Stećak Necropolis
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Stećak (plural stećci;
Cyrillic The Cyrillic script ( ) is a writing system used for various languages across Eurasia. It is the designated national script in various Slavic, Turkic, Mongolic, Uralic, Caucasian and Iranic-speaking countries in Southeastern Europe, Ea ...
стећак, стећци) is the name for monumental
medieval In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the 5th to the late 15th centuries, similarly to the post-classical period of World history (field), global history. It began with the fall of the West ...
tombstone A gravestone or tombstone is a marker, usually stone, that is placed over a grave. A marker set at the head of the grave may be called a headstone. An especially old or elaborate stone slab may be called a funeral stele, stela, or slab. The us ...
s, that lie scattered across
Bosnia and Herzegovina Bosnia and Herzegovina, sometimes known as Bosnia-Herzegovina and informally as Bosnia, is a country in Southeast Europe. Situated on the Balkans, Balkan Peninsula, it borders Serbia to the east, Montenegro to the southeast, and Croatia to th ...
, and the border parts of
Croatia Croatia, officially the Republic of Croatia, is a country in Central Europe, Central and Southeast Europe, on the coast of the Adriatic Sea. It borders Slovenia to the northwest, Hungary to the northeast, Serbia to the east, Bosnia and Herze ...
,
Montenegro , image_flag = Flag of Montenegro.svg , image_coat = Coat of arms of Montenegro.svg , coa_size = 80 , national_motto = , national_anthem = () , image_map = Europe-Mont ...
and
Serbia , image_flag = Flag of Serbia.svg , national_motto = , image_coat = Coat of arms of Serbia.svg , national_anthem = () , image_map = , map_caption = Location of Serbia (gree ...
. An estimated 60,000 are found within the borders of modern Bosnia and Herzegovina and the rest of 10,000 are found in what are today Croatia (4,400), Montenegro (3,500), and Serbia (2,100), at more than 3,300 odd sites with over 90% in poor condition. They are cut in a variety of recognizable
stećak forms Stećak forms, that is, shapes and dimensions of the megalithic tombstone known as stećak, is what make stećaks extremely attractive. Stećaks are mostly of large dimension and in rare cases smaller ones were cut. However, the very basic divisi ...
, with certain percentage being richly decorated and some individual stećci also containing inscriptions in form of
epitaphs An epitaph (; ) is a short text honoring a deceased person. Strictly speaking, it refers to text that is inscribed on a tombstone or plaque, but it may also be used in a figurative sense. Some epitaphs are specified by the person themselves be ...
. Appearing in the mid 12th century, with the first phase in the 13th century, the custom of cutting and using stećci tombstones reached its peak in the 14th and 15th century, before being discontinued in the very early 16th century during the
Ottoman conquest of Bosnia and Herzegovina The Ottoman conquest of Bosnia and Herzegovina was a process that started roughly in 1386, when the first Ottoman attacks on the Kingdom of Bosnia took place. In 1451, more than 65 years after its initial attacks, the Ottoman Empire officially es ...
. They were a common tradition amongst Bosnian,
Catholic The Catholic Church (), also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the List of Christian denominations by number of members, largest Christian church, with 1.27 to 1.41 billion baptized Catholics Catholic Church by country, worldwid ...
and
Orthodox Orthodox, Orthodoxy, or Orthodoxism may refer to: Religion * Orthodoxy, adherence to accepted norms, more specifically adherence to creeds, especially within Christianity and Judaism, but also less commonly in non-Abrahamic religions like Neo-pag ...
Church followers alike, and were used by both
Slavic Slavic, Slav or Slavonic may refer to: Peoples * Slavic peoples, an ethno-linguistic group living in Europe and Asia ** East Slavic peoples, eastern group of Slavic peoples ** South Slavic peoples, southern group of Slavic peoples ** West Slav ...
and the
Vlach Vlach ( ), also Wallachian and many other variants, is a term and exonym used from the Middle Ages until the Modern Era to designate speakers of Eastern Romance languages living in Southeast Europe—south of the Danube (the Balkan peninsula) ...
populations. On the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina, all found individual and stećci grouped in necropolises are considered immovable heritage and most are already inscribed on one of the lists of the Commission to preserve National Monuments, whether on the List of National Monuments, Tentative List, or into List of Petitions. Stećci are also inscribed into
World Heritage List World Heritage Sites are landmarks and areas with legal protection under an international treaty administered by UNESCO for having cultural, historical, or scientific significance. The sites are judged to contain "cultural and natural heritag ...
by
UNESCO The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO ) is a List of specialized agencies of the United Nations, specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) with the aim of promoting world peace and International secur ...
since 2016, with a selection of some 4,000 individual monoliths, grouped in necropolises at 28 locations, of which 20 in Bosnia and Herzegovina, two in Croatia, three in Montenegro, and three in Serbia. One of the best preserved collections of these tombstones is Radimlja, west of
Stolac Stolac ( sr-Cyrl, Столац) is an ancient city located in Herzegovina-Neretva Canton of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, an entity of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is located in the region of Herzegovina. Stolac is one of the oldest cit ...
in Bosnia and Herzegovina, while the
Zgošća Stećak ''Zgošća Stećak'' () is a ''stećak'' (monumental medieval tombstone) discovered in a gorge of the Zgošća (river), Zgošća river, near ''Donja Zgošća'' village, not far from Kakanj in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is one of the most representa ...
is one of the most representative individual examples of ''stećak'' found, in terms of its size, artistic processing and ornamentation.


Etymology

The word itself is a contracted form of the older word *''stojećak'', which is derived from the South Slavic verb ''stajati'' (engl. ''stand''). It literally means the "tall, standing thing". In Herzegovina they are also called as ''mašeti'' / ''mašete'' (Italian ''massetto'' meaning "big rock", or Turkish ''meşhet''/''mešhed'' meaning "tombstone of a fallen hero"), in Central and Western Bosnia as ''mramori'' / ''mramorje'' / ''mramorovi'' (marble), while in Serbia and Montenegro as ''usađenik'' (implantation). On the stećci inscriptions they are called as ''bilig'' (mark), ''kamen bilig'' (stone mark), ''kâm'' / ''kami'' / ''kamen'' (stone), ''hram'' (shrine), ''zlamen'' (sign), ''kuća'' (house), ''raka'' (pit), ''greb/grob'' (grave). In the 1495 lectionary they are recorded as ''kamy'' (stone). Although the name ''stećak'' is meant to represent high monolithic standing stones (i.e. ''sanduk'' and ''sljemenjak'' form), in the 20th century the word ''stećak'' was accepted in science as a general term, including for plate tombstones (i.e. ''ploče''). The original reference to the word ''stećak'' itself is uncertain and seems to be a modern invention as it can only be traced from the note by
Ivan Kukuljević Sakcinski Ivan Kukuljević Sakcinski (; 29 May 1816 – 1 August 1889) was a Croatian historian, politician, and writer, most famous for delivering the first speech in Croatian before Parliament. Considered a renowned patriot, Kukuljević was a proponent ...
from 1851, dictionary by
Vuk Karadžić Vuk Stefanović Karadžić ( sr-Cyrl, Вук Стефановић Караџић, ; 6 November 1787 (26 October OS)7 February 1864) was a Serbian philologist, anthropologist and linguist. He was one of the most important reformers of the moder ...
from 1852 (in the first edition from 1812 the term did not exist), although he contradicted himself as the commoners from
Zagvozd Zagvozd is a village and a seat of Zagvozd municipality in the Split-Dalmatia County, Croatia. In 2011 it had a population of 767. Demographics In 2021, the municipality had 957 residents in the following 7 settlements: * Biokovsko Selo, populat ...
called them ''starovirsko'' ("of the old faith"), dictionary by
Bogoslav Šulek Bogoslav Šulek (born Bohuslav Šulek; April 20, 1816 – November 30, 1895) was a Croatian philologist, historian and lexicographer. He was very influential in creating Croatian terminology in the areas of social and natural sciences, technology ...
from 1860 and so on, while academic dictionaries mention it only from 1956/58. It is believed that the term was usually used in
East Herzegovina East Herzegovina ( sh-Latn-Cyrl, Istočna Hercegovina, Источна Херцеговина) is the eastern part of the historical Herzegovina region in Bosnia and Herzegovina, east of the Neretva river, part of the Republika Srpska entity. Major ...
and in the area of
Stari Vlah Stari (Slavic languages, 'Old One') may refer to: * Stari, a rural locality in Babushkinsky District of Vologda Oblast of Russia * Stari, a nickname of Đuro Pucar * Stari, a nickname of Josip Broz Tito Josip Broz ( sh-Cyrl, Јосип ...
in Serbia. Until the very early 20th century there was wandering in terminology, and some scholars proposed general terms like ''nadgrobni biljezi'' (gravestone markers) and ''mramorje'' (marble) to be more appropriate. The term ''stećak'' is uncommon in regional dialects and without
etiological Etiology (; alternatively spelled aetiology or ætiology) is the study of causation or origination. The word is derived from the Greek word ''()'', meaning "giving a reason for" (). More completely, etiology is the study of the causes, origin ...
value, and
semantically Semantics is the study of linguistic meaning. It examines what meaning is, how words get their meaning, and how the meaning of a complex expression depends on its parts. Part of this process involves the distinction between sense and reference ...
incorrect and contradicting as it derives from the verb "to stand", while the chest-type to which it refers predominantly is laid down, while another sub-type of pillars and crosses is the one predominantly upright; this upright or standing sub-type does not amount to even 5% of the overall number of stećci; in the original stećci inscriptions they are most often called as ''kami'' (meaning "stone" regardless of the form), thus some scholars proposed the term ''kamik'' (pl. ''kamici'') for all forms of headstones, while ''stećak'' would mean only the upright sub-type. The term ''kamik'' is more close to the original meaning and sometimes used instead of ''stećak'' in professional literature. The stećci area or cemetery folk names show respect and admiration for their dimensions, age or representations: Divsko groblje (Giants’ cemetery), Mašete (big stones), Mramori/Mramorje (marble blocks), Grčko groblje (Orthodox cemetery), Tursko groblje (Muslim cemetery), Kaursko groblje (
Giaour Giaour or Gawur or Gavour (; , ; from ''gâvor''; ; ; ; ; Bosnian; kaur/đaur) meaning "infidel", is a slur used mostly in the lands of the former Ottoman Empire for non-Muslims or, more particularly, Christians in the Balkans. Terminology T ...
’s cemetery).


