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The southern Appalachian spruce–fir forest is an
ecoregion An ecoregion (ecological region) or ecozone (ecological zone) is an ecologically and geographically defined area that is smaller than a bioregion, which in turn is smaller than a biogeographic realm. Ecoregions cover relatively large areas o ...
of the
temperate coniferous forests Temperate coniferous forest is a terrestrial biome defined by the World Wide Fund for Nature. Temperate coniferous forests are found predominantly in areas with warm summers and cool winters, and vary in their kinds of plant life. In some, needl ...
biome A biome () is a biogeographical unit consisting of a biological community that has formed in response to the physical environment in which they are found and a shared regional climate. Biomes may span more than one continent. Biome is a broader ...
, a type of montane coniferous forest that grows in the highest elevations in the southern
Appalachian Mountains The Appalachian Mountains, often called the Appalachians, (french: Appalaches), are a system of mountains in eastern to northeastern North America. The Appalachians first formed roughly 480 million years ago during the Ordovician Period. The ...
of the
eastern United States The Eastern United States, commonly referred to as the American East, Eastern America, or simply the East, is the region of the United States to the east of the Mississippi River. In some cases the term may refer to a smaller area or the East C ...
. The southern Appalachian spruce–fir forest is the highest and coldest forest type in the Appalachian range, thriving in elevations above where the climate is too harsh to support the broad-leaved hardwood forest that dominates the region's lower elevations.Peter White, "Boreal Forest," ''Encyclopedia of Appalachia'' (Knoxville, Tenn.: University of Tennessee Press, 2006), pp. 49–50. A
relict A relict is a surviving remnant of a natural phenomenon. Biology A relict (or relic) is an organism that at an earlier time was abundant in a large area but now occurs at only one or a few small areas. Geology and geomorphology In geology, a r ...
of the last Ice Age, this forest type covers just over , and is considered the second-most endangered ecosystem in the United States.Chuck Hunter, et al.
Partners in Flight: Bird Conservation Plan for the Southern Blue Ridge
. December 1999. pp. 16–19. Retrieved: 28 May 2009. Large PDF file.
Southern spruce–fir stands consist primarily of two needle-leaved evergreen species—the
red spruce ''Picea rubens'', commonly known as red spruce, is a species of spruce native to eastern North America, ranging from eastern Quebec and Nova Scotia, west to the Adirondack Mountains and south through New England along the Appalachians to wester ...
and the
Fraser fir The Fraser fir (''Abies fraseri'') is a species of fir native to the Appalachian Mountains of the Southeastern United States. ''Abies fraseri'' is closely related to '' Abies balsamea'' (balsam fir), of which it has occasionally been treated a ...
, nicknamed the "he-balsam" and "she-balsam," respectively. Regional entities sometimes refer to the southern spruce–fir forest as the "Canadian" or "boreal" forest due to its resemblance to the
boreal forest Taiga (; rus, тайга́, p=tɐjˈɡa; relates to Mongolic and Turkic languages), generally referred to in North America as a boreal forest or snow forest, is a biome characterized by coniferous forests consisting mostly of pines, spruces ...
of
Canada Canada is a country in North America. Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, covering over , making it the world's second-largest country by tota ...
. While southern spruce–fir forests are similar to the boreal forests, and are home to a number of plant and animal species that are more common at northern latitudes, the southern spruce–fir is nevertheless a disjunct and unique ecosystem.Rose Houk, ''Great Smoky Mountains National Park: A Natural History Guide'' (Boston: Houghton-Mifflin, 1993), pp. 50–62. Over the past two centuries, the southern spruce–fir stands have been decimated by logging,
pollution Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that cause adverse change. Pollution can take the form of any substance (solid, liquid, or gas) or energy (such as radioactivity, heat, sound, or light). Pollutants, the ...
, and an infestation of invasive insects. The southern spruce–fir forest is home to an endangered species, the
spruce–fir moss spider The spruce-fir moss spider (''Microhexura montivaga'') is an endangered species of spider found at high elevations in the southern Appalachian Mountains. First identified in 1923, it inhabits moss Mosses are small, non-vascular flowerles ...
, and several threatened species. While red spruce is common throughout North America, the Fraser fir—a relative of the balsam fir—is found only in the spruce–fir stands of southern Appalachia.Steve Nash, ''Blue Ridge 2020: An Owner's Manual'' (Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press, 1999), pp. 25–28, 61–63. In the second half of the 20th century, nearly all of the mature Fraser firs of southern Appalachia were killed off by the
balsam woolly adelgid Balsam woolly adelgids (''Adelges piceae'') are small wingless insects that infest and kill firs, especially balsam fir and Fraser fir. They are an invasive species from Europe introduced to the United States around 1900. Because this species ...
—a parasite introduced from Europe around 1900.David Catlin, ''A Naturalist's Blue Ridge Parkway'' (Knoxville, Tenn.: University of Tennessee Press, 1984), pp. 75–76, 167.


