Shinra Myōjin () is a
Buddhist god associated with the
Jimon branch of
Tendai
, also known as the Tendai Dharma Flower School (天台法華宗, ''Tendai hokke shū,'' sometimes just ''Hokkeshū''), is a Mahāyāna Buddhist tradition with significant esoteric elements that was officially established in Japan in 806 by t ...
, a school of
Japanese Buddhism
Buddhism was first established in Japan in the 6th century CE. Most of the Japanese Buddhists belong to new schools of Buddhism which were established in the Kamakura period (1185-1333). During the Edo period (1603–1868), Buddhism was cont ...
. His name is derived from the name of a historical
Korea
Korea is a peninsular region in East Asia consisting of the Korean Peninsula, Jeju Island, and smaller islands. Since the end of World War II in 1945, it has been politically Division of Korea, divided at or near the 38th parallel north, 3 ...
n kingdom,
Silla
Silla (; Old Korean: wikt:徐羅伐#Old Korean, 徐羅伐, Yale romanization of Korean, Yale: Syerapel, Revised Romanization of Korean, RR: ''Seorabeol''; International Phonetic Alphabet, IPA: ) was a Korean kingdom that existed between ...
. His origin is a matter of debate among researchers. He might have originated in Korea,
China
China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. With population of China, a population exceeding 1.4 billion, it is the list of countries by population (United Nations), second-most populous country after ...
or in the historical
Ōmi Province
was a Provinces of Japan, province of Japan, which today comprises Shiga Prefecture. It was one of the provinces that made up the Tōsandō Circuit (subnational entity), circuit. Its nickname is . Under the ''Engishiki'' classification system, ...
in
Japan
Japan is an island country in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean off the northeast coast of the Asia, Asian mainland, it is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan and extends from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea ...
. Initially he was portrayed as a deity who arrived in Japan from abroad to protect
Buddhist monks, though later the view that he was a Japanese deity who ventured to Silla developed due to a shift in the perception of Korea. He was regarded as a symbol of Jimon and its institutions, but also as a protector of sea routes and as a mountain deity. He also developed associations with ''
waka'' poetry and with pestilence. In art, he is typically depicted as an elderly man dressed in the clothes of a Chinese official. Through history, he developed connections with a number of other figures, including
Susanoo
__FORCETOC__
Susanoo (, ; historical orthography: , ), often referred to by the honorific title Susanoo-no-Mikoto (), is a in Japanese mythology. The younger brother of Amaterasu, goddess of the sun and mythical ancestress of the Japanese im ...
,
Matarajin and
Mañjuśrī
Manjushri () is a ''bodhisattva'' who represents ''Prajñā (Buddhism), prajñā'' (transcendent wisdom) of the Buddhas in Mahāyāna Buddhism. The name "Mañjuśrī" is a combination of Sanskrit word "wikt:%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%9E%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9C%E0 ...
. He is chiefly worshiped in
Onjō-ji.
Name and origin
The name Shinra Myōjin can be translated as "bright deity of Silla".
Silla
Silla (; Old Korean: wikt:徐羅伐#Old Korean, 徐羅伐, Yale romanization of Korean, Yale: Syerapel, Revised Romanization of Korean, RR: ''Seorabeol''; International Phonetic Alphabet, IPA: ) was a Korean kingdom that existed between ...
was a historical kingdom on the
Korean Peninsula
Korea is a peninsular region in East Asia consisting of the Korean Peninsula, Jeju Island, and smaller islands. Since the end of World War II in 1945, it has been politically divided at or near the 38th parallel between North Korea (Dem ...
which existed between 57 BCE and 935. While the combination of signs used to write its name in
Japanese
Japanese may refer to:
* Something from or related to Japan, an island country in East Asia
* Japanese language, spoken mainly in Japan
* Japanese people, the ethnic group that identifies with Japan through ancestry or culture
** Japanese diaspor ...
, 新羅, is commonly read as Shiragi or Shiraki, Shinra is the typical reading in proper names. The term ''
myōjin'', "bright deity", designates a class of deities. It is possible that the name was originally a generic designation, "Silla deity", and only later developed into a proper name.