Characteristics


Definition

They are characteristic of the territory of present-day
Herzegovina Herzegovina ( or ; sh-Latn-Cyrl, Hercegovina, separator=" / ", Херцеговина, ) is the southern and smaller of two main geographical Regions of Bosnia and Herzegovina, regions of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the other being Bosnia (reg ...
, central
Bosnia Bosnia and Herzegovina, sometimes known as Bosnia-Herzegovina and informally as Bosnia, is a country in Southeast Europe. Situated on the Balkans, Balkan Peninsula, it borders Serbia to the east, Montenegro to the southeast, and Croatia to th ...
and
Podrinje Podrinje ( sr-Cyrl, Подриње) is the Slavic name of the Drina river basin, known in English as the Drina Valley. The Drina basin is shared between Bosnia and Herzegovina and Serbia, with majority of its territory being located in Eastern ...
in Bosnia and Herzegovina,
Dalmatia Dalmatia (; ; ) is a historical region located in modern-day Croatia and Montenegro, on the eastern shore of the Adriatic Sea. Through time it formed part of several historical states, most notably the Roman Empire, the Kingdom of Croatia (925 ...
in
Croatia Croatia, officially the Republic of Croatia, is a country in Central Europe, Central and Southeast Europe, on the coast of the Adriatic Sea. It borders Slovenia to the northwest, Hungary to the northeast, Serbia to the east, Bosnia and Herze ...
, and minor parts of
Montenegro , image_flag = Flag of Montenegro.svg , image_coat = Coat of arms of Montenegro.svg , coa_size = 80 , national_motto = , national_anthem = () , image_map = Europe-Mont ...
,
Kosovo Kosovo, officially the Republic of Kosovo, is a landlocked country in Southeast Europe with International recognition of Kosovo, partial diplomatic recognition. It is bordered by Albania to the southwest, Montenegro to the west, Serbia to the ...
, Western
Serbia , image_flag = Flag of Serbia.svg , national_motto = , image_coat = Coat of arms of Serbia.svg , national_anthem = () , image_map = , map_caption = Location of Serbia (gree ...
, Northwestern Bosnia, and Croatia (
Lika Lika () is a traditional region of Croatia proper, roughly bound by the Velebit mountain from the southwest and the Plješevica mountain from the northeast. On the north-west end Lika is bounded by Ogulin-Plaški basin, and on the south-east by t ...
and
Slavonia Slavonia (; ) is, with Dalmatia, Croatia proper, and Istria County, Istria, one of the four Regions of Croatia, historical regions of Croatia. Located in the Pannonian Plain and taking up the east of the country, it roughly corresponds with f ...
). Stećci are described as horizontal and vertical tombstones, made of stone, with a flat or gable-top surface, with or without a pedestal. The common classification was established by Dmitrij Sergejevski in 1952, who divided them into recumbent stećci and standing stećci. The systematization of stećci is not currently complete. According to
Šefik Bešlagić Šefik Bešlagić (6 April 1908 – 19 November 1990) was a cultural historian from Bosnia and Herzegovina, former Yugoslav republic. Biography Šefik Bešlagić was born in the town of Gornja Tuzla in 1908. He was born in Bosniak family, and ...
, there are seven main shapes: slab, chest, chest with pedestal, ridge/gable, ridge/gable with pedestal, pillar, and cross; while according to
Dubravko Lovrenović Dubravko Lovrenović (30 August 1956 – 17 January 2017) was a Bosnian and Herzegovinian medievalist, author and essayist, who worked at the Faculty of Philosophy of the University of Sarajevo, Department of History, in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herz ...
, there are nine types in Radimlja: slab, slab with pedestal, chest, chest with pedestal, tall chest, tall chest with pedestal, sarcophagus (i.e. ridge/gable), sarcophagus with pedestal, cruciform. For instance, in Bosnia and Herzegovina, according to UNESCO, "about 40,000 chests, 13,000 slabs, 5,500 gabled tombstones, 2,500 pillars/obelisks, 300 cruciform tombstones and about 300 tombstones of indeterminate shape have been identified. Of these, more than 5,000 bear carved decorations". The chronology established by Marian Wenzel assumes they developed from the plate
headstone A gravestone or tombstone is a marker, usually stone, that is placed over a grave. A marker set at the head of the grave may be called a headstone. An especially old or elaborate stone slab may be called a funeral stele, stela, or slab. The u ...
s, the oldest one dating back to 1220 (the first were probably erected sometime in the mid-12th century), the monumental ones emerged somewhere around 1360, those with visual representations around 1435–1477, and that total production ended circa 1505. However, some consider that it lasted until the late 16th century, with rare examples that continued until the 18th century. Stećci in the form of a chest (''sanduk'') and ridge/saddle-roofed (''sljemenjak'') do not seem to have appeared before the middle or the end of the 14th century (1353-1477), while the remaining two basic forms – the upright pillar (''stup'') and cross (''krstača'' / ''križina''), no earlier than mid-15th century. In the case of the latter, upright or standing forms could be influenced by but also influence the ''nišan'' – the upright monolithic stones on top of Muslim (Turkish) graves–during
stećak to nišan transition The ''stećak'' to ''nišan'' transition is a period in Bosnia and Herzegovina History of Bosnia and Herzegovina, history marked by the end of the ''stećak'' tombstones usage and the transition to first ''nišan'' tombstones. It is a cultural phe ...
period, which had already emerged by the end of the 14th century in conquered parts of Macedonia and Serbia. This form is predominantly found in Serbia and Eastern Bosnia. The initial stage of their development, which included simple recumbent plates or slabs isn't specific to the region, but it is of broad West Mediterranean origin, and as such the term ''stećak'' (implying the chest and ridge form) is misleading for all tombstone forms. The slabs were typical for a kind of burial in the West Mediterranean world of the 14th and 15th centuries, which had a special method of production and ornamentation in the Balkans, customized according to the stonemasonry skills and microenvironment. They were initially made by the feudal nobility who wanted to affirm individual prestige and power, sometimes also decorated with their coat of arms, while later this tradition was embraced and adopted by other social classes like the
Vlachs Vlach ( ), also Wallachian and many other variants, is a term and exonym used from the Middle Ages until the Modern Era to designate speakers of Eastern Romance languages living in Southeast Europe—south of the Danube (the Balkan peninsula ...
who experienced socioeconomic growth and almost exclusively built them from the mid-15th century on.