Occurrence

The southern Appalachian spruce–fir forest consists of several stands covering a combined area of between , although less conservative estimates have placed the forest's coverage at around .Skip Griep
Conservation and Management of High Elevation Spruce–Fir Forests in the Southern Appalachians
Information based on 1996 Southern Appalachian Assessment Terrestrial Technical Report. Retrieved: 28 May 2009. PDF file.
The largest southern spruce–fir stand is located atop the
Great Smoky Mountains The Great Smoky Mountains (, ''Equa Dutsusdu Dodalv'') are a mountain range rising along the Tennessee–North Carolina border in the southeastern United States. They are a subrange of the Appalachian Mountains, and form part of the Blue Ridge ...
on the
Tennessee Tennessee ( , ), officially the State of Tennessee, is a landlocked state in the Southeastern region of the United States. Tennessee is the 36th-largest by area and the 15th-most populous of the 50 states. It is bordered by Kentucky to ...
-
North Carolina North Carolina () is a state in the Southeastern region of the United States. The state is the 28th largest and 9th-most populous of the United States. It is bordered by Virginia to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the east, Georgia a ...
border, stretching from roughly Clingmans Dome in the west to
Mount Guyot Hills and mountains named Guyot, after geologist Arnold Henry Guyot (1807–1884): * Mount Guyot (Great Smoky Mountains), on the Tennessee/North Carolina border * Mount Guyot (New Hampshire) * Mount Guyot (California), on the Sierra Peaks Section ...
in the east. Another significant spruce–fir stand is found atop the Black Mountains, and includes a large stand atop
Mount Mitchell Mount Mitchell, known in Cherokee as Attakulla, is the highest peak of the Appalachian Mountains and the highest peak in mainland eastern North America. It is located near Burnsville in Yancey County, North Carolina in the Black Mountain subra ...
. Other significant stands are found in the
Great Balsam Mountains The Great Balsam Mountains, or Balsam Mountains, are in the mountain region of western North Carolina, United States. The Great Balsams are a subrange of the Blue Ridge Mountains, which in turn are a part of the Appalachian Mountains. The most f ...
(in southern North Carolina) and the
Plott Balsams The Plott Balsams are a mountain range in western North Carolina, in the southeastern United States. They are part of the Blue Ridge Mountain Province of the Southern Appalachian Mountains. The Plott Balsams stretch from the city of Sylva in ...
(between the Great Balsams and the Great Smokies). The
Great Craggy Mountains The Great Craggy Mountains, commonly called the Craggies, are a mountain range in western North Carolina, United States. They are a subrange of the Blue Ridge Mountains and encompass an area of approx. 194 sq mi (503 km²). They are situat ...
and Mount Pisgah contain stands of red spruce, but lack Fraser firs. Further north, southern spruce–fir forests coat the upper elevations of Roan Mountain, particularly the western part of the mountain between Roan High Knob and Roan High Bluff, and a smaller stand covers part of nearby
Grandfather Mountain Grandfather Mountain is a mountain, a non-profit attraction, and a North Carolina state park near Linville, North Carolina. At 5,946 feet (1,812 m), it is the highest peak on the eastern escarpment of the Blue Ridge Mountains, one of the major ch ...
. The northernmost southern spruce–fir stand of note is found atop Mount Rogers and adjacent summits in
Southwest Virginia Southwest Virginia, often abbreviated as SWVA, is a mountainous region of Virginia in the westernmost part of the commonwealth. Located within the broader region of western Virginia, Southwest Virginia has been defined alternatively as all Vir ...
. Smaller pockets of spruce forest have been identified in the higher elevations of
West Virginia West Virginia is a state in the Appalachian, Mid-Atlantic and Southeastern regions of the United States.The Census Bureau and the Association of American Geographers classify West Virginia as part of the Southern United States while the ...
, although these are devoid of Fraser Firs and are typically considered disjunct from the highland spruce–fir community.


