Hinduism Hinduism () is an Hypernymy and hyponymy, umbrella term for a range of Indian religions, Indian List of religions and spiritual traditions#Indian religions, religious and spiritual traditions (Sampradaya, ''sampradaya''s) that are unified ...

, ''Yajna'' or ''Yagna'' (, ɐd͡ʒɲə ) also known as Hawan, is a

ritual A ritual is a repeated, structured sequence of actions or behaviors that alters the internal or external state of an individual, group, or environment, regardless of conscious understanding, emotional context, or symbolic meaning. Traditionally ...

done in front of a sacred fire, often with

mantra A mantra ( ; Pali: ''mantra'') or mantram (Devanagari: मन्त्रम्) is a sacred utterance, a numinous sound, a syllable, word or phonemes, or group of words (most often in an Indo-Iranian language like Sanskrit or Avestan) belie ...

s. Yajna has been a

Vedic upright=1.2, The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the '' Atharvaveda''. The Vedas ( or ; ), sometimes collectively called the Veda, are a large body of religious texts originating in ancient India. Composed ...

tradition, described in a layer of Vedic literature called

Brahmana The Brahmanas (; Sanskrit: , International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration, IAST: ''Brāhmaṇam'') are Vedas, Vedic śruti works attached to the Samhitas (hymns and mantras) of the Rigveda, Rig, Samaveda, Sama, Yajurveda, Yajur, and Athar ...

s, as well as

Yajurveda The ''Yajurveda'' (, , from यजुस्, "worship", and वेद, "knowledge") is the Veda primarily of prose mantras for worship rituals.Michael Witzel (2003), "Vedas and Upaniṣads", in ''The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism'' (Edito ...

. The tradition has evolved from offering oblations and libations into sacred fire to symbolic offerings in the presence of sacred fire (

Agni Agni ( ) is the Deva (Hinduism), Hindu god of fire. As the Guardians of the directions#Aṣṭa-Dikpāla ("Guardians of Eight Directions"), guardian deity of the southeast direction, he is typically found in southeast corners of Hindu temples. ...

). Yajna rituals-related texts have been called the ''Karma-kanda'' (ritual works) portion of the Vedic literature, in contrast to the ''Jnana-kanda'' (knowledge) portion found in the Vedic

Upanishad The Upanishads (; , , ) are late Vedic and post-Vedic Sanskrit texts that "document the transition from the archaic ritualism of the Veda into new religious ideas and institutions" and the emergence of the central religious concepts of Hind ...

s. The proper completion of Yajna-like rituals was the focus of Mimansa school of

Hindu philosophy Hindu philosophy or Vedic philosophy is the set of philosophical systems that developed in tandem with the first Hinduism, Hindu religious traditions during the Iron Age in India, iron and Classical India, classical ages of India. In Indian ...

. Yajna have continued to play a central role in a Hindu's rites of passage, such as weddings. Modern major

Hindu temple A Hindu temple, also known as Mandir, Devasthanam, Pura, or Kovil, is a sacred place where Hindus worship and show their devotion to Hindu deities, deities through worship, sacrifice, and prayers. It is considered the house of the god to who ...

ceremonies, Hindu community celebrations, or monastic initiations may also include Vedic Yajna rites, or alternatively be based on Agamic rituals.

Etymology

The word ''yajna'' () has its root in the Sanskrit meaning 'to worship, adore, honour, revere' and appears in the early Vedic literature, composed in 2nd millennium BCE.Jack Sikora (2002), Religions of India, iUniverse, , page 86 In Rigveda, Yajurveda (itself a derivative of this root) and others, it means "worship, devotion to anything, prayer and praise, an act of worship or devotion, a form of offering or oblation, and sacrifice".Monier Monier-Williams, Sanskrit English Dictionary, Oxford University Press, (Reprinted in 2011), pages 839–840 In post-Vedic literature, the term meant any form of rite, ceremony or devotion with an actual or symbolic offering or effort. A yajna included major ceremonial devotions, with or without a sacred fire, sometimes with feasts and community events. It has, states Nigal, a threefold meaning of worship of the deities ('' devapujana''), unity (''sangatikarana'') and charity ('' dána''). The Sanskrit word is related to the

Avestan Avestan ( ) is the liturgical language of Zoroastrianism. It belongs to the Iranian languages, Iranian branch of the Indo-European languages, Indo-European language family and was First language, originally spoken during the Avestan period, Old ...

term ''

yasna Yasna (;"Yasna"
''

Zoroastrianism Zoroastrianism ( ), also called Mazdayasnā () or Beh-dīn (), is an Iranian religions, Iranian religion centred on the Avesta and the teachings of Zoroaster, Zarathushtra Spitama, who is more commonly referred to by the Greek translation, ...