Decorations

A fraction of stećci (384) bear inscriptions, mostly in
Cyrillic The Cyrillic script ( ) is a writing system used for various languages across Eurasia. It is the designated national script in various Slavic, Turkic, Mongolic, Uralic, Caucasian and Iranic-speaking countries in Southeastern Europe, Ea ...
, some in
Glagolitic The Glagolitic script ( , , ''glagolitsa'') is the oldest known Slavic alphabet. It is generally agreed that it was created in the 9th century for the purpose of translating liturgical texts into Old Church Slavonic by Saints Cyril and Methodi ...
and
Latin Latin ( or ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally spoken by the Latins (Italic tribe), Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio), the lower Tiber area aroun ...
script. The observed
Shtokavian Shtokavian or Štokavian (; sh-Latn, štokavski / sh-Cyrl, italics=no, штокавски, ) is the prestige supradialect of the pluricentric Serbo-Croatian language and the basis of its Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian and Montenegrin stand ...
dialect of
Serbo-Croatian Serbo-Croatian ( / ), also known as Bosnian-Croatian-Montenegrin-Serbian (BCMS), is a South Slavic language and the primary language of Serbia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Montenegro. It is a pluricentric language with four mutually i ...
has some archaic phrases, mainly characterized by
Ikavian Shtokavian or Štokavian (; sh-Latn, štokavski / sh-Cyrl, italics=no, штокавски, ) is the prestige supradialect of the pluricentric Serbo-Croatian language and the basis of its Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian and Montenegrin standa ...
while toward the end by Ikavian-Ijekavian
yat Yat or jat (Ѣ ѣ; italics: ''Ѣ ѣ'') is the thirty-second letter of the Early Cyrillic alphabet, old Cyrillic alphabet. It is usually Romanization, romanized as E with a haček: ''Ě ě''. There is also another version of y ...
reflex. The inscriptions can be roughly divided into those of: religious phrase, description of heroic death, information of the deceased, information of the deceased's relatives and circumstances of death, information with only a personal name (sometimes with smith-pupil name), and a moral (or religious) lesson. The last are mostly brazen reminders of wisdom and mortality, relay a dread of death, more anxiety than peace. The most remarkable feature is their decorative motifs roughly divided into six groups which complement each other: social symbols, religious symbols, images of posthumous kolo, figural images, clear ornaments, and unclassified motifs (mostly symbolic, geometrical, or damaged). Many of them remain enigmatic to this day;
spiral In mathematics, a spiral is a curve which emanates from a point, moving further away as it revolves around the point. It is a subtype of whorled patterns, a broad group that also includes concentric objects. Two-dimensional A two-dimension ...
s, arcades, rosettes, vine leaves and grapes,
lilium ''Lilium'' ( ) is a genus of Herbaceous plant, herbaceous flowering plants growing from bulbs, all with large and often prominent flowers. Lilies are a group of flowering plants which are important in culture and literature in much of the world ...
, stars (often six-pointed) and crescent Moons are among the images that appear. Figural images include processions of
deer A deer (: deer) or true deer is a hoofed ruminant ungulate of the family Cervidae (informally the deer family). Cervidae is divided into subfamilies Cervinae (which includes, among others, muntjac, elk (wapiti), red deer, and fallow deer) ...
,
horse The horse (''Equus ferus caballus'') is a domesticated, one-toed, hoofed mammal. It belongs to the taxonomic family Equidae and is one of two extant subspecies of ''Equus ferus''. The horse has evolved over the past 45 to 55 mi ...
, dancing the kolo,
hunting Hunting is the Human activity, human practice of seeking, pursuing, capturing, and killing wildlife or feral animals. The most common reasons for humans to hunt are to obtain the animal's body for meat and useful animal products (fur/hide (sk ...
, chivalric tournaments, and, most famously, the image of a
man A man is an adult male human. Before adulthood, a male child or adolescent is referred to as a boy. Like most other male mammals, a man's genome usually inherits an X chromosome from the mother and a Y chromosome from the f ...
with his right hand raised, perhaps in a gesture of
fealty An oath of fealty, from the Latin (faithfulness), is a pledge of allegiance of one person to another. Definition In medieval Europe, the swearing of fealty took the form of an oath made by a vassal, or subordinate, to his lord. "Fealty" also r ...
. A series of visual representations on the tombstones can not be simplistically interpreted as real scenes from the life, and symbolic explanations are still considered by scholarship. The shield on the tombstones, usually with the crossbar, crescent and star, cannot be a coat of arms, neither can the stylized lilium be used in the heraldic sense. On one stećak a tied lion is displayed and above him a winged dragon. In 1979, historian Hadžijahić noted that the horsemen are not riding with
rein Reins are used to direct a horse (or other animal) when riding or driving. They are attached to a bridle's bit or noseband and are made of leather, nylon, or other materials. Reins are used to give subtle commands or cues—also known as r ...
s, yet (if they are not hunting) their hands are free and pointed to the sky, implying possible cult significance. In 1985, Maja Miletić noted the symbolic and religious character of the stećak scenes. All the "life scenes" are considered to be part of a ceremonial. Several scholars concluded that the motifs, as well the tradition of a posthumous cult, show mixing of Romanized
Illyrians The Illyrians (, ; ) were a group of Indo-European languages, Indo-European-speaking people who inhabited the western Balkan Peninsula in ancient times. They constituted one of the three main Paleo-Balkan languages, Paleo-Balkan populations, alon ...
and
Early Slavs The early Slavs were speakers of Indo-European languages, Indo-European dialects who lived during the Migration Period and the Early Middle Ages (approximately from the 5th to the 10th centuries AD) in Central Europe, Central, Eastern Europe, Ea ...
traditions with Christianity.
Alojz Benac Alojz Benac (20 October 1914 – 6 March 1992) was a Bosnian and Yugoslav archaeologist and historian. Biography Benac studied classical philology and archaeology in Belgrade's Philosophy Faculty (1937), and received his doctorate from Ljubljan ...
noted that the displays of a sole horse with a snake, as well a sole deer with a bird, symbolize the soul of the deceased going to the otherworld, which representations resemble those found on
Iapodian The Iapodes (or Iapydes, Japodes; ; ) were an ancient people who dwelt north of and inland from the Liburnians, off the Adriatic coast and eastwards of the Istrian peninsula. They occupied the interior of the country between the ''Colapis'' (Kupa) ...
artefacts. The Illyrian god ''
Medaurus Medaurus was the Illyrian mythology, Illyrian guardian deity of the city of Rhizon, Risinium, and possibly a war god. Description Medaurus is depicted as riding on horseback and carrying a javelin. As the protector of Risinium, it is possible ...
'' is described as riding on horseback and carrying a lance. Of all the animals, the deer is the most represented, and mostly is found on stećci in Herzegovina. According to
Dragoslav Srejović Dragoslav Srejović ( sr-cyr, Драгослав Срејовић; 8 October 1931 in Kragujevac – 29 November 1996) was a Serbian archaeologist, cultural anthropologist and historian. He was the main contributor to the exploration of the Lepen ...
, the spread of Christianity did not cause the disappearance of the old cult and belief in sacred deer. Wenzel considered that it led the deceased to the
underworld The underworld, also known as the netherworld or hell, is the supernatural world of the dead in various religious traditions and myths, located below the world of the living. Chthonic is the technical adjective for things of the underworld. ...
. Historian
Šefik Bešlagić Šefik Bešlagić (6 April 1908 – 19 November 1990) was a cultural historian from Bosnia and Herzegovina, former Yugoslav republic. Biography Šefik Bešlagić was born in the town of Gornja Tuzla in 1908. He was born in Bosniak family, and ...
synthesized the representations of deer: sometimes accompanied by a bird (often on the back or horns), cross or lilium, frequently are shown series of deer or doe, as well with a bow and arrow, dog and hunter(s) with a spear or sword (often on a horse). It is displayed in hunting scenes, as well as some kolo processions led by a man who is riding a deer. There scenes where deer calmly approach the hunter, or deer with enormous size and sparse horns. Most of the depictions of "deer hunting" are facing
west West is one of the four cardinal directions or points of the compass. It is the opposite direction from east and is the direction in which the Sun sets on the Earth. Etymology The word "west" is a Germanic word passed into some Romance langu ...
, which had the symbolic meaning for death and the otherworld. In numerous hunting scenes, in only one deer is wounded (the stećak has some anomalies), indicating an unrealistic meaning. In
Roman Roman or Romans most often refers to: *Rome, the capital city of Italy *Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD *Roman people, the people of Roman civilization *Epistle to the Romans, shortened to Romans, a letter w ...
and
Parthian Parthian may refer to: Historical * Parthian people * A demonym "of Parthia", a region of north-eastern of Greater Iran * Parthian Empire (247 BC – 224 AD) * Parthian language, a now-extinct Middle Iranian language * Parthian shot, an archery sk ...
-
Sasanian The Sasanian Empire (), officially Eranshahr ( , "Empire of the Iranians"), was an Iranian empire that was founded and ruled by the House of Sasan from 224 to 651. Enduring for over four centuries, the length of the Sasanian dynasty's reign ...
art, hunted animals are mortally wounded, and the deer is only one of many, while on stećci it is the only hunted animal. The motifs of a ''kolo'' (in total 132) procession, along with deer, and its specific direction of dancing, although not always easily identifiable, show it is a mortal dance compared to a cheerful one. In Eastern Bosnia and Herzegovina so-called ''Ljeljenovo kolo'', with ''ljeljen'' local name for ''jelen'' (deer) implying ''jelenovo kolo'', is danced by making the gate of the raised hand and the ringleader of these gates tries to pull all kolo dancers through them until the kolo is entangled, after that, playing in the opposite direction, until the kolo is unravelled. Its origin is in a mortuary ritual guiding the soul to another world and the meaning of the renewal of life. The vast regional, but scarce (usually only one) in-graveyard distribution mostly in the center or some notable position of cross-type stećci (''križine''), and their almost exclusive ornament of the crescent Moon and stars, could indicate a cemetery label for specific (pagan) religious affiliation. The symbolism of the Moon and stars (Sun), which are often found on them, could be traced to a combination of pagan and Christian beliefs, six-pointed star represent
Venus Venus is the second planet from the Sun. It is often called Earth's "twin" or "sister" planet for having almost the same size and mass, and the closest orbit to Earth's. While both are rocky planets, Venus has an atmosphere much thicker ...
(in Slavic mythology called Danica) and the Moon could represent "astral marriage", or even
Mithraism Mithraism, also known as the Mithraic mysteries or the Cult of Mithras, was a Roman Empire, Roman mystery religion focused on the god Mithras. Although inspired by Iranian peoples, Iranian worship of the Zoroastrian divinity (''yazata'') Mit ...
which had and old
Mazdak Mazdak (, Middle Persian: 𐭬𐭦𐭣𐭪, also Mazdak the Younger; died c. 524 or 528) was an Iranian Zoroastrian '' mobad'' (priest) and religious reformer who gained influence during the reign of the Sasanian emperor Kavadh I. He claimed to ...
ism belief that the dead body goes to the Moon and the soul goes to the Sun, while some considered a connection between astral symbols with the position of celestial bodies at the time of death.