Ownership

Roughly 95 percent of existing southern spruce–fir stands are owned by federal and state entities, with the remaining 5 percent privately owned. Approximately 85 percent of southern spruce–fir stands are found on
National Park Service The National Park Service (NPS) is an List of federal agencies in the United States, agency of the Federal government of the United States, United States federal government within the United States Department of the Interior, U.S. Department of ...
lands, namely in the
Great Smoky Mountains National Park Great Smoky Mountains National Park is an American national park in the southeastern United States, with parts in North Carolina and Tennessee. The park straddles the ridgeline of the Great Smoky Mountains, part of the Blue Ridge Mountains, wh ...
and in the
Blue Ridge Parkway The Blue Ridge Parkway is a National Parkway and National Scenic Byway, All-American Road in the United States, noted for its scenic beauty. The parkway, which is America's longest linear park, runs for through 29 Virginia and North Carolina cou ...
corridor, or on state-owned lands, such as at
Mount Mitchell State Park Mount Mitchell State Park is a North Carolina state park in Yancey County, North Carolina in the United States. Established in 1915 by the state legislature, it became the first state park of North Carolina. By doing so, it also established the ...
or
Grayson Highlands State Park Grayson Highlands State Park is a state park located in Grayson County, Virginia, United States. It is adjacent to the Mount Rogers National Recreation Area and lies within the Jefferson National Forest. The park was established in 1965 and ...
. The remaining 10 percent of publicly owned southern spruce–fir stands are located on lands controlled by the
United States Forest Service The United States Forest Service (USFS) is an agency of the U.S. Department of Agriculture that administers the nation's 154 national forests and 20 national grasslands. The Forest Service manages of land. Major divisions of the agency inc ...
, namely the
Pisgah National Forest Pisgah National Forest is a National Forest in the Appalachian Mountains of western North Carolina. It is administered by the United States Forest Service, part of the United States Department of Agriculture. The Pisgah National Forest is complete ...
in North Carolina, the
Cherokee National Forest The Cherokee National Forest is a United States National Forest located in the U.S. states of Tennessee and North Carolina that was created on June 14, 1920. The forest is maintained and managed by the United States Forest Service. It encompasses ...
in Tennessee, and the
Jefferson National Forest The George Washington and Jefferson National Forests is an administrative entity combining two U.S. United States National Forest, National Forests into one of the largest areas of public land in the Eastern United States. The forests cover of l ...
in Virginia.


Ecology


Climate

Southern Appalachian spruce–fir zones are on average much cooler than their surrounding valleys.Connie Toops, ''Great Smoky Mountains'' (Stillwater, Minn.: Voyageur Press, 1992), pp. 35–41. Winter temperatures can reach as low as , and can feel much colder if
wind chill Wind chill or windchill (popularly wind chill factor) is the lowering of body temperature due to the passing-flow of lower-temperature air. Wind chill numbers are always lower than the air temperature for values where the formula is valid. When ...
is taken into account. Strong thunderstorms and heavy rain showers are not uncommon in summertime, and spruce–fir zones are draped in clouds up to 25% of the time. They represent the southernmost extent of the
humid continental climate A humid continental climate is a climatic region defined by Russo-German climatologist Wladimir Köppen in 1900, typified by four distinct seasons and large seasonal temperature differences, with warm to hot (and often humid) summers and freez ...
in North America. Being atop mountain summits or ridgecrests, southern spruce–fir forests are often subjected to hurricane-force winds, the strongest of which have been recorded at per hour. Spruce–fir forest floors are often littered with
blowdown Blowdown may refer to: * Windthrow or forest blowdown, a felling of trees by windstorm * Blowdown stack A blowdown stack is an elevated vent or vertical stack that is used to vent the pressure of components of a chemical, refinery or other plan ...
s, and roads and trails that traverse spruce–fir forests require constant maintenance to remove downed trees and branches.