. Unlike the Vedic ''yajna'', however, the ''Yasna'' is the name of a specific religious service, not a class of rituals, and they have "to do with water rather than fire". The Sanskrit word is further related to Ancient Greek ''ἅζομαι'' (házomai), "to revere", deriving from the Proto-Indo-European root ''*Hyeh₂ǵ-'' ("to worship").

History

Yajna has been a part of an individual or social ritual since Vedic times. When the ritual fire – the divine

, the god of fire and the messenger of gods – was deployed in a Yajna,

s were chanted. The hymns and songs sung and oblations offered into the fire were a form of hospitality towards the Vedic gods. The offerings were believed to be carried by ''Agni'' to the gods; the gods in return were expected to grant boons and

benediction A benediction (, 'well' + , 'to speak') is a short invocation for divine help, blessing and guidance, usually at the end of worship service. It can also refer to a specific Christian religious service including the exposition of the eucharisti ...

s, and thus the ritual served as a means of spiritual exchange between gods and human beings. The

Vedanga The Vedanga ( ', "limb of the Veda-s"; plural form: वेदाङ्गानि ') are six auxiliary disciplines of Vedic studies that developed in Vedic and post-Vedic times.James Lochtefeld (2002), "Vedanga" in The Illustrated Encyclopedia o ...

s, or auxiliary sciences attached to the Vedic literature, define Yajna as follows:

Definition of a Vedic sacrifice Yajña, sacrifice, is an act by which we surrender something for the sake of the gods. Such an act must rest on a sacred authority (''āgama''), and serve for man's salvation (''śreyortha''). The nature of the gift is of less importance. It may be cake (puroḍāśa), pulse (''karu''), mixed milk (''sāṃnāyya''), an animal (''paśu''), the juice of soma-plant (soma), etc; nay, the smallest offerings of butter, flour, and milk may serve for the purpose of a sacrifice. — ''Apastamba Yajna Paribhasa-sutras 1.1'', Translator: M Dhavamony

In the Upanishadic times, or after 500 BCE, states Sikora, the meaning of the term Yajna evolved from "ritual sacrifice" performed around fires by priests, to any "personal attitude and action or knowledge" that required devotion and dedication. The oldest Vedic Upanishads, such as the Chandogya Upanishad (~700 BCE) in Chapter 8, for example state,

अथ यद्यज्ञ इत्याचक्षते ब्रह्मचर्यमेव तद्ब्रह्मचर्येण ह्येव यो ज्ञाता तं विन्दतेऽथ यदिष्टमित्याचक्षते ब्रह्मचर्यमेव तद्ब्रह्मचर्येण ह्येवेष्ट्वात्मानमनुविन्दते ॥ १ ॥ What is commonly called Yajna is really the chaste life of the student of sacred knowledge, for only through the chaste life of a student does he who is a knower find that, What is commonly called ''Istam'' (sacrificial offering) is really the chaste life of the student of sacred knowledge, for only having searched with chaste life of a student does one find Atman (Soul, Self) , , 1 , , — ''
Chandogya Upanishad The ''Chandogya Upanishad'' (Sanskrit: , IAST: ''Chāndogyopaniṣad'') is a Sanskrit text embedded in the Chandogya Brahmana of the Sama Veda of Hinduism.Patrick Olivelle (2014), ''The Early Upanishads'', Oxford University Press; , pp. 166-1 ...
8.5.1'' Robert Hume
Chandogya Upanishad 8.5.1
Oxford University Press, page 266Jack Sikora (2002), Religions of India, iUniverse, , page 87

The later Vedic Upanishads expand the idea further by suggesting that

Yoga Yoga (UK: , US: ; 'yoga' ; ) is a group of physical, mental, and spiritual practices or disciplines that originated with its own philosophy in ancient India, aimed at controlling body and mind to attain various salvation goals, as pra ...