Carving

They were carved by a ''kovač'' / ''klesar'' (smith, mason; in Latin ''faber'', "master"), while the inscriptions, probably as a template, were compiled by ''dijak'' / ''pisar'' (pupil, scribe). Currently 33 personal names of masons are known, among whom the most notable is Grubač due to his skills and being both a mason and scribe. He made four stećci in Boljuni and four stećci in Opličići near
Stolac Stolac ( sr-Cyrl, Столац) is an ancient city located in Herzegovina-Neretva Canton of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, an entity of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is located in the region of Herzegovina. Stolac is one of the oldest cit ...
. The most notable scribe was Semorad who also worked around Stolac. It is believed that the masons studied the craft in Dalmatia and Ragusa, and those from the hinterland learned from them. Stećci were mostly carved out of huge blocks, mostly of
limestone Limestone is a type of carbonate rock, carbonate sedimentary rock which is the main source of the material Lime (material), lime. It is composed mostly of the minerals calcite and aragonite, which are different Polymorphism (materials science) ...
. The location in the vicinity of a quarry was most significant for the cemetery. Some stećci weighed more than 29
tonnes The tonne ( or ; symbol: t) is a unit of mass equal to 1,000  kilograms. It is a non-SI unit accepted for use with SI. It is also referred to as a metric ton in the United States to distinguish it from the non-metric units of the s ...
, and it is supposed they were transported by horse or ox carriage and the heaviest with a combination of sledges and flat billets. They were placed directly above the pit, often in cardinal direction west–east, therefore so were the deceased. Seemingly it was related to the
Sun path Sun path, sometimes also called day arc, refers to the diurnal motion, daily (sunrise to sunset) and seasonal arc (geometry), arc-like path that the Sun appears to follow across the sky as the Earth Earth's rotation, rotates and Earth's orbi ...
and was of importance that the dead watch the rising Sun. Stećci in Bosnia and Herzegovina can be roughly divided into two stonemasonry schools: Herzegovian (sarcophagi with arcades, figurative scenes, a wealth of motifs) and East Bosnian (sarcophagi in the form of chalets, floral motives). The former had schools on the territory of Herzegovina, with the center being around
Stolac Stolac ( sr-Cyrl, Столац) is an ancient city located in Herzegovina-Neretva Canton of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, an entity of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is located in the region of Herzegovina. Stolac is one of the oldest cit ...
, in the area of
Trebinje Trebinje ( sr-Cyrl, Требиње, ) is a city and municipality in Republika Srpska, Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is the southernmost city in Bosnia and Herzegovina and is situated on the banks of the Trebišnjica river in the region of East Her ...
and
Bileća Bileća ( sr-cyrl, Билећа) is a town and municipality in Republika Srpska, Bosnia and Herzegovina. As of 2013, the town has a population of 7,476 inhabitants, while the municipality has 10,807 inhabitants. History The first traces of ci ...
,
Gacko Gacko ( sr-cyrl, Гацко) is a town and municipality in Republika Srpska, Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is situated in the region of East Herzegovina (Bosnia and Herzegovina), East Herzegovina. As of 2013, the town has a population of 5,784 inh ...
and
Nevesinje Nevesinje ( sr-cyrl, Невесиње) is a town and municipality in Republika Srpska, Bosnia and Herzegovina. As of 2013, the town has a population of 5,162 inhabitants, while the municipality has 12,961 inhabitants. Geography The municipality o ...
. The fourth workshop was in the area of
Konjic Konjic ( sr-Cyrl, Коњиц) is a List of cities in Bosnia and Herzegovina, city located in the Herzegovina-Neretva Canton of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, one of two entities that make up Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is located in no ...
, while the fifth around Lištica. The stonemasons center in Western Bosnia was between
Kupres Kupres ( sr-cyrl, Купрес) is a town and the seat of the Municipality of Kupres in Canton 10 of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, an entity of Bosnia and Herzegovina. As of 2013, the municipality has a population of 5,057 inhabitant ...
and
Duvno Tomislavgrad ( Cyrl, Томиславград, ), also known by its former name Duvno ( Cyrl, Дувно, ), is a town and the seat of the Municipality of Tomislavgrad in Canton 10 of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, an entity of Bosni ...
, in Central Bosnia around
Travnik Travnik ( cyrl, Травник) is a town and a municipality in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is the administrative center of the Central Bosnia Canton of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is situated in central Bosnia and Herzegovina, ...
, while in Eastern Bosnia there were four workshops, one between
Kladanj Kladanj ( sr-cyrl, Кладањ) is a town and municipality located in the Tuzla Canton of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, an entity of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Kladanj is located on the road from Tuzla to Sarajevo along the river Drinja ...
,
Olovo Olovo ( sr-cyrl, Олово) is a town and municipality located in the Zenica-Doboj Canton of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, an entity of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is situated about 50 kilometers northeast of the capital city of Sara ...
and
Ilijaš Ilijaš is a town and municipality located in Sarajevo Canton of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, an entity of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is located northwest of the inner city of Sarajevo, making it ''de facto'' a town and suburb of Sara ...
, the second around
Zvornik Zvornik ( sr-cyrl, Зворник, ) is a city in Republika Srpska, Bosnia and Herzegovina. In 2013, it had a population of 58,856 inhabitants. Zvornik is located on the Drina River, on the eastern slopes of Majevica mountain, at the altitude of ...
, the third in Ludmer, and the fourth around
Rogatica Rogatica ( sr-cyrl, Рогатица, ) is a town and municipality in Republika Srpska, Bosnia and Herzegovina. As of 2013, the municipality has a population of 10,723 inhabitants, while the town of Rogatica itself has a population of 6,855 inh ...
. In Croatia there were supposedly two workshops, one in Cista Velika, and the other in Čepikuće. A local characteristic of stećci in the territory around
Cetina The Cetina () is a river in southern Croatia. It has a length of and its basin covers an area of . From its source, Cetina descends from an elevation of above sea level to the Adriatic Sea. It is the most water-rich river in Dalmatia.Naklada Nap ...
river in
Croatia Croatia, officially the Republic of Croatia, is a country in Central Europe, Central and Southeast Europe, on the coast of the Adriatic Sea. It borders Slovenia to the northwest, Hungary to the northeast, Serbia to the east, Bosnia and Herze ...
is their rare ornateness, of which only 8-10% have simple decoration. Those from upper Cetina are smaller and by type and style relate to those from Knin and
Livno Livno ( Serbo-Croatian Cyrillic: ''Ливно'', ) is a town and the administrative center of the Township of Livno and Canton 10 of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, an entity of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is situated on the river Bis ...
, while those from mid Cetina are more monumental. Specific plate stećci were found in the village Bitelić which are decorated with an identical geometric ornament, not found in
Dalmatia Dalmatia (; ; ) is a historical region located in modern-day Croatia and Montenegro, on the eastern shore of the Adriatic Sea. Through time it formed part of several historical states, most notably the Roman Empire, the Kingdom of Croatia (925 ...
nor in Bosnia and Herzegovina, however by the nature of the ornament and surface treatment is considered a possible connection with several monuments near the Church of St. Peter in
Nikšić Nikšić (Cyrillic script, Cyrillic: Никшић, ), is the second largest city in Montenegro, with a total population of 32,046 (2023 census) located in the west of the country, in the centre of the spacious Nikšić field at the foot of Trebjesa ...
,
Montenegro , image_flag = Flag of Montenegro.svg , image_coat = Coat of arms of Montenegro.svg , coa_size = 80 , national_motto = , national_anthem = () , image_map = Europe-Mont ...
. In Montenegro they could have existed around
Nikšić Nikšić (Cyrillic script, Cyrillic: Никшић, ), is the second largest city in Montenegro, with a total population of 32,046 (2023 census) located in the west of the country, in the centre of the spacious Nikšić field at the foot of Trebjesa ...
and in Glisnica and
Vaškovo Vaškovo ( sr-Cyrl, Вашково) is a village in the municipality of Pljevlja, Montenegro , image_flag = Flag of Montenegro.svg , image_coat = Coat of arms of Montenegro.svg , coa_size = 80 , na ...
in
Pljevlja Municipality Pljevlja Municipality is located in Northern Montenegro. It covers an area of 1,346 km² and had a population of 30,786 at the 2011 census. Geography and location The highest point of the municipality is on the Ljubišnja mountain at an altitud ...
. According to Bešlagić, in Serbia there were seemingly no specific centers, while masons were arriving from Bosnia and Herzegovina.


Origin

There are different and still inconclusive theories on their cultural-artistic, religious and ethnic affiliation. According to a common thesis, especially represented by Bešlagić, stećci are an original Bosnian-Herzegovinian cultural-artistic medieval phenomenon. Some scholars like Milovan Gavazzi (1978) examined a much broader context, and considered their connection to
megalith A megalith is a large stone that has been used to construct a prehistoric structure or monument, either alone or together with other stones. More than 35,000 megalithic structures have been identified across Europe, ranging geographically f ...
ic tradition of the region and Eurasia from the prehistoric and contemporary periods. Some scholars considered that the ''chest'' form could have been inspired by Romanesque and Gothic houses from coastal cities, while the ''ridge'' form by medieval Christian
sarcophagus A sarcophagus (: sarcophagi or sarcophaguses) is a coffin, most commonly carved in stone, and usually displayed above ground, though it may also be buried. The word ''sarcophagus'' comes from the Greek language, Greek wikt:σάρξ, σάρξ ...
or local Bosnian wooden houses. According to Lovrenović's synthesis it is part of a wider West Mediterranean origin and affiliation. It is established that they are mainly related to mountainous places which became deserted over a period of time because of migrations caused by new social events and the Ottoman occupation.