Flora

Red spruce and Fraser fir survive at the highest elevations in southern Appalachia due to their ability to bear climatic conditions that are too extreme for most broad-leaved trees. Both have
conical A cone is a three-dimensional geometric shape that tapers smoothly from a flat base (frequently, though not necessarily, circular) to a point called the apex or vertex. A cone is formed by a set of line segments, half-lines, or lines conn ...
shapes and flexible branches that make it less likely they will collapse under the weight of heavy snowfall, and both have a fatty substance in their needles that protects them from extreme cold. Red spruce occurs as low as and normally becomes the dominant tree type at . Fraser fir appears at 5,500 feet, and becomes the dominant tree type at . The two trees can be distinguished by their needles and
cones A cone is a three-dimensional geometric shape that tapers smoothly from a flat base (frequently, though not necessarily, circular) to a point called the apex or vertex. A cone is formed by a set of line segments, half-lines, or lines co ...
, with Fraser firs having blunt-shaped needles and upright cones and red spruces having prickly four-cornered needles and cones pointing downward. The oldest red spruces are over 300 years old, and the tallest grow to over . The spruce–fir needles, when shed, can take up to ten years to decompose, and create a relatively
acidic In computer science, ACID ( atomicity, consistency, isolation, durability) is a set of properties of database transactions intended to guarantee data validity despite errors, power failures, and other mishaps. In the context of databases, a s ...
humus In classical soil science, humus is the dark organic matter in soil that is formed by the decomposition of plant and animal matter. It is a kind of soil organic matter. It is rich in nutrients and retains moisture in the soil. Humus is the Lati ...
layer known as "mor." Some northern hardwoods manage to survive amidst the spruce–fir ecosystem, namely
yellow birch ''Betula alleghaniensis'', the yellow birch, golden birch, or swamp birch, is a large tree and an important lumber species of birch native to northeastern North America. Its vernacular names refer to the golden color of the tree's bark. In the ...
, American mountain ash, and pin cherry, the latter being especially common in areas damaged by fire. A typical southern spruce–fir understory is home to shrubs such as Catawba rhododendron, thornless
blackberry The blackberry is an edible fruit produced by many species in the genus ''Rubus'' in the family Rosaceae, hybrids among these species within the subgenus ''Rubus'', and hybrids between the subgenera ''Rubus'' and ''Idaeobatus''. The taxonomy of ...
, mountain cranberry, and witch-hobble. The spruce–fir
herbaceous layer Stratification in the field of ecology refers to the vertical layering of a habitat; the arrangement of vegetation in layers. It classifies the layers (sing. ''stratum'', pl. ''strata'') of vegetation largely according to the different heights to w ...
contains ferns such as the mountain wood fern,
northern lady fern ''Athyrium angustum'' is known as the northern lady fern, native to northeastern North America. It was long included in the superspecies '' Athyrium filix-femina'', but is now largely recognized as a distinct species. ''Athyrium angustum'' has ...
, and
clubmoss Lycopodiopsida is a class of vascular plants known as lycopods, lycophytes or other terms including the component lyco-. Members of the class are also called clubmosses, firmosses, spikemosses and quillworts. They have dichotomously branching s ...
, and over 280 species of
moss Mosses are small, non-vascular flowerless plants in the taxonomic division Bryophyta (, ) '' sensu stricto''. Bryophyta ('' sensu lato'', Schimp. 1879) may also refer to the parent group bryophytes, which comprise liverworts, mosses, and ...
es. Wildflowers include Canada mayflower,
blue-bead lily ''Clintonia borealis'' is a species of flowering plant in the lily family Liliaceae. The specific epithet ''borealis'' means "of the north," which alludes to the fact that the species tends to thrive in the boreal forests of eastern Canada and ...
, and mountain wood-sorrel. The Rugels ragwort is found only in the spruce–fir forest of the Great Smoky Mountains, and is one of eight plant species endemic to the southern Appalachian spruce–fir ecosystem.


