Basil (, ; ''Ocimum basilicum'' , also called great basil, is a culinary herb of the

family Family (from la, familia) is a group of people related either by consanguinity (by recognized birth) or affinity (by marriage or other relationship). The purpose of the family is to maintain the well-being of its members and of society. Idea ...

Lamiaceae The Lamiaceae ( ) or Labiatae are a family of flowering plants commonly known as the mint, deadnettle or sage family. Many of the plants are aromatic in all parts and include widely used culinary herbs like basil, mint, rosemary, sage, savo ...

(mints). It is a

tender Tender may refer to: Entertainment Film * ''Illegal Tender'' (2007), a film directed by Franc. Reyes * ''Tender'' (2012), a short film by Liz Tomkins * ''Tender'' (2019), a short film by Darryl Jones and Anthony Lucido * ''Tender'' (2019), a sh ...

plant, and is used in cuisines worldwide. In

Western cuisine European cuisine comprises the cuisines of Europe "European Cuisine."variety also known as sweet basil or Genovese basil. Basil is native to tropical regions from

Central Africa Central Africa is a subregion of the African continent comprising various countries according to different definitions. Angola, Burundi, the Central African Republic, Chad, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the Republic of the Congo, E ...

Southeast Asia Southeast Asia, also spelled South East Asia and South-East Asia, and also known as Southeastern Asia, South-eastern Asia or SEA, is the geographical United Nations geoscheme for Asia#South-eastern Asia, south-eastern region of Asia, consistin ...

. In

temperate climate In geography, the temperate climates of Earth occur in the middle latitudes (23.5° to 66.5° N/S of Equator), which span between the tropics and the polar regions of Earth. These zones generally have wider temperature ranges throughout ...

s basil is treated as an annual plant, however, basil can be grown as a short-lived

perennial A perennial plant or simply perennial is a plant that lives more than two years. The term ('' per-'' + '' -ennial'', "through the years") is often used to differentiate a plant from shorter-lived annuals and biennials. The term is also wide ...

or biennial in warmer horticultural zones with

tropical The tropics are the regions of Earth surrounding the Equator. They are defined in latitude by the Tropic of Cancer in the Northern Hemisphere at N and the Tropic of Capricorn in the Southern Hemisphere at S. The tropics are also referred to ...

Mediterranean climate A Mediterranean climate (also called a dry summer temperate climate ''Cs'') is a temperate climate sub-type, generally characterized by warm, dry summers and mild, fairly wet winters; these weather conditions are typically experienced in the ...

s. There are many varieties of basil including sweet basil, Thai basil (''O. basilicum'' var. ''thyrsiflora''), and Mrs. Burns' Lemon (''O. basilicum var. citriodora''). ''O. basilicum'' can

cross-pollinate Pollination is the transfer of pollen from an anther of a plant to the stigma of a plant, later enabling fertilisation and the production of seeds, most often by an animal or by wind. Pollinating agents can be animals such as insects, birds ...

with other species of the ''Ocimum'' genus, producing hybrids such as lemon basil (''O. × citriodorum'') and

African blue basil African blue basil ('' Ocimum kilimandscharicum'' × ''basilicum'' ' Dark Opal') is a hybrid basil variety, a cross between camphor basil and dark opal basil. It is one of a few types of basil that are perennial. African blue basil plants are ...

(''O. × kilimandscharicum'').

Etymology

The name "basil" comes from the

Latin Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power ...

, and the

Greek Greek may refer to: Greece Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe: *Greeks, an ethnic group. *Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family. **Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor ...

(), meaning "royal/kingly plant", possibly because the plant was believed to have been used in production of royal perfumes. Basil is likewise sometimes referred to in

French French (french: français(e), link=no) may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to France ** French language, which originated in France, and its various dialects and accents ** French people, a nation and ethnic group identified with Franc ...

as ('the royal herb'). The Latin name has been confused with basilisk, as it was supposed to be an

antidote An antidote is a substance that can counteract a form of poisoning. The term ultimately derives from the Greek term φάρμακον ἀντίδοτον ''(pharmakon) antidoton'', "(medicine) given as a remedy". Antidotes for anticoagulants are s ...

to the basilisk's venom.

Description

Basil is an annual, or sometimes perennial, herb used for its leaves. Depending on the variety, plants can reach heights of between . Its leaves are richly green and ovate, but otherwise come in a wide variety of sizes and shapes depending on cultivar. Leaf sizes range from long, and between wide. Basil grows a thick, central

taproot A taproot is a large, central, and dominant root from which other roots sprout laterally. Typically a taproot is somewhat straight and very thick, is tapering in shape, and grows directly downward. In some plants, such as the carrot, the taproo ...