Religion

Since the middle of the 19th century, specifically the 1875 thesis by
Arthur Evans Sir Arthur John Evans (8 July 1851 – 11 July 1941) was a British archaeologist and pioneer in the study of Aegean civilization in the Bronze Age. The first excavations at the Minoan palace of Knossos on the List of islands of Greece, Gree ...
, many scholars including Alexander Soloviev, Kosta Hörmann and
Ćiro Truhelka Ćiro Truhelka (2 February 1865 – 18 September 1942) was a Croatian archeologist, historian, and art historian who devoted much of his professional life to the study of the history of Bosnia and Herzegovina. He wrote about prehistory, Roman and ...
have initially argued that they were related to the origin of the
Bosnian Church The Bosnian Church ( sh-Latn-Cyrl, separator=/, Crkva bosanska, Црква босанска) was an autonomous Christian church in medieval Bosnia and Herzegovina. Historians traditionally connected the church with the Bogomils, although this ...
i.e.
Bogomils Bogomilism (; ; sh-Latn-Cyrl, separator=" / ", bogumilstvo, богумилство) was a Christian neo-Gnostic, dualist sect founded in the First Bulgarian Empire by the priest Bogomil during the reign of Tsar Peter I in the 10th century. I ...
or other
dualist Dualism most commonly refers to: * Mind–body dualism, a philosophical view which holds that mental phenomena are, at least in certain respects, not physical phenomena, or that the mind and the body are distinct and separable from one another * P ...
groups. Others have asserted that the church was actually founded by
Franciscan friars The Franciscans are a group of related organizations in the Catholic Church, founded or inspired by the Italian saint Francis of Assisi. They include three independent religious orders for men (the Order of Friars Minor being the largest contem ...
from the
Catholic Church The Catholic Church (), also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the List of Christian denominations by number of members, largest Christian church, with 1.27 to 1.41 billion baptized Catholics Catholic Church by country, worldwid ...
. However, Benac noted that the stećci were not built in the
First Bulgarian Empire The First Bulgarian Empire (; was a medieval state that existed in Southeastern Europe between the 7th and 11th centuries AD. It was founded in 680–681 after part of the Bulgars, led by Asparuh of Bulgaria, Asparuh, moved south to the northe ...
and that in Central Bosnia, where the centers of the
Kingdom of Bosnia The Kingdom of Bosnia ( / Краљевина Босна), or Bosnian Kingdom (''Bosansko kraljevstvo'' / Босанско краљевство), was a medieval kingdom that lasted for nearly a century, from 1377 to 1463, and evolved out of the ...
and the
Bosnian Church The Bosnian Church ( sh-Latn-Cyrl, separator=/, Crkva bosanska, Црква босанска) was an autonomous Christian church in medieval Bosnia and Herzegovina. Historians traditionally connected the church with the Bogomils, although this ...
were, were built in smaller numbers, as well as a higher number of stećci in poor condition, but also of older date. The exclusive relation between stećci and Bogomils was propagated from the late 19th century due to political and ideological reasons, like by
Béni Kállay Béni Kállay de Nagy-Kálló or Benjamin von Kállay (; – ) was an Austro-Hungarian statesman and a Hungarian nobility, Hungarian nobleman. Early life Kállay was born in Pest (today part of Budapest). His family derived their name from t ...
and Austro-Hungarian authorities who promoted post-Ottoman and pan-Bosnian identity since the 1878 Austro-Hungarian occupation, rather than scientific reasons. It was already questioned in 1899 by Kosta Hörmann, the first director of
National Museum of Bosnia and Herzegovina The National Museum of Bosnia and Herzegovina ( Bosnian, Croatian and Serbian: ''Zemaljski muzej Bosne i Hercegovine'' / Земаљски музеј Босне и Херцеговине) is located in central Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia and ...
. For almost a century it was a predominant theory in international historiography. Since the mid-20th century many scholars like Marian Wenzel, once the world's leading authority on the art and artifacts of medieval Bosnia and Herzegovina, concluded that the stećci tombstones were a common tradition amongst Catholic, Orthodox and Bosnian Church followers alike. Wenzel's conclusion supported other historians' claims that they reflect a regional cultural phenomenon rather than belonging to a particular religious faith. Sometimes the inscriptions/motifs do reveal the confessional affiliation of the necropolis/deceased to one of the three Church organizations in medieval Bosnia and Zachlumia. This interconfessionality of stećci is one of their most remarkable features, and indicates a high degree of
Christianization Christianization (or Christianisation) is a term for the specific type of change that occurs when someone or something has been or is being converted to Christianity. Christianization has, for the most part, spread through missions by individu ...
of the medieval Bosnian community. However, it is believed that there is not enough basis to be perceived as exclusively Christian.
Christian Gottlob Wilke Christian Gottlob Wilke (May 13, 1786, in Badrina''Theologische Studien und Kritiken'' (1917), S. 199 (2 extractsyear and place of birthundcorrection of the false birthplace "Werm"/ref> (in modern-day Schönwölkau) – November 10, 1854, in W ...
sought origins of the symbolic motifs in old Mediterranean spiritual and religious concepts. Đuro Basler saw some parallels in the artistic expression of late Romanesque art, while symbolic motifs are divided into three components; pre-Christian, Christian and
Manichaean Manichaeism (; in ; ) is an endangered former major world religion currently only practiced in China around Cao'an,R. van den Broek, Wouter J. Hanegraaff ''Gnosis and Hermeticism from Antiquity to Modern Times''. SUNY Press, 1998 p. 37 found ...
(i.e. Bogomil). Bešlagić asserted that those who have raised and decorated them were not completely Christianized because they practiced the old custom of putting accessories with the dead, and many artefacts made of metals, textiles, ceramics and skin, coins, earrings of silver, gilded silver and solid gold have been found in graves beneath stećci. The customs like placing a coin in the mouth (
Charon's obol Charon's obol is an allusive term for the coin placed in or on the mouth of a dead person before burial. Greek and Latin literary sources specify the coin as an obol, and explain it as a payment or bribe for Charon, the ferryman who conveyed s ...
), and placing a drinking vessel near graves and heads, are from ancient times. Tomb pits were mostly used for one burial, but sometimes were also used for two or more burials. Based on one stećak inscription in Montenegro, Bešlagić argued that there was a pre-Christian custom of re-burial, in which the bones were washed and returned to the pit.


Ethnic origin

The ethnic identity of stećci has not yet been fully clarified. Until now the most dominant, but still not widely accepted, theory relates them with the
Vlach Vlach ( ), also Wallachian and many other variants, is a term and exonym used from the Middle Ages until the Modern Era to designate speakers of Eastern Romance languages living in Southeast Europe—south of the Danube (the Balkan peninsula) ...
community in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Criticism of the theory argues that the monuments in original form weren't specific to Bosnia and Herzegovina, and were initially made by the feudal nobility and only in later stages embraced by the
Vlachs Vlach ( ), also Wallachian and many other variants, is a term and exonym used from the Middle Ages until the Modern Era to designate speakers of Eastern Romance languages living in Southeast Europe—south of the Danube (the Balkan peninsula ...
. The Vlach population was so small, were profane and isolated, that the Vlachs in the Late Middle Ages were mostly a social-professional rather than an ethnic class, and that the mythological symbols are related to Old Slavic rather than "Vlach" pagan beliefs. Bešlagić and others related them to the formation of the Bosnian Kingdom and especially
Bogomils Bogomilism (; ; sh-Latn-Cyrl, separator=" / ", bogumilstvo, богумилство) was a Christian neo-Gnostic, dualist sect founded in the First Bulgarian Empire by the priest Bogomil during the reign of Tsar Peter I in the 10th century. I ...
; however, the drawback of this theory is the fact that the Bosnian Kingdom's existence was presumably too short for a change in folk tradition, the Bosnian Church existed later and ended sooner than stećci, the Bosnian Church's area of influence can not be explained in coastal and Serbian lands, other Bogomils did not build them, many necropolises are located around contemporary church ruins as well as some stećci were secondarily embedded around churches and mosques, and that the Bogomils did not respect the symbol of the
cross A cross is a religious symbol consisting of two Intersection (set theory), intersecting Line (geometry), lines, usually perpendicular to each other. The lines usually run vertically and horizontally. A cross of oblique lines, in the shape of t ...
, yet on the stećci it is very common. Gradually it was "dismantled and discarded". Some other scholars proposed unconvincing theories;
Ivo Pilar Ivo Pilar (19 June 1874 – 3 September 1933) was a Croatian historian, politician, publicist and lawyer, considered the father of Croatian geopolitics. His book ''The South Slav Question'' is a seminal work on the South Slav geopolitical issues. ...
(1918) ideologically argued the Croatian origin of medieval Bosnia, later
Dominik Mandić Dominik Mandić (2 December 1889 – 23 August 1973) was a Herzegovinian Croat Franciscan and historian. Biography Mandić was born in Lise near Široki Brijeg in Herzegovina. He completed his primary education in Široki Brijeg, where he atte ...
considered them to be part of the ritual of the burial by the pagan Croats from the
Red Croatia Red Croatia (; ) is a pseudohistorical term used for the southeastern parts of Roman Dalmatia and some other territories, including parts of present-day Montenegro, Albania, the Herzegovina region of Bosnia and Herzegovina and southeastern Croat ...
, Ante Škobalj similarly argued the Croatian theory. Non-monumentals around Cetina were identified as being Croats while monumental ones as being settled Vlachs. Vaso Glušac ideologically argued Serbian-Orthodox origin of both the Bosnian Church and stećci, while Vladislav Skarić considered they have represented the Old Slavic "eternal home", and that they initially were built from wood.
Vladimir Ćorović Vladimir Ćorović ( sr-cyrl, Владимир Ћоровић; 27 October 1885 – 12 April 1941) was a Serb historian, university professor, author, and academic. Ćorović served two terms as the Rector of the University of Belgrade and twice ...
pointed out that the "Old Slavs had not used monoliths or larger blocks of stone to make their dwellings, let alone for their graves, even less so for their writings or decorations".