It has been proposed that Shinra Myōjin had Korean origin. However, he does not appear in any historical Korean sources. It has been suggested that he might have been the deification of
Chang Pogo. Another possibility is that he originated in
China
China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. With population of China, a population exceeding 1.4 billion, it is the list of countries by population (United Nations), second-most populous country after ...
, as evidenced by the fact he was referred to as the "king of
Mount Song
Mount Song (, "lofty mountain") is an isolated mountain range in north central China's Henan Province, along the southern bank of the Yellow River. It is known in literary and folk tradition as the central mountain of the Five Great Mountains of ...
". Another proposal is that while he did originate in Korea, China served as an intermediary in his transmission to Japan. Sujung Kim argues that the historical
Ōmi Province
was a Provinces of Japan, province of Japan, which today comprises Shiga Prefecture. It was one of the provinces that made up the Tōsandō Circuit (subnational entity), circuit. Its nickname is . Under the ''Engishiki'' classification system, ...
in
Japan
Japan is an island country in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean off the northeast coast of the Asia, Asian mainland, it is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan and extends from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea ...
should be considered his "birthplace", but states he cannot be easily described as either a Japanese or Korean deity. Regardless of the precise origin of Shinra Myōjin, it is agreed that his early development in Japan was tied to the activities of groups of
Korean immigrants
The Korean diaspora consists of around 7.3 million people, both descendants of early emigrants from the Korean Peninsula, as well as more recent emigrants from Korea. Around 84.5% of overseas Koreans live in just five countries: the United Stat ...
.
Narratives
Early sources portray Shinra Myōjin as a deity who arrived in Japan to protect
Tendai
, also known as the Tendai Dharma Flower School (天台法華宗, ''Tendai hokke shū,'' sometimes just ''Hokkeshū''), is a Mahāyāna Buddhist tradition with significant esoteric elements that was officially established in Japan in 806 by t ...
monks
A monk (; from , ''monachos'', "single, solitary" via Latin ) is a man who is a member of a religious order and lives in a monastery. A monk usually lives his life in prayer and contemplation. The concept is ancient and can be seen in many reli ...
and their
monasteries
A monastery is a building or complex of buildings comprising the domestic quarters and workplaces of monastics, monks or nuns, whether living in communities or alone ( hermits). A monastery generally includes a place reserved for prayer which m ...
. According to Sujung Kim, the oldest reference to him in such a context occurs in a narrative from ''Onjōji ryūge-e engi'' (園城寺龍華会縁起) from 1062. Reportedly when the
Tendai
, also known as the Tendai Dharma Flower School (天台法華宗, ''Tendai hokke shū,'' sometimes just ''Hokkeshū''), is a Mahāyāna Buddhist tradition with significant esoteric elements that was officially established in Japan in 806 by t ...
patriarch
Enchin was returning from his five-year stay in China in 858, he sensed that he is in danger and started to pray, prompting Shinra Myōjin to appear to him as an old man in a boat and inform him that he is a deity of Silla who will protect his practice of Buddhism "until the
Buddha Maitreya comes into this world". A variant from the ''
Taiheiki
The (Chronicle of Great Peace) is a medieval Japanese historical epic (see '' gunki monogatari'') written in the late 14th century and covers the period from 1319 to 1367. It deals primarily with the Nanboku-chō, the period of war between the ...
'' has him encounter both Shinra Myōjin and
Fudō Myōō
or Achala (, "The Immovable", ), also known as (, "Immovable Lord") or (, "Noble Immovable Lord"), is a wrathful deity and '' dharmapala'' (protector of the Dharma) prominent in Vajrayana Buddhism and East Asian Buddhism., Jp. rel. dict., ...