. Its flowers are small and white, and grow from a central

inflorescence An inflorescence is a group or cluster of flowers arranged on a stem that is composed of a main branch or a complicated arrangement of branches. Morphologically, it is the modified part of the shoot of seed plants where flowers are formed ...

, or spike, that emerges from the central stem atop the plant. Unusual among Lamiaceae, the four

stamen The stamen (plural ''stamina'' or ''stamens'') is the pollen-producing reproductive organ of a flower. Collectively the stamens form the androecium., p. 10 Morphology and terminology A stamen typically consists of a stalk called the filam ...

s and the

pistil Gynoecium (; ) is most commonly used as a collective term for the parts of a flower that produce ovules and ultimately develop into the fruit and seeds. The gynoecium is the innermost whorl of a flower; it consists of (one or more) '' pis ...

are not pushed under the upper lip of the

corolla Corolla may refer to: *Corolla (botany), the petals of a flower, considered as a unit *Toyota Corolla, an automobile model name * Corolla (headgear), an ancient headdress in the form of a circlet or crown * ''Corolla'' (gastropod), a genus of moll ...

, but lie over the inferior lip. After entomophilous pollination, the corolla falls off and four round

achene An achene (; ), also sometimes called akene and occasionally achenium or achenocarp, is a type of simple dry fruit produced by many species of flowering plants. Achenes are monocarpellate (formed from one carpel) and indehiscent (they do not op ...

s develop inside the bilabiate

calyx Calyx or calyce (plural "calyces"), from the Latin ''calix'' which itself comes from the Ancient Greek ''κάλυξ'' (''kálux'') meaning "husk" or "pod", may refer to: Biology * Calyx (anatomy), collective name for several cup-like structures ...

Phytochemistry

The various basils have such distinct scents because the volatile aromatic compounds vary with cultivars. The essential oil from European basil contains high concentrations of

linalool Linalool () refers to two enantiomers of a naturally occurring terpene alcohol found in many flowers and spice plants. Linalool has multiple commercial applications, the majority of which are based on its pleasant scent (floral, with a touch o ...

and methyl chavicol (estragole), in a ratio of about 3:1. Other constituents include:

1,8-cineole Eucalyptol is a monoterpenoid. A colorless liquid, it is a bicyclic ether. Eucalyptol has a fresh mint-like smell and a spicy, cooling taste. It is insoluble in water, but miscible with organic solvents. Eucalyptol makes up ~70% - 90% of eucaly ...

eugenol Eugenol is an allyl chain-substituted guaiacol, a member of the allylbenzene class of chemical compounds. It is a colorless to pale yellow, aromatic oily liquid extracted from certain essential oils especially from clove, nutmeg, cinnamon, ...

, and myrcene, among others. The clove scent of sweet basil is derived from eugenol. The aroma profile of basil includes 1,8-cineole and methyl eugenol. In this species eugenol is synthesised from coniferyl acetate and NADPH. Some of these are useful as

insect repellent An insect repellent (also commonly called "bug spray") is a substance applied to skin, clothing, or other surfaces to discourage insects (and arthropods in general) from landing or climbing on that surface. Insect repellents help prevent and co ...

s, see below.

Distribution and habitat

Basil is native to

India India, officially the Republic of India ( Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the ...

and other tropical regions stretching from Africa to South East Asia, but has now become globalized due to human cultivation.

Taxonomy

The exact taxonomy of basil is uncertain due to the immense number of cultivars, its ready polymorphy, and frequent cross-pollination (resulting in new hybrids) with other members of the genus ''Ocimum'' and within the species. ''Ocimum basilicum'' has at least 60 varieties, which further complicates taxonomy.

Cultivars

Most basils are cultivars of sweet basil. Most basil varieties have green leaves, but a few are purple, such as, 'Purple Delight'. *

Anise basil Anise (; '), also called aniseed or rarely anix is a flowering plant in the family Apiaceae native to Eurasia. The flavor and aroma of its seeds have similarities with some other spices and herbs, such as star anise, fennel, licorice, and tar ...

Licorice basil Liquorice (British English) or licorice (American English) ( ; also ) is the common name of ''Glycyrrhiza glabra'', a flowering plant of the bean family Fabaceae, from the root of which a sweet, aromatic flavouring can be extracted. The liqu ...