Vlachs

The "autochthonous" Vlach theory was proposed by Bogumil Hrabak (1956) and Marian Wenzel (1962). However, the theory is much older and was first proposed by
Arthur Evans Sir Arthur John Evans (8 July 1851 – 11 July 1941) was a British archaeologist and pioneer in the study of Aegean civilization in the Bronze Age. The first excavations at the Minoan palace of Knossos on the List of islands of Greece, Gree ...
in his work ''Antiquarian Researches in Illyricum'' (1883). While doing research with
Felix von Luschan Felix Ritter von Luschan (; 11 August 18547 February 1924) was a medical doctor, anthropologist, explorer, archaeologist and ethnographer born in the Austrian Empire. Life Luschan was born the son of a lawyer in Hollabrunn, Lower Austria, and at ...
on stećak graves around
Konavle Konavle () is a municipality and a small Dalmatian subregion located southeast of Dubrovnik, Croatia. The region is administratively part of the Dubrovnik-Neretva County and the center of the municipality is Cavtat. Demographics The total muni ...
he estimated that a large number of skulls weren't of Slavic origin yet similar to older "Illyrian" peoples, as well noted that
Dubrovnik Dubrovnik, historically known as Ragusa, is a city in southern Dalmatia, Croatia, by the Adriatic Sea. It is one of the most prominent tourist destinations in the Mediterranean Sea, Mediterranean, a Port, seaport and the centre of the Dubrovni ...
memorials recorded those parts to be inhabited by the Vlachs until the 15th century. A study of inscriptions on the tombstones showed that individuals from Vlach tribes (like Vlahovići, Pliščići, Predojevići, Bobani, and Drobnjaci) were also buried beneath stećak graves. Hrabak was the first scholar to connect the historical documents and their relation to the persons mentioned on rare inscriptions on stećci. In 1953 he concluded that the smith-stonemason Grubač from Boljun necropolis near
Stolac Stolac ( sr-Cyrl, Столац) is an ancient city located in Herzegovina-Neretva Canton of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, an entity of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is located in the region of Herzegovina. Stolac is one of the oldest cit ...
built a stećak of Bogovac not later than 1477, and that most of the monuments of Herzegovinian Vlachs, and not only Herzegovinian and not only Vlachs, could be dated to the second half of the 15th century. Wenzel in one of her studies researched sixteen stećci with similar dating and historically known persons. She noted the possibility that initially the stone monuments as such could have been introduced by the feudal nobility in the mid-14th century, whose tradition was embraced by the Vlach tribes who introduced figural decoration. Wenzel related the end of stećak production to the Ottoman invasion and new social circumstances, with the transition of Vlachs and near Slavs to Islam resulting with the loss of tribal organization and characteristics of specific ethnic identity.
Sima Ćirković Sima Ćirković (Serbian Cyrillic: Сима Ћирковић; 29 January 1929 – 14 November 2009) was a Yugoslav and Serbian historian. Ćirković was a member of the Academy of Sciences and Arts of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Yugoslav Acade ...
(1964) and
Marko Vego Marko Vego (8 January 1907 – 26 February 1985) was a Bosnian and Yugoslav archaeologist, epigrapher and historian. Biography Vego was born in Čapljina (Bosnia and Herzegovina) to father Jozo who was a worker at a tobacco station. Vego ...
(1973) argued that the emergence of stećci among Vlachs coincides with their social-economical rise, which had been confirmed in the region of
Zachlumia Zachlumia or Zachumlia ( sh-Latn-Cyrl, separator=" / ", Zahumlje, Захумље, ), also Hum, was a medieval principality located in the modern-day regions of Herzegovina and southern Dalmatia (today parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia, r ...
where the most well known necropolis of Radimlja related to the Vlach family Miloradović-Stjepanović from genus Hrabreni is located. Financial possibilities of ordering such expensive ways of burials among Vlachs are supported and confirmed in historical documents, with an example of a Vlach from Cetina, Ostoja Bogović, who in 1377 paid the cost of a burial of a Vlach Priboja Papalić for 40
libra Libra generally refers to: * Libra (constellation), a constellation * Libra (astrology), an astrological sign based on the star constellation Libra may also refer to: Arts and entertainment * ''Libra'' (novel), a 1988 novel by Don DeLillo Musi ...
. At the time a burial in
Split Split(s) or The Split may refer to: Places * Split, Croatia, the largest coastal city in Croatia * Split Island, Canada, an island in the Hudson Bay * Split Island, Falkland Islands * Split Island, Fiji, better known as Hạfliua Arts, enter ...
costed 4-8 libra, while for a sum of 40 libra a family grave in the church of Franciscan order in
Šibenik Šibenik (), historically known as Sebenico (), is a historic town in Croatia, located in central Dalmatia, where the river Krka (Croatia), Krka flows into the Adriatic Sea. Šibenik is one of the oldest Croatia, Croatian self-governing cities ...
could be bought. Benac concluded that the distribution of stećci in the lands at the right Cetina riverbank, in the parts of Dalmatian Zagora, while they are absent in the lands left of the river (with graveyards along Early Middle Age churches), show these tombstones in those parts belonged to the Vlach communities. The triangle between
Šibenik Šibenik (), historically known as Sebenico (), is a historic town in Croatia, located in central Dalmatia, where the river Krka (Croatia), Krka flows into the Adriatic Sea. Šibenik is one of the oldest Croatia, Croatian self-governing cities ...
,
Trogir Trogir () is a historic town and harbour on the Adriatic coast in Split-Dalmatia County, Croatia, with a population of 10,107 (2021) and a total municipal population of 12,393 (2021). The historic part of the city is situated on a small island ...
and
Knin Knin () is a city in the Šibenik-Knin County of Croatia, located in the Dalmatian hinterland near the source of the river Krka (Croatia), Krka, an important traffic junction on the rail and road routes between Zagreb and Split, Croatia, Split. ...
, as well as the surroundings of
Vrlika Vrlika is a small town in inland Split-Dalmatia County, Croatia. The closest large towns are Sinj, Knin, and Drniš. Vrlika was given the status of town in 1997. Vrlika is an underdeveloped municipality which is statistically classified as the Ar ...
and
Trilj Trilj () is a Cities of Croatia, town and Naselje, settlement in inland Dalmatia, Croatia. It is located northeast of Split (city), Split. In 2021, its population was 8182. Trilj was a traffic hub in Roman Dalmatia, Roman times, when a stone br ...
, which were the main centers of Vlachs, have the most number of stećci in Dalmatia. In 1982, Benac noted that the highest concentration of them is in South Herzegovina (territory of
Trebinje Trebinje ( sr-Cyrl, Требиње, ) is a city and municipality in Republika Srpska, Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is the southernmost city in Bosnia and Herzegovina and is situated on the banks of the Trebišnjica river in the region of East Her ...
,
Bileća Bileća ( sr-cyrl, Билећа) is a town and municipality in Republika Srpska, Bosnia and Herzegovina. As of 2013, the town has a population of 7,476 inhabitants, while the municipality has 10,807 inhabitants. History The first traces of ci ...
,
Ljubinj Ljubinj (; ) is a settlement southeast of Tolmin in the Littoral region of Slovenia. The local church is dedicated to Saint Michael and belongs to the Parish A parish is a territorial entity in many Christianity, Christian denominations, const ...
and
Stolac Stolac ( sr-Cyrl, Столац) is an ancient city located in Herzegovina-Neretva Canton of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, an entity of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is located in the region of Herzegovina. Stolac is one of the oldest cit ...
), where there had been a high concentration of Vlachs. Some of the stećci inscriptions (by anthroponyms) clearly relate them to some Vlach chieftains; Tarah Boljunović from Boljun-Stolac, Vukosav Vlaćević from Vlahovići-Lubinje, Hrabreni and Miloradović in Radimlja-Stolac, as well as other distinctive members from Vlach groups like Bobani, Pliščići, Predojevići,
Drobnjaci Drobnjaci ( sr-Cyrl, Дробњаци, ) was a tribe and historical region, Drobnjak, in Old Herzegovina in Montenegro (municipalities from Nikšić to Šavnik, Žabljak and Pljevlja). Its unofficial centre is in Šavnik. The Serb Orthodox ...
and to such chieftains belong finest monuments. The occurrence of stećci in the Cetina county is related to the Nelipić noble family efforts to return economic and political power, who had
Knin Knin () is a city in the Šibenik-Knin County of Croatia, located in the Dalmatian hinterland near the source of the river Krka (Croatia), Krka, an important traffic junction on the rail and road routes between Zagreb and Split, Croatia, Split. ...
confiscated in 1345 by king
Louis I of Hungary Louis I, also Louis the Great (; ; ) or Louis the Hungarian (; 5 March 132610 September 1382), was King of Hungary and Croatia from 1342 and King of Poland from 1370. He was the first child of Charles I of Hungary and his wife, Elizabeth of ...
in exchange for
Sinj Sinj () is a List of cities and towns in Croatia, town in the continental part of Split-Dalmatia County, Croatia. As of the 2021 Croatian census, 2021 census, the population was 23,500 people, of which 10,800 inhabited its urban core. Sinj is k ...
and Cetina county. They thrived with the support from the Vlachs, who for their service were rewarded with benefits and common
Vlach law The Vlach law (, , "Romanian law", or , "customs of the land", ) refers to the traditional Romanian people, Romanian Jus commune, common law as well as to various special laws and privileges enjoyed or enforced upon particularly pastoralism, past ...
. After many conflicts and the death of the last noble Nelipić, then
Ivan Frankopan Giovanni Frangipani or in croatian language Ivan VI Frankapan or Ivan Anž Frankapan (also known as Ivaniš; died 20 November 1436) was a Croatian nobleman who ruled as Ban of Croatia from 1432 to 1436. He was one of the nine sons of the Croatian ...
, Vlachs supported
Stjepan Vukčić Kosača Stjepan Vukčić Kosača (1404–1466) was a powerful Bosnian Nobility, nobleman who was politically active from 1435 to 1466; the last three decades of Bosnia and Herzegovina in the Middle Ages, Bosnian medieval history. During this period, ...
. The ridge stećci of ''Dalmatian type'' can be found only in regions of Dalmatia and Southwestern Bosnia, parts ruled by the
Kosača noble family The House of Kosača ( sr-Cyrl, Косача, Kosače / Косаче), somewhere Kosačić ( sr-Cyrl, Косачић, Kosačići / Косачићи), was a Bosnian medieval noble family which ruled over parts of modern-day Bosnia and Herzegovi ...
. It was in his interest to settle militant and well-organized Vlachs in the riskiest parts of his realm, to defend from Talovac forces in Cetina and Venetian forces in Poljica and the coast. Thus the Dalmatian type is found only to the west and south of the Kosača capital
Imotski Imotski () is a small town on the northeastern side of the Biokovo massif in the Dalmatian Hinterland of southern Croatia, near the border with Bosnia and Herzegovina. The town has a generally mild Mediterranean climate which makes it a popular ...
, and later also the north after the Fall of Bosnia. Archeologically, some Middle Age burials from Cetina county have local specifics by which Cetina county differs from other parts of Dalmatia. In the county, the burials were not done in the ground without additional stone architecture. Some scholars related this phenomenon to the specific ethnic identity; however, due to still groundbreaking research, for now, it is considered only a regional and narrow local occurrence. Anthropological research in 1982 on skeletons from 108 stećak graves (13th-14th century) from Raška Gora near
Mostar Mostar () is a city and the administrative centre of Herzegovina-Neretva Canton of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, an entity of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and the historical capital of Herzegovina. Mostar is situated on the Neretva Riv ...
, as well some from
Grborezi Grborezi is a village in the Township of Livno in Canton 10 of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, an entity of Bosnia and Herzegovina Bosnia and Herzegovina, sometimes known as Bosnia-Herzegovina and informally as Bosnia, is a country ...
near
Livno Livno ( Serbo-Croatian Cyrillic: ''Ливно'', ) is a town and the administrative center of the Township of Livno and Canton 10 of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, an entity of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is situated on the river Bis ...
, have shown homogeneity, with clean Dinaric anthropological type, without other admixtures, presumably indicating an autochthonous Vlach population of non-Slavic origin. The research of 11 skeletons from the necropolis at Pavlovac near Prača, often attributed to the
Pavlović noble family The House of Pavlović, also Radinović or Radenović, or Radinović-Pavlović, was Bosnian noble family who got their name after Radin Jablanić. Radin's father, Jablan, was a founder of Jablanić house, an earlier branch of this medieval Bosnia ...
, also have shown clean Dinaric type, indicating Vlach origin, although historical sources do not call Pavlovići as Vlachs. The anthropological research in 1991 on the 40 skeletons from 28 burials (dating back to 1440-1450s) beneath stećci at the Poljanice plateau near the village of Bisko showed that the vast majority of the population belonged to the presumably autochthonous Dinaric type and are of non-Slavic origin. 21 skeletons belonged to children, while out of 19 adult skeletons, 13 belonged to males. The
quarry A quarry is a type of open-pit mining, open-pit mine in which dimension stone, rock (geology), rock, construction aggregate, riprap, sand, gravel, or slate is excavated from the ground. The operation of quarries is regulated in some juri ...
for stećci was found in the Northwestern part of the plateau, with one ridge being semi-finished work without any ornament. Although autochthonous Vlach origin has been argued since Illyrian times it rather shows the continuation of the process of Dinarization and assimilation of Slavs, a characteristic which could be general and not ethnic. The Dinaric ethnic type is also common in other parts of Europe especially
Ukraine Ukraine is a country in Eastern Europe. It is the List of European countries by area, second-largest country in Europe after Russia, which Russia–Ukraine border, borders it to the east and northeast. Ukraine also borders Belarus to the nor ...
and was perceived by some as a Slavic type besides the fact that such racial anthropology terminology and methodology is of scientifically highly dubious accuracy and relevancy today. Archaeological artifacts are even more inconclusive because they don't differenate them from graves without tombstones. In 2019 and 2021 studies of late medieval stećak archaeological necropolises Kopošići near
Ilijaš Ilijaš is a town and municipality located in Sarajevo Canton of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, an entity of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is located northwest of the inner city of Sarajevo, making it ''de facto'' a town and suburb of Sara ...
and
Divičani Divičani ( sr-cyrl, Дивичани) is a village in the municipality of Jajce, Bosnia and Herzegovina Bosnia and Herzegovina, sometimes known as Bosnia-Herzegovina and informally as Bosnia, is a country in Southeast Europe. Situated on th ...
near
Jajce Jajce ( sr-Cyrl, Јајце) is a town and municipality in the Central Bosnia Canton of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, an entity of Bosnia and Herzegovina. According to the 2013 census, the town has a population of 7,172 inhabitants, wi ...
, six samples belonged to the Y-DNA haplogroup I2a1b3 and one to R1a, showing continuity between medieval and modern Bosnian and Herzegovinian population. Two of the decorated skeletal remains could indicate identity of the Bosnian noblemen Mirko Radojević and his son
Batić Mirković Batić Mirković ( sr-Cyrl, Батић Мирковић) was a prominent 15th century Bosnian nobleman and magnate. His father was Bosnian ''knez'', Mirko Radojević, the Radojević-Mirković noble family senior, who had a brother Radič Rado ...
who served the Bosnian King
Tvrtko I Stephen Tvrtko I ( sh-Latn-Cyrl, separator=" / ", Stjepan/Stefan Tvrtko, Стјепан/Стефан Твртко; 1338 – 10 March 1391) was the king of Bosnia, first king of Kingdom of Bosnia, Bosnia. A member of the House of Kotromanić, h ...
.