. Similar narratives about two other deities of similar character,
Matarajin and
Sekizan Myōjin, are also known. Most likely, the Shinra Myōjin version served as their prototype. In another narrative, Enchin visited a shrine on Mount Song and during a storm encountered a being with an old man's head and a snake's body, identified as a manifestation of Shinra Myōjin. Surviving sources from Enchin's times, including his fragmentary journal and an iconographic scroll he brought from China (''Gobu shinkan'') do not allude to Shinra Myōjin. Most likely the narrative about their encounter only developed in the late tenth or eleventh century. According to Sujung Kim, its precise origin and early development are difficult to study, but it might have reflected a preexisting
folkloric
Folklore is the body of expressive culture shared by a particular group of people, culture or subculture. This includes oral traditions such as tales, myths, legends, proverbs, poems, jokes, and other oral traditions. This also includes material ...
motif. Christine Guth suggests that it might have initially been a way to acknowledge the role sailors from Silla played in Enchin's journey.
After the
Mongol invasions of Japan
Major military efforts were taken by Kublai Khan of the Yuan dynasty in 1274 and 1281 to conquer the Japanese archipelago after the submission of the Korean kingdom of Goryeo to Vassal state, vassaldom. Ultimately a failure, the invasion attemp ...
, a belief that Shinra Myōjin was a Japanese ''
kami
are the Deity, deities, Divinity, divinities, Spirit (supernatural entity), spirits, mythological, spiritual, or natural phenomena that are venerated in the traditional Shinto religion of Japan. ''Kami'' can be elements of the landscape, forc ...
'' who conquered Silla developed, as documented in ''
Onjō-ji denki''. It states that he "became a king of Silla in order to wield Japanese power all over the world".
Bernard Faure argues that the change in the characterization of Shinra Myōjin in both ''Onjōji denki'' and another source documenting this tradition, ''
Hachiman
In Japanese religion, ''Yahata'' (八幡神, ancient Shinto pronunciation) formerly in Shinto and later commonly known as Hachiman (八幡神, Japanese Buddhist pronunciation) is the syncretic divinity of archery and war, incorporating elements f ...
gudōkin'', can be characterized as a display of "
anti-Korean prejudice", comparable to hostile attitudes also present in the narrative of
empress Jingū
was a Legend, legendary Japanese empress who ruled as a regent following her Emperor Chūai, husband's death in 200 AD. Both the and the (collectively known as the ''Kiki'') record events that took place during Jingū's alleged lifetime. Legen ...
. Sujung Kim connects the change to the development of the notion of transmission of Buddhism from
India
India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, seventh-largest country by area; the List of countries by population (United Nations), most populous country since ...
through
China
China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. With population of China, a population exceeding 1.4 billion, it is the list of countries by population (United Nations), second-most populous country after ...
to Japan, originally developed in the
Kamakura period
The is a period of History of Japan, Japanese history that marks the governance by the Kamakura shogunate, officially established in 1192 in Kamakura, Kanagawa, Kamakura by the first ''shōgun'' Minamoto no Yoritomo after the conclusion of the G ...
, which marginalized the role of Korea in the process. She also notes that while anti-Korean, or specifically anti-Silla, sentiment was already present in Japan in the ninth century as a result of the conquest of its traditional ally
Paekche
Baekje or Paekche (; ) was a Korean kingdom located in southwestern Korea from 18 BCE to 660 CE. It was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, together with Goguryeo and Silla. While the three kingdoms were in separate existence, Baekje had the h ...
in 660, piracy, epidemics brought from the peninsula and other factors, it later grew due to the Mongol invasions, which utilized the Korean navy, as the
Koryŏ dynasty, while it did not initiate the conflict, was among the vassals of the Mongols. She suggests that due to fear inspired by these events, a need to redefine Shinra Myōjin as a deity acting on behalf of Japan emerged.
Character
Shinra Myōjin is associated with the
Jimon branch of
Tendai
, also known as the Tendai Dharma Flower School (天台法華宗, ''Tendai hokke shū,'' sometimes just ''Hokkeshū''), is a Mahāyāna Buddhist tradition with significant esoteric elements that was officially established in Japan in 806 by t ...