is a form of ''Yajna'' (devotion, sacrifice). The

Shvetashvatara Upanishad The ''Shvetashvatara Upanishad'' (, ) is an ancient Sanskrit text embedded in the Yajurveda. It is listed as number 14 in the Muktika canon of 108 Upanishads. The Upanishad contains 113 mantras or verses in six chapters.Robert Hume (1921)Shveta ...

in verse 1.5.14, for example, uses the analogy of ''Yajna'' materials to explain the means to see one's soul and God, with inner rituals and without external rituals.Robert Hume
Shvetashvatara Upanishad 1.5.14
Oxford University Press, page 396 It states, "by making one's own body as the lower friction sticks, the syllable Om as the upper friction sticks, then practicing the friction of meditation, one may see the

Deva Deva may refer to: Arts and entertainment Fictional characters * Deva, List of Advanced Dungeons & Dragons 2nd edition monsters, an ''Advanced Dungeons & Dragons'' 2nd edition monster * Deva, in the 2023 Indian film ''Salaar: Part 1 – Ceasefir ...

who is hidden, as it were".

Changing nature of Vedic offerings

The nature of Vedic sacrifice and rituals evolved over time, with major changes during the 1st millennium BCE, changes that influenced concepts later adopted by other traditions such as Buddhism. Early Vedic period offerings involved animal sacrifice, but the rituals were progressively reinterpreted over time, substituting the offerings and making it non-violent or symbolic, with the superiority of knowledge and celebration of sound of mantra replacing the physical offerings. Ultimately, the external rituals were reformulated and replaced with "internal oblations performed within the human body". These ideas of substitution, evolution from external actions ( karma-kanda) to internal knowledge ( jñana-kanda), were highlighted in many rituals-related sutras, as well as specialized texts such as the

Brihadaranyaka Upanishad The ''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad'' (, ) is one of the Mukhya Upanishads, Principal Upanishads and one of the first Upanishadic scriptures of Hinduism. A key scripture to various schools of Hinduism, the ''Brihadaranyaka Upanisad'' is tenth in the ...

(~800 BCE),

Chandogya Upanishad The ''Chandogya Upanishad'' (Sanskrit: , IAST: ''Chāndogyopaniṣad'') is a Sanskrit text embedded in the Chandogya Brahmana of the Sama Veda of Hinduism.Patrick Olivelle (2014), ''The Early Upanishads'', Oxford University Press; , pp. 166-1 ...

, Kaushitaki Upanishad and Pranagnihotra Upanishad. The Vedic text

Satapatha Brahmana The Shatapatha Brahmana (, , abbreviated to 'SB') is a commentary on the Śukla Yajurveda. It is attributed to the Vedic sage Yajnavalkya. Described as the most complete, systematic, and important of the Brahmanas (commentaries on the Vedas), it ...

defines a sacrifice as an act of abandonment of something one holds of value, such as oblations offered to god and dakshina (fees, gifts) offered during the yajna. For gifts and fees, the text recommends giving cows, clothing, horses or gold. The oblations recommended are cow milk, ghee (clarified butter), seeds, grains, flowers, water and food cakes (rice cake, for example). Similar recommendations are repeated in other texts, such as in the ''

Taittiriya Shakha The ''Taittirīya Shakha'' (Sanskrit, loosely meaning 'Branch or School of the sage Tittiri'), is a ''shakha'' (i.e. 'branch', 'school', or Recension, rescension) of the Black Yajurveda, Krishna (black) Yajurveda. The Taittiriyas are themselves d ...

'' 2.10 of the Krishna Yajurveda). Tadeusz Skorupski states that these sacrifices were a part of ritual way of life, and considered to have inherent efficacy, where doing these sacrifices yielded repayment and results without the priests or gods getting involved. These Vedic ideas, adds Skorupski, influenced "the formulation of Buddhist theory of generosity". Buddhist ideas went further, criticizing "the Brahmins for their decadence and failure to live in conformity with the Brahmanic legacy of the ancient Brahmins", who claimed the Vedic ancients "lived in self restraint, were ascetics, had no cattle, no gold, and no wealth". The Buddha sought return to more ancient values, states Tadeusz Skorupski, where the Vedic sages "had study as their grain and wealth, guarded the holy life as their treasure, praised morality, austerity and nonviolence; they performed sacrifices consisting of rice, barley and oil, but they did not kill the cows".

Yajamana

In Vedic rituals, the sacrifice is offered by a patron known as the yajamana. Commonly translated as "sacrificer", yajamana doesn't personally perform the sacrifice but rather hires priests for it. The yajamana acts as the patron, and the sacrifice is conducted for his benefit.