Legacy

One of their enigmas is the fact they were not mentioned in local or foreign medieval documents. Franciscan chronicles which recorded many unusual things, like Turkish cemeteries, did not mention them. Folk tradition preserved a mythical perception full of superstitions and fantasy tales. This implies the occurred discontinuity of historical memory among all three ethnic groups, caused by ethnic migrations and religious conversions during the Ottoman occupation. It is considered that the first
itinerary Itinerary or Itineraries or Itinerarium may refer to: Travel * Itinerarium, an Ancient Roman road map in the form of a listing of cities, villages, and other stops, with the intervening distances * ''Itinerarium Burdigalense'', also known as the ...
mention of stećci was by
Benedikt Kuripešić Benedikt may refer to: *Benedikt, a spelling of the name Benedict *Benedikt, Benedikt Benedikt () is the central settlement in the Municipality of Benedikt in northeastern Slovenia. Before 1998, it was part of the Municipality of Lenart. It lies ...
from 1530.
Evliya Çelebi Dervish Mehmed Zillî (25 March 1611 – 1682), known as Evliya Çelebi (), was an Ottoman Empire, Ottoman explorer who travelled through his home country during its cultural zenith as well as neighboring lands. He travelled for over 40 years, rec ...
in 1626 described them as tombstone monuments of some unknown heroes. The oldest local author to mention them is
Andrija Kačić Miošić Andrija Kačić Miošić (; 17 April 1704 – 14 December 1760) was a Croatian poet and Franciscan friar, as well as a descendant of the Kačić noble family, one of the oldest and most influential Croatian noble families. Biography Born in ...
in the mid-18th century.
Alberto Fortis Alberto Fortis (9 or 11 November 1741 – 21 October 1803) was an Italian writer, naturalist and cartographer, citizen of Republic of Venice. Life His real name was Giovanni Battista Fortis (his religious name was ''Alberto'') and he was born i ...
in his work ''Travels into Dalmatia'' (1774) recorded them in the
Romanticist Romanticism (also known as the Romantic movement or Romantic era) was an artistic and intellectual movement that originated in Europe towards the end of the 18th century. The purpose of the movement was to advocate for the importance of subjec ...
spirit of that time, describing the tombstones in Cetina as warrior graves of giants. They also attracted attention by Aleksander Antoni Sapieha,
Ami Boué Ami Boué (16 March 179421 November 1881) was a geologist of French Huguenot origin. Born at Hamburg, he was trained in Edinburgh and across Europe. He travelled across Europe, studying geology, as well as ethnology, and is considered to be amo ...
, Otto Blau,
John Gardner Wilkinson Sir John Gardner Wilkinson (5 October 1797 – 29 October 1875) was an English traveller, writer and pioneer egyptologist of the 19th century. He is often referred to as "the Father of British egyptology". Childhood and education Wilkinso ...
and Heinrich Sterneck. Since the second half of the 19th century, stećci are seen as a symbol of Bosnia and Herzegovina, being objects of South Slavic ideological ethno-national building myths and ownership, as well as different opinions on their archaeological, artistic and historical interpretation. The
breakup of Yugoslavia After a period of political and economic crisis in the 1980s, the constituent republics of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia split apart in the early 1990s. Unresolved issues from the breakup caused a series of inter-ethnic Yugoslav ...
and the
Bosnian War The Bosnian War ( / Рат у Босни и Херцеговини) was an international armed conflict that took place in Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bosnia and Herzegovina between 1992 and 1995. Following several earlier violent incid ...
(1992–1995) caused a resurgence of Bosnian, Croatian and Serbian nationalism, in which all three ethnic groups tried to appropriate them as part of their own culture exclusively. Paradoxically, none of these groups in Bosnia and Herzegovina, (
Bosniaks The Bosniaks (, Cyrillic script, Cyrillic: Бошњаци, ; , ) are a South Slavs, South Slavic ethnic group native to the Southeast European historical region of Bosnia (region), Bosnia, today part of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and who sha ...
,
Bosnian Serbs The Serbs of Bosnia and Herzegovina ( sr-Cyrl, Срби Босне и Херцеговине, Srbi Bosne i Hercegovine), often referred to as Bosnian Serbs ( sr-cyrl, босански Срби, bosanski Srbi) or Herzegovinian Serbs ( sr-cyrl, ...
and
Bosnian Croats The Croats of Bosnia and Herzegovina (), often referred to as Bosnian Croats () or Herzegovinian Croats (), are native to Bosnia and Herzegovina and constitute the third most populous ethnic group, after Bosniaks and Serbs. They are also one of ...
), originally remember stećci in their collective consciousness, leaving them to deteriorate in nature or to human carelessness and destruction which at least halved the number of stećci. This attitude alone implies how such appropriation is based on an ideological construct. According to Marian Wenzel one of the three pervasive ethno-national ideological constructs, specifically the thesis about the Bogomil origin of stećci, dates as far back as the last decade of the 19th century when it had been put forward by the
Austria-Hungarian Austria-Hungary, also referred to as the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Dual Monarchy or the Habsburg Monarchy, was a multi-national constitutional monarchy in Central Europe#Before World War I, Central Europe between 1867 and 1918. A military ...
bureaucracy, namely by a member of the Hungarian parliament Janos von Asboth, in correlation to a similar thesis on the origin of Muslim inhabitants of Bosnia and Herzegovina as descendants of the Bogomils. Such distortion of history will later attract criticism by scholars like Wenzel, who stated that through this particular example Austria-Hungarian authority practically delivered stećci "as a gift to Muslims, emphasizing their inheritance rights to the land and implying that the later Christians, comparatively, were the 'newcomers'". During the war of the 1990s this theory would again have its resurgence in media and public discourse, seeking the historical-political legitimacy in which Islamization of the local Bosnian and Herzegovinan populace was not only caused by the Ottoman occupation but also by ingrained religious idiosyncrasy, epitomized in Bogomilsm, thus affirming the ethnic and confessional differences between the Bogomil, Catholic and Orthodox populations. However, it did not make a significant influence on the scientific thinking nor the scholarship and comparative research in Bosnia and Herzegovina, nor elsewhere. Europe's first public presentation of stećci is attributed to the Polish-born Russian immigrant and Yugoslav diplomat, Alexander Soloviev (1890–1971). He wrote about them in the accompanying prospectus of the Paris exhibition "Medieval Art of the People of Yugoslavia" (1950). The first regional public presentation was held in 2008 at Klovićevi Dvori Gallery, and represented an example of encouraging public dialogue between the four nations. Stećci have influenced different art forms and were an inspirational theme for sculptors, painters, poets, filmmakers, writers and photographers.