. Historically he effectively functioned as a symbol of its institutions, in addition to being its paramount deity. He is regarded as a ''
gohōjin'', "protector of Buddhist
dharma
Dharma (; , ) is a key concept in various Indian religions. The term ''dharma'' does not have a single, clear Untranslatability, translation and conveys a multifaceted idea. Etymologically, it comes from the Sanskrit ''dhr-'', meaning ''to hold ...
". Such figures function as protectors of
Buddhist temple
A Buddhist temple or Buddhist monastery is the place of worship for Buddhism, Buddhists, the followers of Buddhism. They include the structures called vihara, chaitya, stupa, wat, khurul and pagoda in different regions and languages. Temples in B ...
s and teachings. He cannot be easily classified as a member of one of the two categories resulting from the distinction between ''kami'' and Buddhist figures made within ''
honji suijaku
The term in Japanese religious terminology refers to a theory widely accepted until the Meiji period according to which Indian Buddhist deities choose to appear in Japan as native ''kami'' to more easily convert and save the Japanese.Breen and Te ...
''. On occasion he was described as a
Daoist immortal (神仙, ''shinsen''). In modern scholarship, he is considered one of the examples of so-called "eccentric gods" (異神, ''ishin''), deities associated with medieval form of
Japanese esoteric Buddhism.
In ''engi'' stories, Shinra Myōjin's primary role is that of a protector of people partaking in sea journeys. Christine Guth suggests that his role as a protective deity of sailors might reflect his original character. However, despite being a protector of sea routes, he is chiefly worshiped inland. With time, he developed into a mountain god as well. He is the protective deity of Mount Nagara (長等), located close to
Onjō-ji. He is considered the surrounding area's ''
genius loci
In classical Roman religion, a ''genius loci'' (: ''genii locorum'') was the protective spirit of a place. It was often depicted in religious iconography as a figure holding attributes such as a cornucopia, patera (libation bowl), or snake. Man ...
'', a so-called “
landlord deity” (地主; ''
jinushi''). These two roles are closely connected: it has been noted that a close functional connection between sea and mountain deities is well attested through Japanese history, and prayers made to mountain deities to guarantee safe passage through the sea are well documented in Tendai tradition.
In the eleventh century, Shinra Myōjin developed the role of a deity of ''
waka'' poetry in the Jimon tradition. In this capacity, he was known as the "Poetic Immortal of
Mii-dera
, also known as just Onjo-ji, or , is a Buddhist temple in Japan located at the foot of Mount Hiei, in the city of Ōtsu in Shiga Prefecture. It is a short distance from both Kyoto, and Lake Biwa, Japan's largest lake. The head temple of t ...
" (三井の歌仙, ''Mii no Kasen''). This development reflected a broader pattern of incorporating ''waka'' into esoteric Buddhism due to its growing role in courtly life. The poems were understood in this context as a Japanese counterpart of ''
dharani
Dharanis (IAST: ), also known as (Skt.) ''vidyās'' and ''paritas'' or (Pal.) ''parittas'', are lengthier Buddhist mantras functioning as mnemonic codes, incantations, or recitations, and almost exclusively written originally in Sanskrit while Pa ...
''. Jimon monks believed that Shinra Myōjin could bestow inspiration upon them, and some of them, for example
Gyōson, were known for both their poetry and their devotion to this deity.
Shinra Myōjin is also regarded as a deity of pestilence. Historical sources indicate that he was believed to both cause
epidemic
An epidemic (from Greek ἐπί ''epi'' "upon or above" and δῆμος ''demos'' "people") is the rapid spread of disease to a large number of hosts in a given population within a short period of time. For example, in meningococcal infection ...
s and cure illnesses. In has been noted that in a number of accounts, he displays the traits of a ' (祟り神), a deity capable of bestowing both blessings and curses. According to ''Jimon denki horoku'', in 1184 during an epidemic prayers to Shinra Myōjin were performed in the
imperial court. Bernard Faure argues that the aspect of his character related to pestilence developed early on. However, Sujung Kim concludes that it was derived from a link between
Silla
Silla (; Old Korean: wikt:徐羅伐#Old Korean, 徐羅伐, Yale romanization of Korean, Yale: Syerapel, Revised Romanization of Korean, RR: ''Seorabeol''; International Phonetic Alphabet, IPA: ) was a Korean kingdom that existed between ...
and epidemics in Japanese imagination, which is not yet documented in
Heian
The Japanese word Heian (平安, lit. "peace") may refer to:
* Heian period, an era of Japanese history
* Heian-kyō, the Heian-period capital of Japan that has become the present-day city of Kyoto
* Heian series, a group of karate kata (forms)
* ...
sources, and only became a common view in the thirteenth century.