Fauna

The southern Appalachian spruce–fir forests are home to the
endangered An endangered species is a species that is very likely to become extinct in the near future, either worldwide or in a particular political jurisdiction. Endangered species may be at risk due to factors such as habitat loss, poaching and inv ...
spruce–fir moss spider The spruce-fir moss spider (''Microhexura montivaga'') is an endangered species of spider found at high elevations in the southern Appalachian Mountains. First identified in 1923, it inhabits moss Mosses are small, non-vascular flowerles ...
, a tiny relative of the
tarantula Tarantulas comprise a group of large and often hairy spiders of the family Theraphosidae. , 1,040 species have been identified, with 156 genera. The term "tarantula" is usually used to describe members of the family Theraphosidae, although ...
that lives among the forests' rich variety of mosses. Another endangered species, the
northern flying squirrel The northern flying squirrel (''Glaucomys sabrinus'') is one of three species of the genus '' Glaucomys'', the only flying squirrels found in North America.Walker EP, Paradiso JL. 1975. ''Mammals of the World''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Universi ...
, lives in the spruce–fir forests and adjacent northern hardwood stands. Southern spruce–fir forests are also the preferred habitat of the pigmy salamander, one of several salamander species endemic to southern Appalachia. Bird species found in the spruce–fir forest include
winter wren The winter wren (''Troglodytes hiemalis'') is a very small North American bird and a member of the mainly New World wren family Troglodytidae. It was once lumped with the Pacific wren (''Troglodytes pacificus'') of western North America and th ...
s,
black-capped chickadee The black-capped chickadee (''Poecile atricapillus'') is a small, non-migratory, North American songbird that lives in deciduous and mixed forests. It is a passerine bird in the tit family, the Paridae. It is the state bird of Massachusetts an ...
s,
Blackburnian warbler The Blackburnian warbler (''Setophaga fusca'') is a small New World warbler. They breed in eastern North America, from southern Canada, westwards to the southern Canadian Prairies, the Great Lakes region and New England, to North Carolina. Black ...
s,
brown creeper The brown creeper (''Certhia americana''), also known as the American treecreeper, is a small songbird, the only North American member of the treecreeper family Certhiidae. Description Adults are brown on the upper parts with light spotting, r ...
s,
golden-crowned kinglet The golden-crowned kinglet (''Regulus satrapa'') is a very small songbird in the family Regulidae that lives throughout much of North America. Description Adults are olive-gray on the upperparts with white underparts, with thin bills and sho ...
s, and
northern saw-whet owl The northern saw-whet owl (''Aegolius acadicus'') is a species of small owl in the family Strigidae. The species is native to North America. Saw-whet owls of the genus '' Aegolius'' are some of the smallest owl species in North America. They ca ...
s, all of which are more common in northern latitudes.