, or

Persian basil Persian may refer to: * People and things from Iran, historically called ''Persia'' in the English language ** Persians, the majority ethnic group in Iran, not to be conflated with the Iranic peoples ** Persian language, an Iranian language of the ...

(''O. basilicum'' 'Liquorice') *

Cinnamon basil Cinnamon basil is a type of basil (''Ocimum basilicum''). The term "cinnamon basil" can refer to a number of different varieties of basil, including as a synonym for Thai basil (''O. basilicum'' var. ''thyrsiflora''), as a particular cultivar ...

(''Ocimum basilicum'' 'Cinnamon') * Dark opal basil (''Ocimum basilicum'' 'Dark Opal') * Globe basil, dwarf basil, French basil (''Ocimum basilicum'' 'Minimum') *

Lettuce leaf basil Lettuce leaf basil is a large-leaf variety of ''Ocimum basilicum'' (sweet basil). The large, crinkled leaves, which grow on the short, wide plant, are sweet, but not as strong as other sweet basils. This makes them particularly suitable for tossing ...

(''Ocimum basilicum'' 'Crispum') * Purple basil (''Ocimum basilicum'' 'Purpurescens') * Rubin basil (''Ocimum basilicum'' 'Rubin') * Thai basil (''Ocimum basilicum thyrsifolium'')

Hybrids

(''Ocimum basilicum × O. kilimandscharicum'') * Lemon basil (''Ocimum basilicum × O. americanum'') * Spice basil (''Ocimum basilicum × O. americanum''), which is sometimes sold as holy basil *

Greek basil Greek basil (, ; ''Ocimum basilicum'' var. ''minimum'') is a flowering herb and cultivar of basil. Etymology The name "basil" comes from Latin, ''basilius'', and Greek βασιλικόν φυτόν (''basilikón phutón''), meaning "royal/ki ...

(''Ocimum basilicum var. minimum'')

Similar species

Some similar species in the same genus may be commonly called "basil", although they are not varieties of ''Ocimum basilicum''. * Camphor basil, African basil ('' O. kilimandscharicum'') * Clove basil, also African basil ('' Ocimum gratissimum'') * Holy basil ('' Ocimum tenuiflorum'', formerly known as ''O. sanctum'')

Cultivation

Growing conditions

Basil is sensitive to cold, with best growth in hot, dry conditions. It behaves as an annual if there is any chance of a frost. However, due to its popularity, basil is cultivated in many countries around the world. Production areas include countries in the Mediterranean area, those in the

temperate zone In geography, the temperate climates of Earth occur in the middle latitudes (23.5° to 66.5° N/S of Equator), which span between the tropics and the polar regions of Earth. These zones generally have wider temperature ranges throughout ...

, and others in subtropical climates. In Northern Europe, Canada, the northern states of the U.S., and the South Island of New Zealand, basil grows best if sown under glass in a

peat Peat (), also known as turf (), is an accumulation of partially decayed vegetation or organic matter. It is unique to natural areas called peatlands, bogs, mires, moors, or muskegs. The peatland ecosystem covers and is the most efficien ...

pot, then planted out in late spring/early summer (when there is little chance of a frost); however, it can also thrive when planted outside in these climates. Additionally, it may be sown in soil once chance of frost is past. It fares best in well-drained soil with direct exposure to the sun. Although basil grows best outdoors, it can be grown indoors in a pot and, like most herbs, will do best on a sun-facing windowsill, kept away from extremely cold drafts. A

greenhouse A greenhouse (also called a glasshouse, or, if with sufficient heating, a hothouse) is a structure with walls and roof made chiefly of transparent material, such as glass, in which plants requiring regulated climatic conditions are grown.These ...

or row cover is ideal if available. It can, however, even be grown in a basement under fluorescent lights. Supplemental lighting produces greater biomass and

phenol Phenol (also called carbolic acid) is an aromatic organic compound with the molecular formula . It is a white crystalline solid that is volatile. The molecule consists of a phenyl group () bonded to a hydroxy group (). Mildly acidic, it ...

production, with red + blue specifically increasing growth and flower bud production. UV-B increases the

volatiles Volatiles are the group of chemical elements and chemical compounds that can be readily vaporized. In contrast with volatiles, elements and compounds that are not readily vaporized are known as refractory substances. On planet Earth, the term ...

in ''O. basilicum'' essential oil, which has not been reproducible in other plants, and so may be unique to the genus or even to this species. Basil plants require regular watering, but not as much attention as is needed in other climates. If its leaves have wilted from lack of water, it will recover if watered thoroughly and placed in a sunny location. Yellow leaves towards the bottom of the plant are an indication that the plant has been stressed; usually this means that it needs less water, or less or more fertilizer. Basil can be propagated reliably from cuttings with the stems of short cuttings suspended in water for two weeks or until roots develop.