Iconography
Shinra Myōjin is typically depicted as an old man dressed in three-pronged Chinese headwear and a red robe, holding a pilgrim's staff and a scroll. His hair is usually white. However, a scroll showing him with dark hair is known from the collection of the
Ōtsu
270px, Ōtsu City Hall
is the capital city of Shiga Prefecture, Japan. , the city had an estimated population of 343,991 in 153,458 households and a population density of 740 persons per km2. The total area of the city is .
History
Ōtsu is ...
City Museum of History. According to
Mark Teeuwen Mark J. Teeuwen (Marcus Jacobus Teeuwen, born 9 February 1966, Eindhoven) is a Dutch academic and Japanologist. He is an expert in Japanese religious practices, and he is a professor at the University of Oslo.University of Oslo faculty CV/ref> In a ...
, despite his possible Korean origin, his appearance is "distinctly un-Korean". Sujung Kim describes him as typically having the appearance of a
Tang period
The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, c=唐朝), or the Tang Empire, was an imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907, with an interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and T ...
official, and remarks his iconography shows less variety than those of other similar deities, such as
Sekizan Myōjin. It might have been in part based on Taisho Rōnin (大聖老人; also Saishō Rōnin, 最勝老人), a figure belonging to the
Mañjuśrī
Manjushri () is a ''bodhisattva'' who represents ''Prajñā (Buddhism), prajñā'' (transcendent wisdom) of the Buddhas in Mahāyāna Buddhism. The name "Mañjuśrī" is a combination of Sanskrit word "wikt:%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%9E%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9C%E0 ...
Pentad. His name designates him as a manifestation of Mañjuśri as an old man, as it is a combination of two signs from the full
Chinese name of Mañjuśri (大聖文殊師利, Dasheng Wenshu Shili) and the term ''laoren'', "old man", pronounced in Japanese as ''rōnin''; therefore, his iconography might have been adopted for Shinra Myōjin to give him more legitimacy as a Buddhist figure.
While depictions of Shinra Myōjin are relatively rare, a well known statue representing him is kept in
Mii-dera
, also known as just Onjo-ji, or , is a Buddhist temple in Japan located at the foot of Mount Hiei, in the city of Ōtsu in Shiga Prefecture. It is a short distance from both Kyoto, and Lake Biwa, Japan's largest lake. The head temple of t ...
, where it is enshrined in the Shinra Zenshindō (新羅善神捨堂). It is hidden due to being one of the so-called "secret
buddhas
In Buddhism, Buddha (, which in classic Indic languages means "awakened one") is a title for those who are spiritually awake or enlightened, and have thus attained the supreme goal of Buddhism, variously described as awakening or enlighten ...
" (秘仏, ''
hibutsu''), statues which cannot be in public view due to the powers attributed to them. It is agreed that it was originally carved no later than in the twelfth century, but the precise date is a matter of debate. 1052 has been proposed. It is the oldest surviving depiction of a ''
gohōjin'', and has been designated as one of the
National Treasures
A national treasure is a structure, artifact, object or cultural work that is officially or popularly recognized as having particular value to the nation, or representing the ideals of the nation. The term has also been applied to individuals or ...
. It can be considered a typical example of a Heian statue utilizing the single wood block technique (''ichiboku-zukuri''). The face is exaggerated, with the eyes in particular being disproportionately large and slanted in a manner meant to mimic the
Chinese numeral
Chinese numerals are words and characters used to denote numbers in written Chinese.
Today, speakers of Chinese languages use three written numeral systems: the system of Arabic numerals used worldwide, and two indigenous systems. The more famil ...