Comparison to northern spruce–fir forests

While the predominance of spruce and fir gives southern spruce–fir forests a resemblance to the boreal forests of Canada and
Alaska Alaska ( ; russian: Аляска, Alyaska; ale, Alax̂sxax̂; ; ems, Alas'kaaq; Yup'ik: ''Alaskaq''; tli, Anáaski) is a state located in the Western United States on the northwest extremity of North America. A semi-exclave of the U.S ...
, the two predominant tree types—red spruce and Fraser fir—are not found in the boreal forests, and the Fraser fir is not found outside southern Appalachia. The typical climate of the southern Appalachian spruce–fir forest, while too extreme for most broad-leaved trees, is still warmer and wetter than Canada and Alaska, and allows for taller and faster-growing trees. The southern spruce–fir understory is also much denser, and contains plants such as the Catawba rhododendron, which is absent in the northern half of the range. Soils of the southern Appalachian spruce–fir forest tend to be stony medium or moderately coarse-textured
inceptisol Inceptisols are a soil order in USDA soil taxonomy. They form quickly through alteration of parent material. They are more developed than Entisols. They have no accumulation of clays, iron oxide, aluminium oxide or organic matter. They have an o ...
s with black or dark brown topsoil becoming somewhat less dark with depth. Classic
spodosol In soil science, podzols are the typical soils of coniferous or boreal forests and also the typical soils of eucalypt forests and heathlands in southern Australia. In Western Europe, podzols develop on heathland, which is often a construct of huma ...
profile development with pale topsoil (E horizon) over darker subsoil is much less common than in the northern spruce–fir forest. Representative soil series include Mt. Rogers at the northern end in Virginia; Breakneck and Pullback on Clingman's Dome in Tennessee; Burton and Craggey on Mount Mitchell in North Carolina.


History


Natural history

While the expanding
glacier A glacier (; ) is a persistent body of dense ice that is constantly moving under its own weight. A glacier forms where the accumulation of snow exceeds its ablation over many years, often centuries. It acquires distinguishing features, such a ...
s of the last Ice Age didn't reach as far as the southern Appalachians, the climatic shifts which resulted in their development brought lower temperatures to the region. Approximately 18,000 years ago, when the last Ice Age reached its peak, spruce–fir forests covered much of the southeastern United States, stretching westward to
Missouri Missouri is a U.S. state, state in the Midwestern United States, Midwestern region of the United States. Ranking List of U.S. states and territories by area, 21st in land area, it is bordered by eight states (tied for the most with Tennessee ...
and as far south as
Louisiana Louisiana , group=pronunciation (French: ''La Louisiane'') is a U.S. state, state in the Deep South and South Central United States, South Central regions of the United States. It is the List of U.S. states and territories by area, 20th-smal ...
, while the deciduous forests were restricted to a few refuges in the coastal plains. An
alpine zone Alpine tundra is a type of natural region or biome that does not contain trees because it is at high elevation, with an associated harsh climate. As the latitude of a location approaches the poles, the threshold elevation for alpine tundra gets ...
—where the climate is too harsh for any trees to survive—existed in the southern Appalachians at approximately , leaving the region's highest elevations coated with
tundra In physical geography, tundra () is a type of biome where tree growth is hindered by frigid temperatures and short growing seasons. The term ''tundra'' comes through Russian (') from the Kildin Sámi word (') meaning "uplands", "treeless mo ...
vegetation and
permafrost Permafrost is ground that continuously remains below 0 °C (32 °F) for two or more years, located on land or under the ocean. Most common in the Northern Hemisphere, around 15% of the Northern Hemisphere or 11% of the global surfac ...
. Between 16,000 and 12,000 years ago, temperatures began warming, and the deciduous forest returned to the mountain valleys. By about 10,000 years ago, the alpine zones had disappeared, and the spruce–fir forest had retreated to the range's highest elevations.Harry Moore, ''A Roadside Guide to the Geology of the Great Smoky Mountains National Park'' (Knoxville, Tenn.: University of Tennessee Press, 1988), pp. 40–44.