Protection


Notable stećci

Stećci are commonly concentrated in groups: in cemeteries of individual families with few specimens, in cemeteries of whole families with approximately 30 up to 50 specimens, big necropolises of rural
districts A district is a type of administrative division that in some countries is managed by the local government. Across the world, areas known as "districts" vary greatly in size, spanning regions or counties, several municipalities, subdivisions ...
occasionally with several hundred specimens. Examples of family necropolises are those from the
Sanković noble family The Sanković family was a powerful Bosnian noble family active in the 14th and start of the 15th century in Herzegovina#History, Hum, serving the Serbian and Bosnian monarchies. Their seat was in Glavatičevo, where the family burial place is al ...
in the village of Biskup near
Konjic Konjic ( sr-Cyrl, Коњиц) is a List of cities in Bosnia and Herzegovina, city located in the Herzegovina-Neretva Canton of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, one of two entities that make up Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is located in no ...
, from the Miloradović-Stjepanović noble family (Hrabreni) in Radimlja near
Stolac Stolac ( sr-Cyrl, Столац) is an ancient city located in Herzegovina-Neretva Canton of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, an entity of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is located in the region of Herzegovina. Stolac is one of the oldest cit ...
, from the
Pavlović noble family The House of Pavlović, also Radinović or Radenović, or Radinović-Pavlović, was Bosnian noble family who got their name after Radin Jablanić. Radin's father, Jablan, was a founder of Jablanić house, an earlier branch of this medieval Bosnia ...
near
Sarajevo Sarajevo ( ), ; ''see Names of European cities in different languages (Q–T)#S, names in other languages'' is the Capital city, capital and List of cities in Bosnia and Herzegovina, largest city of Bosnia and Herzegovina, with a population of 2 ...
, and from an unknown family at Donja Zgošća near
Kakanj Kakanj ( sr-cyrl, Какањ) is a town and municipality located in Zenica-Doboj Canton of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, an entity of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is the Europe's oldest continuously inhabitted settlement. As of 2013, ...
. Today many Stećci are also displayed in the yard of the
National Museum of Bosnia and Herzegovina The National Museum of Bosnia and Herzegovina ( Bosnian, Croatian and Serbian: ''Zemaljski muzej Bosne i Hercegovine'' / Земаљски музеј Босне и Херцеговине) is located in central Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia and ...
in Sarajevo. The medieval Mramorje necropolis in
Serbia , image_flag = Flag of Serbia.svg , national_motto = , image_coat = Coat of arms of Serbia.svg , national_anthem = () , image_map = , map_caption = Location of Serbia (gree ...
is part of the Monument of Culture of Exceptional Importance and contains a large number of stećak tombs. Some other notable or studied individual stećci: * It is believed that the oldest known stećak is that of
Grdeša Grdeša ( sr-cyr, Грдеша, ; 1150–51) or Grd was a local Slavic chieftain from the region surrounding Trebinje, who ruled the area with a title of ''župan''. He was mentioned in 1150–51 as vassal of the Grand Prince Uroš II of Serbi ...
, a 12th-century
župan Župan is a noble and administrative title used in several states in Central Europe, Central and Southeast Europe, Southeastern Europe between the 7th century and the 21st century. It was (and in Croatia still is) the leader of the administrat ...
of
Trebinje Trebinje ( sr-Cyrl, Требиње, ) is a city and municipality in Republika Srpska, Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is the southernmost city in Bosnia and Herzegovina and is situated on the banks of the Trebišnjica river in the region of East Her ...
. * It is believed that the oldest known stećak with an inscription is that of Marija, the wife of the priest Dabiživ, with an inscribed number and presumed year — 1231, from Vidoštak near Stolac. * Certain Vlatko Vuković's grave, often confused with the Grand Duke of Bosnia, lies marked near the village of Boljuni near
Stolac Stolac ( sr-Cyrl, Столац) is an ancient city located in Herzegovina-Neretva Canton of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, an entity of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is located in the region of Herzegovina. Stolac is one of the oldest cit ...
, Bosnia and Herzegovina, from the late 14th century. The inscription on the grave was written in
Bosnian Cyrillic Bosnian Cyrillic, widely known as Bosančica, is a variant of the Cyrillic alphabet that originated in medieval Bosnia. The term was coined at the end of the 19th century by Ćiro Truhelka. It was widely used in modern-day Bosnia and Herzegovin ...
in
Ikavian Shtokavian or Štokavian (; sh-Latn, štokavski / sh-Cyrl, italics=no, штокавски, ) is the prestige supradialect of the pluricentric Serbo-Croatian language and the basis of its Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian and Montenegrin standa ...
. * The two ridge stećci which belonged to Jerko Kustražić and his wife Vladna from the mid 15th century, in
Cista A cista is a box or basket used by the ancient Egyptians, Greeks, Etruscans and Romans for various practical and mystical purposes. Purpose and usage The ''cista'' or ''cistella'' was at first thought be a wicker basket used for holding fruit ...
near
Imotski Imotski () is a small town on the northeastern side of the Biokovo massif in the Dalmatian Hinterland of southern Croatia, near the border with Bosnia and Herzegovina. The town has a generally mild Mediterranean climate which makes it a popular ...
, and
Split, Croatia Split (, ), historically known as Spalato (; ; see #Name, other names), is the List of cities and towns in Croatia, second-largest city of Croatia after the capital Zagreb, the largest city in Dalmatia and the largest city on the Croatian coast ...
* The ridge stećak of Vlkoj Bogdanić (son of Radmil) who died in battle in the mid 15th century, made by the mason Jurina, in Lovreć, Croatia


UNESCO locations


Gallery

File:Radimlja, Nekropola2.JPG, Radimlja necropolis, Bosnia and Herzegovina File:Radimlje, bogumil nekropolisz sírkő 4.JPG, Radimlja, Bosnia and Herzegovina File:Umoljani stećci.jpg, Umoljani, Bosnia and Herzegovina File:Stecci - na Blidinji je nekolik skupin techto nahrobku z 14..jpg, Dugo polje, Bosnia and Herzegovina File:BiH 2012 - Nécropole Morine (8144142941).jpg, Morine, Bosnia and Herzegovina File:Некропола стећака Велике Гребенице 01.jpg, Velike Grebenice, Bosnia and Herzegovina File:Stecak Zmeljaski Muzej Sarajevo.jpg,
Sarajevo Sarajevo ( ), ; ''see Names of European cities in different languages (Q–T)#S, names in other languages'' is the Capital city, capital and List of cities in Bosnia and Herzegovina, largest city of Bosnia and Herzegovina, with a population of 2 ...
, Bosnia and Herzegovina File:Neum02465.JPG,
Neum Neum () is a town and municipality in Bosnia and Herzegovina, located in Herzegovina-Neretva Canton of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is the only town on the Bosnia and Herzegovina coastline, making it the country's only access to ...
, Bosnia and Herzegovina File:Medieval tombstones of Montenegro.png,
Velimlje Velimlje ( sr-Cyrl, Велимље) is a village in the municipality of Nikšić, Montenegro. Until 1960 it was a center of Banjskovučedolska municipality. Demographics According to the 2011 census, its population was 109. Notable individuals ...
, Montenegro File:Stecak Baje Pivljanina u Vlasskeho kostela v Cetinji.jpg,
Cetinje Cetinje ( cnr-Cyrl, Цетиње, ) is a List of cities and towns in Montenegro, town in Montenegro. It is the former royal capital ( cnr-Latn-Cyrl, prijestonica, приjестоница, separator=" / ") of Montenegro and is the location of sev ...
, Montenegro File:Stecak village Klenak Montenegro.png, Klenak, Montenegro File:Mramorje 2012 5.JPG, Mramorje, Serbia File:Stećak lov.jpg, Somewhere in
Dalmatia Dalmatia (; ; ) is a historical region located in modern-day Croatia and Montenegro, on the eastern shore of the Adriatic Sea. Through time it formed part of several historical states, most notably the Roman Empire, the Kingdom of Croatia (925 ...
, Croatia File:Stećak 456.jpg, Somewhere in Dalmatia, Croatia


Notes


See also

*
Bogomilism Bogomilism (; ; sh-Latn-Cyrl, separator=" / ", bogumilstvo, богумилство) was a Christian neo-Gnostic, dualist sect founded in the First Bulgarian Empire by the priest Bogomil during the reign of Tsar Peter I in the 10th century. It ...
*
Bosnian Church The Bosnian Church ( sh-Latn-Cyrl, separator=/, Crkva bosanska, Црква босанска) was an autonomous Christian church in medieval Bosnia and Herzegovina. Historians traditionally connected the church with the Bogomils, although this ...
*
Vlachs in medieval Bosnia and Herzegovina Vlachs in medieval Bosnia and Herzegovina were a Western Balkans population descending from a mixture of Romanized pre-Slavic Romance-speaking peoples and the South Slavs. From the 14th century the ethnic meaning of term "Vlach" was replaced wit ...
*
Nada Miletić Nada Miletić (1925 - 2002Fekeža, Lidija"Nada Miletić (1925-2002)."''Godišnjak Centra za balkanološka ispitivanja'' 34 (2005): 309-310.) was a Bosnian medievalist, art historian and archaeologist, who was a scientific expert at the National M ...
*
Khachkar A ''khachkar'' (also spelled as ''khatchkar'') or Armenian cross-stone (, , խաչ ''xačʿ'' "cross" + քար ''kʿar'' "stone") is a carved, memorial stele bearing a cross, and often with additional motifs such as rosette (design), rosettes ...


References

;Sources * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *


Further reading

* * * * * * * * * *


External links

* * {{DEFAULTSORT:Stecak Bogomilism Burial monuments and structures in Bosnia and Herzegovina Medieval European sculptures Rock art in Europe Rock art in Bosnia and Herzegovina World Heritage Sites in Bosnia and Herzegovina World Heritage Sites in Croatia World Heritage Sites in Montenegro World Heritage Sites in Serbia Religion in medieval Bosnia and Herzegovina Medieval Bosnia and Herzegovina architecture