八
Radical 12 or radical eight (), meaning '' eight'' or ''all'', is one of 23 of the 214 Kangxi radicals that are composed of two strokes. "八" is two bent lines that signal '' divide''. Eight is the single-digit number that can be divided by two ...
(8), but at the same time with the exception of unnaturally big headwear, the clothing is portrayed in a
naturalistic manner, and follows the style typical for the eighth and ninth centuries. Christine Guth notes that the facial features of the statue might be comical to modern audiences, but most likely originally were a way to designate the "otherness" of the depicted deity and his transcendent powers. This artistic convention was widespread in East Asia especially in the late first millennium, and the individual elements of the statue's face and clothing can be compared to Chinese depictions of foreign disciples of the
historical Buddha meant to highlight the universality of his teachings and masks used in
Bugaku
is a Japanese traditional dance that has been performed to select elites, mostly in the Japanese imperial court, for over twelve hundred years. In this way, it has been known only to the nobility, although after World War II, the dance was ope ...
drama. A depiction of a
Daoist
Taoism or Daoism (, ) is a diverse philosophical and religious tradition indigenous to China, emphasizing harmony with the Tao ( zh, p=dào, w=tao4). With a range of meaning in Chinese philosophy, translations of Tao include 'way', 'road', ' ...
sage in the ''Sangoku soshi ei'' scroll dated to 1150 is considered another close parallel.
While the Miidera statue is slender, a painting portraying Shinra Myōjin as corpulent is known from Shōgo-in in
Kyoto
Kyoto ( or ; Japanese language, Japanese: , ''Kyōto'' ), officially , is the capital city of Kyoto Prefecture in the Kansai region of Japan's largest and most populous island of Honshu. , the city had a population of 1.46 million, making it t ...
. Yet another depiction of Shinra Myōjin is a painting from the reign of
Ashikaga Takauji
also known as Minamoto no Takauji was the founder and first ''shōgun'' of the Ashikaga shogunate."Ashikaga Takauji" in ''Encyclopædia Britannica, The New Encyclopædia Britannica''. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 15th edn., 1992, Vol. ...
from Onjō-ji, which portrays him in the garb of a Chinese
literatus and shows influence from
Chan portraits. The similarities between them might have resulted from the influence of Jimon tradition of Tendai on
Shugendō
is a syncretic Esoteric Buddhist religion, a body of ascetic practices that originated in the Nara Period of Japan having evolved during the 7th century from an amalgamation of beliefs, philosophies, doctrines and ritual systems drawn prim ...
in the
Kumano area.
Associations with other figures
Historically Shinra Myōjin was worshiped in
Onjō-ji alongside Mio Myōjin (三尾明神), who according to ''
Konjaku Monogatarishū
, also known as the , is a Japanese collection of over one thousand tales written during the late Heian period (794–1185). The entire collection was originally contained in 31 volumes, of which 28 remain today. The volumes cover various tales f ...
'' was a deity who appeared to
Enchin in the form of an old man eating fish when he first arrived in this area. Furthermore, Shinra Myōjin's two servants, Hannya Dōji (般若童子; depicted with red skin) and Shukuō Dōji (宿王童子; depicted with blue skin), who were venerated as the protectors of children entrusted by their parents to the temple, had small shrines (祠, ''
hokora
is a miniature Shinto shrine either found on the precincts of a larger shrine and dedicated to folk ''kami'', or on a street side, enshrining ''kami'' not under the jurisdiction of any large shrine.Encyclopedia of ShintoHokora Accessed on Dece ...
'') in the proximity of their master's own. According to ''Shinra ryakki'' (新羅略記), they were born from two parts of a
halberd
A halberd (also called halbard, halbert or Swiss voulge), is a two-handed polearm that was in prominent use from the 13th to 16th centuries. The halberd consists of an axe blade topped with a spike mounted on a long shaft. It may have a hook or ...
which was originally given by
Amaterasu
, often called Amaterasu () for short, also known as and , is the goddess of the sun in Japanese mythology. Often considered the chief deity (''kami'') of the Shinto pantheon, she is also portrayed in Japan's earliest literary texts, the () ...
to
Susanoo
__FORCETOC__
Susanoo (, ; historical orthography: , ), often referred to by the honorific title Susanoo-no-Mikoto (), is a in Japanese mythology. The younger brother of Amaterasu, goddess of the sun and mythical ancestress of the Japanese im ...