Priests

Vedic ( Shrauta) yajnas are typically performed by four priests of the

Vedic priesthood Priests of the Vedic religion are officiants of the ''yajna'' service. Yajna is an important part of Hinduism, especially the Vedas. Persons trained for the ritual and proficient in its practice were called ( ' regularly- sacrificing'). As me ...

: the hota, the adhvaryu, the udgata and the Brahma. The functions associated with the priests were: * The ''Hota'' recites invocations and litanies drawn from the

Rigveda The ''Rigveda'' or ''Rig Veda'' (, , from wikt:ऋच्, ऋच्, "praise" and wikt:वेद, वेद, "knowledge") is an ancient Indian Miscellany, collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns (''sūktas''). It is one of the four sacred canoni ...

. He use three Rig verses, the introductory verse, the accompanying verse and benediction as the third. * The ''Adhvaryu'' is the priest's assistant and is in charge of the physical details of the ritual like measuring the ground, building the altar explained in the

. The adhvaryu offers oblations.Robert Hume
Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 3.1
Oxford University Press, pages 107- 109 * The ''Udgata'' is the chanter of hymns set to melodies and music (sāman) drawn from the

Samaveda The ''Samaveda'' (, , from '' सामन्'', "song" and ''वेद'', "knowledge"), is the Veda of melodies and chants. It is an ancient Vedic Sanskrit text, and is one of the sacred scriptures in Hinduism. One of the four Vedas, it is a l ...

. The udgatar, like the hota, chants the introductory, accompanying and benediction hymns. * The ''Brahma'' is the superintendent of the entire performance, and is responsible for correcting mistakes by means of supplementary verses taken from the

Atharva Veda The Atharvaveda or Atharva Veda (, , from ''wikt:अथर्वन्, अथर्वन्'', "priest" and ''wikt:वेद, वेद'', "knowledge") or is the "knowledge storehouse of ''wikt:अथर्वन्, atharvans'', the proced ...

Offerings and style

The central element of all Vedic sacrifices is the ritual fire, which is essential regardless of the complexity of the ceremony. Three ritual fires are traditionally used during a Vedic sacrifice. These are the householder's fire (''garhapatya''), the southern fire (''anvaharyapacana'' or ''daksinagni''), and the offertorial fire (''ahavaniya''). Oblations are offered into the fire. Among the ingredients offered as

oblation An oblation is a solemn offering, sacrifice or presentation to God, to the Church for use in God's service, or to the faithful, such as giving alms to the poor. The word comes from the Late Latin ''oblatio'' (from ''offerre'', ''oblatum'' 'to ...

s in the yajna are

ghee Ghee is a type of clarified butter, originating from South Asia. It is commonly used for cooking, as a Traditional medicine of India, traditional medicine, and for Hinduism, Hindu religious rituals. Description Ghee is typically prepared by ...

, milk, grains, cakes and soma. The duration of a yajna depends on its type, some last only a few minutes whereas others are performed over a period of hours, days or even months. Some yajnas were performed privately, while others were community events.Ralph Griffith
The texts of the Shukla Yajurveda
EJ Lazarus, page i–xvi, 87–171, 205–234 In other cases, yajnas were symbolic, such as in the

hymn 3.1.6, where "the mind is the Brahmin of sacrifice" and the goal of sacrifice was complete release and liberation (

moksha ''Moksha'' (; , '), also called ''vimoksha'', ''vimukti'', and ''mukti'', is a term in Jainism, Buddhism, Hinduism, and Sikhism for various forms of emancipation, liberation, '' nirvana'', or release. In its soteriological and eschatologic ...

). The blessings offered ranged from long life, gaining friends, health and heaven, more prosperity, to better crops. For example, Yajnas, where milk products, fruits, flowers, cloth and money are offered, are called '' homa'' or ''havan''.