Pruning, flowering, and seeding

Once a stem produces flowers, foliage production stops on that stem, the stem becomes woody, and essential oil production declines. To prevent this, a basil-grower may pinch off any flower stems before they are fully mature. Because only the blooming stem is so affected, some stems can be pinched for leaf production, while others are left to bloom for decoration or seeds. Picking the leaves off the plant helps promote growth, largely because the plant responds by converting pairs of leaflets next to the topmost leaves into new stems. Once the plant is allowed to flower, it may produce seed pods containing small black seeds, which can be saved and planted the following year. If allowed to go to seed, a basil plant will grow back the next year.

Diseases

Basil suffers from several plant pathogens that can ruin the crop and reduce yield. Fusarium wilt is a soil-borne fungal disease that will quickly kill younger basil plants.

Seedling A seedling is a young sporophyte developing out of a plant embryo from a seed. Seedling development starts with germination of the seed. A typical young seedling consists of three main parts: the radicle (embryonic root), the hypocotyl (emb ...

s may be killed by ''

Pythium ''Pythium'' is a genus of parasitic oomycetes. They were formerly classified as fungi. Most species are plant parasites, but '' Pythium insidiosum'' is an important pathogen of animals, causing pythiosis. The feet of the fungus gnat are fre ...

damping off Damping off (or damping-off) is a horticultural disease or condition, caused by several different pathogens that kill or weaken seeds or seedlings before or after they germinate. It is most prevalent in wet and cool conditions. Symptoms There a ...

. A common foliar disease of basil is

gray mold ''Botrytis cinerea'' is a necrotrophic fungus that affects many plant species, although its most notable hosts may be wine grapes. In viticulture, it is commonly known as "botrytis bunch rot"; in horticulture, it is usually called "grey moul ...

caused by '' Botrytis cinerea''; it can cause infections post-harvest and is capable of killing the entire plant. Black spot can be seen on basil foliage and is caused by the

fungi A fungus (plural, : fungi or funguses) is any member of the group of Eukaryote, eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and Mold (fungus), molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified ...

genus Genus ( plural genera ) is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms as well as viruses. In the hierarchy of biological classification, genus comes above species and below family. In binomial n ...

'' Colletotrichum''.

Downy mildew Downy mildew refers to any of several types of oomycete microbes that are obligate parasites of plants. Downy mildews exclusively belong to the Peronosporaceae family. In commercial agriculture, they are a particular problem for growers of c ...

caused by ''Peronospora belbahrii'' is a significant disease, as first reported in Italy in 2004. It was reported in the U.S. in 2007 and 2008. Non-pathogenic bacteria found on basil include ''

Novosphingobium ''Novosphingobium'' is a genus of Gram-negative bacteria that includes ''N. taihuense'', which can degrade aromatic compounds such as phenol, aniline, nitrobenzene and phenanthrene. The species ''N. aromativorans'', which was first found in Ul ...

'' species.

Uses

Culinary

Basil is most commonly used fresh in recipes. In general, it is added last, as cooking quickly destroys the flavor. The fresh herb can be kept for a short time in plastic bags in the refrigerator, or for a longer period in the freezer, after being blanched quickly in boiling water.

Leaves and flowers

The most commonly used Mediterranean basil cultivars are "Genovese", "Purple Ruffles", "Mammoth", "Cinnamon", "Lemon", "Globe", and " African Blue". Basil is one of the main ingredients in pesto, an Italian sauce with

olive oil Olive oil is a liquid fat obtained from olives (the fruit of ''Olea europaea''; family Oleaceae), a traditional tree crop of the Mediterranean Basin, produced by pressing whole olives and extracting the oil. It is commonly used in cooking: ...

and basil as its primary ingredients. Many national cuisines use fresh or dried basils in soups and other foods, such as to thicken soups. Basil is commonly steeped in cream or milk to create flavor in ice cream or chocolate truffles. Lemon basil has a strong

lemon The lemon (''Citrus limon'') is a species of small evergreen trees in the flowering plant family Rutaceae, native to Asia, primarily Northeast India (Assam), Northern Myanmar or China. The tree's ellipsoidal yellow fruit is used for culin ...

y smell and flavor due to the presence of citral. It is widely used in

Indonesia Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania between the Indian and Pacific oceans. It consists of over 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, and parts of Borneo and New Guine ...