. However, other origin stories are recorded too: they could be alternatively believed to be manifestations of Shinra Myōjin, or servants who came with him from
Silla
Silla (; Old Korean: wikt:徐羅伐#Old Korean, 徐羅伐, Yale romanization of Korean, Yale: Syerapel, Revised Romanization of Korean, RR: ''Seorabeol''; International Phonetic Alphabet, IPA: ) was a Korean kingdom that existed between ...
.
Shinra Myōjin at some point came to be identified with Susanoo. This connection was already well established among the monks from Onjō-ji in 1210. It is an example of the phenomenon of ''
shinbutsu-shūgō
''Shinbutsu-shūgō'' (, "syncretism of kami and buddhas"), also called ''Shinbutsu-konkō'' (, "jumbling up" or "contamination of kami and buddhas"), is the syncretism of Shinto and Buddhism in Japan, Buddhism that was Japan's main organized rel ...
'' (神仏習合). It developed through the theological speculation of Tendai monks and
Shinto
, also called Shintoism, is a religion originating in Japan. Classified as an East Asian religions, East Asian religion by Religious studies, scholars of religion, it is often regarded by its practitioners as Japan's indigenous religion and as ...
scholars from the . However, while the connection is well documented in sources related to the Jimon tradition, it is absent from texts pertaining to Saimon, and Susanoo was instead linked with
Matarajin in a similar capacity in the latter context. Most likely identification between Shinra Myōjin and Susanoo was facilitated by the existence of a tradition according to which the latter at some point traveled through the
Korean Peninsula
Korea is a peninsular region in East Asia consisting of the Korean Peninsula, Jeju Island, and smaller islands. Since the end of World War II in 1945, it has been politically divided at or near the 38th parallel between North Korea (Dem ...
. A shared connection with ''
waka'' was likely another factor. The fact that Shinra Myōjin received swords as offerings during festivals likely was related to the connection between him and Susanoo too, though it is possible this custom was initially derived from a tradition from Silla. The connection between him and Susanoo was promoted during festivals held in Onjō-ji. Multiple variant names of Shinra Myōjin enumerated in the ''Onjōji denki'' (園城寺伝記) are phonetic variants of Susanoo. They include Sūgoku (崧嶽), Sūshisu (菘崧), Shusan’ō (朱山王), Shitenfujin (四天夫人 or 天夫人), and Suhatsu Hoshikashi (素髮ホシカシ; according to Sujung Kim "possibly a misspelling of ''hoshikami'' 星神, meaning ‘star deity’"). ''Jimon denki horoku'' (寺門伝記補録), a fifteenth century supplement to the earlier ''Onjōji denki'', affirms that Shinra Myōjin is identical with Susanoo, describes
Izanami
, formally referred to with the honorific , is the creator deity of both creation and death in Japanese mythology, as well as the Shinto mother goddess. She and her brother-husband Izanagi are the last of the seven generations of primordial ...
as his mother, and states that he traveled through Silla with his son . It also identifies both Shinra Myōjin and Susanoo as
Somin Shōrai. Shinra Myōjin also belonged to the network of deities associated with
Gozu Tennō
Gozu Tennō (牛頭天王, lit. "Ox-Headed Heavenly King") is a syncretic Japanese deity of disease and healing. Originally imported to Japan from mainland Asia, he was regarded since the Heian period both as a causer of and protector against ep ...
. The fact that both Gozu Tennō and Susanoo could be identified with him was also one of the factors leading to the identification between the former two of these deities.