Types

Kalpa Sutras list the following yajna types: * Pāka-yajñās: — Aṣtaka, sthālipāka, parvana, srāvaṇi, āgrahayani, caitri, and āsvīyuji. These yajñās involve consecrating cooked items. * Soma-yajñās: — Agnistoma, atyajnistoma, uktya, shodasi, vājapeya, atirātra, and aptoryama are the seven soma-yajñās. * Havir-yajñās: — Agniyādhāna, agnihotra, darśa-pūrṇamāsa, āgrayana, cāturmāsya, niruudha paśu bandha, sautrāmaṇi. These involve offering havis or oblations. * Pañca-mahā-yajñās: — The "five great yajnas" or mahāsattras. (See below.) * Veda-vrātas: — They are four in number and done during Vedic education. * Sixteen yajñās performed during one-time samskāras: garbhādhānā, pumsavana, sīmanta, jātakarma, nāmakaraṇa, annaprāśana, chudākarma / caula, niskramana, karnavedha, vidyaarambha, upanayana, keshanta, snātaka and vivāha, nisheka, antyeshti. These are specified by the Gṛhya Sūtrās.

Methods

The Vedic yajna ritual is performed in the modern era on a square altar called ''Vedi'' (''Bedi'' in Nepal), set in a ''mandapa'' or ''mandala'' or ''kundam'', wherein wood is placed along with oily seeds and other combustion aids. However, in ancient times, the square principle was incorporated into grids to build large complex shapes for community events. Thus a rectangle, trapezia, rhomboids or "large falcon bird" altars would be built from joining squares. The geometric ratios of these Vedi altar, with mathematical precision and geometric theorems, are described in

Shulba Sutras The ''Shulva Sutras'' or ''Śulbasūtras'' (Sanskrit: शुल्बसूत्र; ': "string, cord, rope") are sutra texts belonging to the Śrauta ritual and containing geometry related to vedi (altar), fire-altar construction. Purpose and ...

, one of the precursors to the development of mathematics in ancient India.Kim Plofker (2009), '' Mathematics in India'', Princeton University Press, , pages 16–27 The offerings are called ''Samagri'' (or ''Yajāka'', ''Istam''). The proper methods for the rites are part of

, but also found in Riddle Hymns (hymns of questions, followed by answers) in various

s. When multiple priests are involved, they take turns as in a dramatic play, where not only are praises to gods recited or sung, but the dialogues are part of a dramatic representation and discussion of spiritual themes. The Brahmodya Riddle hymns, for example, in Shatapatha Brahmana's chapter 13.2.6, is a ''yajna'' dialogue between a ''Hotri'' priest and a ''Brahmin'' priest, which would be played out during the yajna ritual before the attending audience.

During weddings

Agni and yajna play a central role in

Hindu wedding A Hindu wedding, also known as (, ) in Hindi, () in Marathi, () in Bhojpuri, () in Bengali, () or () in Odia, () in Tamil, () in Telugu, () in Kannada, and ''kalyanam'' (, ; ) in Malayalam and other languages, is the traditiona ...

s. A typical Hindu marriage involves a Yajna, with Agni being considered the witness of the marriage.Hazen, Walter. Inside Hinduism. Lorenz Educational Press. . P. 34. Various mutual promises between the bride and groom are made in front of the fire, and the marriage is completed by an actual or symbolic walk around the fire. The wedding ritual of ''Panigrahana'', for example, is the 'holding the hand' ritualThe Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M, James G. Lochtefeld (2001), , Page 427 as a symbol of their impending marital union, and the groom announcing his acceptance of responsibility to four deities: Bhaga signifying wealth, Aryama signifying heavens/milky way, Savita signifying radiance/new beginning, and Purandhi signifying wisdom. The groom faces west, while the bride sits in front of him with her face to the east, he holds her hand while the Rig vedic mantra is recited in the presence of fire.Hindu Saṁskāras: Socio-religious Study of the Hindu Sacraments, Rajbali Pandey (1969), see Chapter VIII, , pages 153–233P.H. Prabhu (2011), ''Hindu Social Organization'', , see pages 164–165 The '' Saptapadi'' (Sanskrit for ''seven steps/feet''), is the most important ritual in Hindu weddings, and represents the legal part of Hindu marriage.BBC News article on Hinduism & Weddings
Nawal Prinja (August 24, 2009) The couple getting married walks around the Holy Fire (''Agni''), and the yajna fire is considered a witness to the vows they make to each other. In some regions, a piece of clothing or sashes worn by the bride and groom are tied together for this ceremony. Each circuit around the fire is led by either the bride or the groom, varying by community and region. Usually, the bride leads the groom in the first circuit. The first six circuits are led by the bride, and the final one by the groom. With each circuit, the couple makes a specific vow to establish some aspect of a happy relationship and household for each other. The fire altar or the Yajna Kunda is square.