, where it is called and served raw as an accompaniment to meat or fish.

Seeds

When soaked in water, the seeds of several basil varieties become gelatinous, and are used in Asian drinks and desserts such as the Indian '' faluda'', the

Iranian Iranian may refer to: * Iran, a sovereign state * Iranian peoples, the speakers of the Iranian languages. The term Iranic peoples is also used for this term to distinguish the pan ethnic term from Iranian, used for the people of Iran * Iranian lan ...

, or . In Kashmir, the Ramadan fast is often broken with ''babre beole'', a sharbat made with basil seeds.

Folk medicine

Basil is used in

folk medicine Traditional medicine (also known as indigenous medicine or folk medicine) comprises medical aspects of traditional knowledge that developed over generations within the folk beliefs of various societies, including indigenous peoples, before the ...

practices, such as those of Ayurveda or traditional Chinese medicine.

Toxicity to pests and pathogens

Insecticide and insect repellent

Studies of the essential oil have shown Insecticide, insecticidal and Insect repellent, insect-repelling properties, including potential toxicity to mosquitos. The essential oil is found by Huignard et al. 2008 to inhibit electrical activity by decreasing action potential amplitude, by shortening the post hyperpolarization (biology), hyperpolarization phase, and reducing the action frequency of action potentials. In Huignard's opinion this is due to the

and estagole, the amplitude reduction due to linalool, and the phase shortening due to both. ''Callosobruchus maculatus'', a pest which affects cowpea, is repelled by the essential oil. The essential oil mixed with kaolin is both an adulticide and an ovicide (insecticide), ovicide, effective for three months in against ''C. maculatus'' in cowpea. The thrips ''Frankliniella occidentalis'' and ''Thrips tabaci'' are repelled by ''O. basilicum'', making this useful as an

in other crops. The pests ''Sitophilus oryzae'', ''Stegobium paniceum'', ''Tribolium castaneum'', and ''Bruchus chinensis'' are evaluated by Deshpande et al. 1974 and '77.

Nematicide

The essential oil is found by Malik et al. 1987 and Sangwan et al. 1990 to be nematicide, nematicidal against ''Tylenchulus semipenetrans'', ''Meloidogyne javanica'', ''Anguina tritici'', and ''Heterodera cajani''.

Bacterial and fungal inhibition

The essential oil of the leaf and/or terminal shoot is effective against a large number of bacterial species including ''Lactiplantibacillus plantarum'' and ''Pseudomonas'' spp. The essential oil of leaf and/or terminal shoot is also effective against a large number of fungal species including ''Aspergillus'' spp., ''Candida (fungus), Candida'' spp., ''Mucor'' spp., and ''Geotrichum candidum''.

Culture

There are many rituals and beliefs associated with basil. The ancient Egyptians and ancient Greeks believed basil would open the gates of heaven for a person passing on. Jewish folklore suggests it adds strength while fasting. However, Herbalist Nicholas Culpeper saw basil as a plant of dread and suspicion. In Portugal, dwarf bush basil is traditionally presented in a pot, together with a poem and a paper carnation, to a sweetheart, on the religious holidays of John the Baptist (see ) and Saint Anthony of Padua. In Giovanni Boccaccio's 14th century The Decameron, ''Decameron'', the fifth story of the narrative's Summary of Decameron tales#Fourth day, fourth day involves a pot of basil as a central plot device. This famous story inspired John Keats to write his 1814 poem "Isabella, or the Pot of Basil", which was in turn the inspiration for two paintings of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood: John Everett Millais's Isabella (Millais painting), ''Isabella'' in 1849 and in 1868 the ''Isabella and the Pot of Basil'' by William Holman Hunt. Basil has religious significance in the Greek Orthodox Church, where it is used to sprinkle holy water. The Bulgarian Orthodox Church, Serbian Orthodox Church, Macedonian Orthodox Church and Romanian Orthodox Church use basil ( bg, босилек, ; sr, босиљак, ; mk, босилек, ) to prepare holy water and pots of basil are often placed below church altars. Some Greek Orthodox Christians even avoid eating it due to its association with the legend of the Elevation of the Holy Cross.

References

External links

Basil: Knowing and Growing from the New York Botanical Garden
{{sister bar, auto=yes, commons=Ocimum basilicum, wikt=basil Articles containing video clips Flora of Asia Flora of New Guinea Herbs Indian spices Insect repellents Mediterranean cuisine Medicinal plants of Asia Ocimum Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus