescue excavations. In 1881, the excavations uncovered the theatre, as well as two (inscribed stone slabs) in the Sanctuary of Asclepius. The , dating to the late fourth or early third century BCE and sometimes called 'miracle inscriptions', recorded the names of at least twenty individuals and the means by which they were healed – usually miraculous dreams or visions. The excavation and publication of these contributed significantly to Kavvadias's early archaeological reputation. In 1882, Kavvadias uncovered the (circular temple) and the Temple of Asclepius, followed by the , in 1883. In 1884, he excavated the Temple of Artemis and the Great Propylaia, and reconstructed a row of columns in the western
stoa A stoa (; plural, stoas,"stoa", ''Oxford English Dictionary'', 2nd Ed., 1989 stoai, or stoae ), in ancient Greek architecture, is a covered walkway or portico, commonly for public use. Early stoas were open at the entrance with columns, usually ...
of the . The excavations continued until 1927:
Valerios Stais Valerios Stais (; Kythira, 1857 – Athens, 1923) was a Greek archaeologist. Biography He initially studied medicine but later switched to archaeology obtaining his Doctorate from the University of Halle (Saale) in 1885. He worked for the Nation ...
joined them as a supervisor in early 1886, and became field director in 1887. In 1896, Kavvadias excavated the first parts of the nearby Sanctuary of Apollo Maleatas on Mount Kynortion. That year, the French architectural historian Charles Chipiez described the excavation of Epidaurus as "of capital importance to the history of Greek architecture", though he criticised the restrained and limited reconstructions drawn up by the German
Wilhelm Dörpfeld Wilhelm Dörpfeld (26 December 1853 – 25 April 1940) was a German architect and archaeologist, a pioneer of stratigraphy, stratigraphic excavation and precise graphical documentation of archaeological projects. He is famous for his work on B ...
, who worked with Kavvadias and illustrated his publication of the excavations, in favour of the more lavish reconstructions created in 1895 by the French architect Alphonse Defrasse – reconstructions which, by the later 20th century, were considered largely erroneous. Kavvadias's report on his excavations of the Roman-period at the site, which he published in 1900, has been described as "invaluable" for the amount of evidence it preserves, much of which has been lost through later deterioration in the building's condition. Kavvadias returned to Epidaurus throughout his career. In 1902, he discovered the first parts of a building adjacent to the stadium (which had already been discovered by 1893), connected directly to it by means of an entrance tunnel. The findings from the building's excavation were never fully published; in 1992, the archaeologist
Stephen G. Miller Stephen Gaylord Miller (June 22, 1942 – August 11, 2021) was an American historian and archaeologist who devoted over three decades of his career to the excavation and promotion of the archaeological site of Ancient Nemea in the Peloponnese, G ...
suggested that it may have been an (changing room) for the athletes. In 1903, Kavvadias published part of the inscription upon a third , detailing further accounts of miraculous healings; he published the inscription in full in 1918. In his last excavation season at Epidaurus, which lasted from June 1928 until shortly before his death in July, he uncovered an elaborate building, possibly used by athletes preparing for competition, to the north of the stadium.
John Papadimitriou John K. Papadimitriou (; – April 11, 1963) was a Greek archaeologist. Along with George E. Mylonas, George Mylonas, he excavated Grave Circle B, Mycenae, Grave Circle B, the oldest known monumentalized burials at the Bronze Age site of Myc ...
excavated the site on behalf of the Archaeological Society between 1948 and 1951. Much of his work was simply clearing the site, though he made a systematic study of the Sanctuary of Apollo Maleatas. The excavation of Epidaurus has been described as a "landmark", both for its place in the institutional history of Greek archaeology and for the finds uncovered there.


See also

*
List of Ancient Greek temples This list of ancient Greek temples covers temples built by the Hellenic people from the 6th century BC until the 2nd century AD on mainland Greece and in Hellenic towns in the Aegean Islands, Asia Minor, Sicily and Italy ("Magna Graecia"), where ...


Footnotes


Explanatory notes


References


Bibliography

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Further reading

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * {{Authority control Temples of Asclepius Epidaurus 4th-century BC religious buildings and structures