Recorded history

Botanists such as
John Bartram John Bartram (March 23, 1699 – September 22, 1777) was an American botanist, horticulturist, and explorer, based in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, for most of his career. Swedish botanist and taxonomist Carl Linnaeus said he was the "greatest na ...
and
André Michaux André Michaux, also styled Andrew Michaud, (8 March 174611 October 1802) was a French botanist and explorer. He is most noted for his study of North American flora. In addition Michaux collected specimens in England, Spain, France, and even Pe ...
began making excursions into the diverse southern Appalachian forests as early as the late 18th century. On one such trip, Michaux was accompanied by Scottish botanist John Fraser, who discovered the fir tree that now bears his name. Early settlers gave the Fraser fir the nickname "she-balsam" due to the white blisters on the ends of its branches, which appeared to contain milk. The dark appearance of the spruce–fir canopy in contrast to the bright green canopy of the deciduous forest is the root of numerous mountain names across the southern Appalachians, most notably the Black Mountains, as well as individual summits such as
Old Black Old Black is the nickname given to Neil Young's primary electric guitar. Most of Young's electric guitar work has been recorded using this instrument. Though he has used a variety of different instruments, this Les Paul has remained ubiquitous a ...
in the Great Smokies. The nicknames of the red spruce and Fraser fir—he-balsam and she-balsam—also influenced the nomenclature of the southern Appalachians, leading to names such as Richland Balsam. The general inaccessibility of the southern Appalachian highlands left the spruce–fir forests largely undisturbed for most of the 19th century, with the exception of Mount Mitchell and Roan Mountain, which became seasonal resort sites for tourists seeking an escape from hot summer temperatures. While selective logging occurred as early as the 1880s, the early 20th century saw a logging boom across the spruce–fir forests of southern Appalachia, especially during
World War I World War I (28 July 1914 11 November 1918), often abbreviated as WWI, was List of wars and anthropogenic disasters by death toll, one of the deadliest global conflicts in history. Belligerents included much of Europe, the Russian Empire, ...
, as red spruce was a preferred wood for aircraft construction. While the Great Smokies' spruce–fir zones were largely spared (with the exception of some logging around
Mount Collins Mount Collins is a mountain in the Great Smoky Mountains, located in the Southeastern United States. It has an elevation of above sea level. Located along the Appalachian Trail between Clingmans Dome and Newfound Gap, the mountain is a popula ...
), nearly half the virgin spruce elsewhere in the southern Blue Ridge Mountains was either cut or destroyed by logging-related fires. This rapid devastation led to numerous conservation movements, including one spearheaded by North Carolina governor Locke Craig that culminated in the creation of
Mount Mitchell State Park Mount Mitchell State Park is a North Carolina state park in Yancey County, North Carolina in the United States. Established in 1915 by the state legislature, it became the first state park of North Carolina. By doing so, it also established the ...
in 1915. The creation of
national forest A state forest or national forest is a forest that is administered or protected by some agency of a sovereign or federated state, or territory. Background The precise application of the terms vary by jurisdiction. For example: * In Australia ...
s during the same period brought control to the commercial logging in the region, and allowed much of the forest to begin healing.


Environmental threats

The
balsam woolly adelgid Balsam woolly adelgids (''Adelges piceae'') are small wingless insects that infest and kill firs, especially balsam fir and Fraser fir. They are an invasive species from Europe introduced to the United States around 1900. Because this species ...
, the most noticeable threat to the southern spruce–fir forest, was introduced from Europe in the first half of the 20th century and quickly decimated the balsam fir stands in the northern Appalachians. In 1957, it was discovered atop Mount Mitchell, and by 1963, it had spread to Mount Sterling in the Great Smoky Mountains.Carson Brewer, ''Great Smoky Mountains National Park'' (Portland, Ore: Graphic Arts Center Publishing, 1993), p. 114. Over the next few decades, the balsam woolly killed off most all of the mature Fraser firs of southern Appalachia. While new Fraser firs live long enough to seed, most new firs are attacked and killed after just a few years. Attempts to exterminate the balsam woolly by introducing species known to prey on it have largely failed. Fraser fir repopulation efforts are further complicated by the fact that the fir's cones are prized by tree growers (especially Christmas tree growers), and the United States Forest Service is under constant pressure to allow cone collecting. The demise of the mature Fraser firs has had a drastic impact on the southern spruce–fir ecosystem. The spruce–fir moss spider, which preferred mosses that thrived in the cool shade beneath the mature firs, is believed to be extirpated in all but a few places in North Carolina. The red spruce, likewise, which is easily damaged by high winds, depended on the sturdier Fraser firs for protection in the wind-blasted higher elevations. Air pollution and acid rain are also believed to be stunting the growth of red spruces (especially since the spruce–fir zones are often immersed in clouds), although to what extent is debatable. A study of the Great Smoky Mountains showed the number of adult firs has increased over 30 years, with Clingmans Dome having three times as many adult trees as of 2020 as in the 1980s.


Access

In spite of their general remoteness, most southern spruce–fir forests are accessible via federal and state highways. The Blue Ridge Parkway passes through the spruce–fir regions in the Plott Balsams, the Great Balsams, the Black Mountains (N.C. State Highway 128 connects the parkway to Mount Mitchell), Grandfather Mountain, and Mount Rogers. In the Great Smoky Mountains National Park,
U.S. Route 441 U.S. Route 441 (US 441) is a auxiliary route of U.S. Route 41. It extends from US 41 in Miami, Florida to US 25W in Rocky Top, Tennessee. Between its termini, US 441 travels through the states of Florida, Georgia, North ...
climbs to
Newfound Gap Newfound Gap (el. ) is a mountain pass located near the center of the Great Smoky Mountains National Park of the southern Appalachian Mountains in the United States of America. Situated along the border of Tennessee and North Carolina, the state ...
amidst the Great Smokies spruce–fir stand, where it intersects the Clingmans Dome Road. The Roan Mountain spruce–fir stand is accessed via state highway—designated as Highway 143 in Tennessee and Highway 261 in North Carolina—and a paved road accesses the gap between Roan High Knob and Roan High Bluff, where there is a large rhododendron garden. The
Appalachian Trail The Appalachian Trail (also called the A.T.), is a hiking trail in the Eastern United States, extending almost between Springer Mountain in Georgia and Mount Katahdin in Maine, and passing through 14 states.Gailey, Chris (2006)"Appalachian ...
traverses the southern spruce–fir forests in the Great Smokies and atop Roan Mountain and Mount Rogers. Other major trails in the southern spruce–fir zone include the Deep Gap Trail in the Black Mountains and the Balsam Mountain Trail and Boulevard Trail in the Great Smokies. Smaller trails (part of the Blue Ridge Parkway corridor) access the summits of Waterrock Knob in the
Plott Balsams The Plott Balsams are a mountain range in western North Carolina, in the southeastern United States. They are part of the Blue Ridge Mountain Province of the Southern Appalachian Mountains. The Plott Balsams stretch from the city of Sylva in ...
and Richland Balsam in the
Great Balsams The Great Balsam Mountains, or Balsam Mountains, are in the mountain region of western North Carolina, United States. The Great Balsams are a subrange of the Blue Ridge Mountains, which in turn are a part of the Appalachian Mountains. The most f ...
.


See also

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Appalachian balds In the Appalachian Mountains of the eastern United States, balds are mountain summits or crests covered primarily by thick vegetation of native grasses or shrubs occurring in areas where heavy forest growth would be expected. Balds are found prim ...
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Appalachian temperate rainforest The Appalachian temperate rainforest is located in the southern Appalachian Mountains of the eastern U.S. About 351,500 square kilometers (135,000 square miles) of forest land is spread across eastern Kentucky, southwestern Virginia, western North ...
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Cove (Appalachian Mountains) In the central and southern Appalachian Mountains of Eastern North America, a cove is a small valley between two ridge lines that is closed at one or both ends. Among the places where the word "cove" appears in the name of an Appalachian valley ...
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List of ecoregions in the United States (WWF) The following is a list of ecoregions in the United States as identified by the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF). The United States is a megadiverse country with a high level of endemism across a wide variety of ecosystems. Terrestrial ecoregi ...


References


External links


Mount Rogers National Recreation Area
{{DEFAULTSORT:Southern Appalachian spruce-fir Forest Temperate coniferous forests of the United States Ecoregions of the United States * Blue Ridge Mountains Natural history of the Great Smoky Mountains Great Smoky Mountains National Park Old-growth forests Natural history of North Carolina Natural history of Tennessee Natural history of Virginia Southern Sixers Forests of the United States Appalachian forests