Bernard Faure argues that
Sekizan Myōjin can be considered Shinra Myōjin’s "
Hieizan counterpart". Sujung Kim outright suggests the two might have originally been the same deity. They were regarded as the protective deities of two rival branches of Tendai, respectively Jimon and Sanmon. The rivalry between the schools was also transferred to corresponding deities: disagreements existed over whether one of them was a servant on the other, while in a narrative about
emperor Go-Sanjō
was the 71st emperor of Japan,Imperial Household Agency (''Kunaichō'') 陽成天皇 (71)/ref> according to the traditional order of succession. His given name was .
Go-Sanjō's reign spanned the years from 1068 through 1073.
This 11th centur ...
both of them appear in his dreams and give contradictory instructions regarding whether an ordination platform should be built in Mii-dera. A number of connections also existed between Shinra Myōjin and Matarajin (摩多羅神), including similar symbolism of their portrayal as old men (''okina'') in art and shared association with
Mañjuśrī
Manjushri () is a ''bodhisattva'' who represents ''Prajñā (Buddhism), prajñā'' (transcendent wisdom) of the Buddhas in Mahāyāna Buddhism. The name "Mañjuśrī" is a combination of Sanskrit word "wikt:%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%9E%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9C%E0 ...
. However, despite the links between both of them and Sekizan Myōjin, Matarajin was never referred to as a ''
myōjin'' himself.
The
bodhisattva
In Buddhism, a bodhisattva is a person who has attained, or is striving towards, '' bodhi'' ('awakening', 'enlightenment') or Buddhahood. Often, the term specifically refers to a person who forgoes or delays personal nirvana or ''bodhi'' in ...
Mañjuśrī (般若, ''Hannya'') is regarded as the ''
honji'' of Shinra Myōjin. This connection is mentioned in ''Onjōji denki'', which also states that he was a son of
Sāgara. In the ''Shinra Myōjin ki'', he is specifically described as his third son. However, no other deities are ever attributed to Sāgara as sons. In Ryōhen's ''Nihon shoki maki daiichi kikigaki'', Shinra Myōjin is instead described as female and as the second daughter of the same deity.
Shinra Myōjin could also be identified with astral figures, such as
Kokuzo or
Myōken
Myōken (, ; Chinese: 妙見菩薩 (Traditional) / 妙见菩萨 ( Simplified), ; Japanese: 妙見菩薩, ''Myōken Bosatsu''), also known as Sonjō-Ō (尊星王, "Venerable Star King", also ''Sonsei-Ō'' or ''Sonshō-Ō''), is a Buddhist deifi ...
. He was closely associated with Sonjōō (尊星王). According to ''Keiran shūyōshū'', Shinra Myōjin was the "trace" of Sonjōō, in this context identified with
Dakiniten, and as a result "divine foxes" (''shinko'') were his messengers. Elsewhere Sonjōō was instead closely associated with Myōken, and according to Keihan (慶範; 1155–1221) the two names referred to the same deity respectively in heaven and on earth.
The spirit of , a historical priest from Onjō-ji, traditionally regarded as an ''
onryō
In Japanese traditional beliefs and literature, are a type of ghost () believed to be capable of causing harm in the world of the living, injuring or killing enemies, or even causing natural disasters to exact Revenge, vengeance to "redres ...
'', could also be identified with Shinra Myōjin. A connection between them is mentioned in ''Onjōji denki'', according to which Raigō implored Shinra Myōjin to punish emperor
Go-Sanjō for deciding not to authorize the construction of a new ordination platform, to which the god responded by killing the latter. This tradition about Go-Sanjō's death is also documented in the ''Jimon denki horoku''. Another emperor whose death was attributed to Shinra Myōjin was
Nijō, who reportedly supported the monks of
Mount Hiei
is a mountain to the northeast of Kyoto, lying on the border between the Kyoto and Shiga Prefectures, Japan.
The temple of Enryaku-ji, the first outpost of the Japanese Tendai (Chin. Tiantai) sect of Buddhism, was founded atop Mount Hiei by ...
over Mii-dera, which prompted the god associated with the latter location to send two acolytes to inflict him with
smallpox
Smallpox was an infectious disease caused by Variola virus (often called Smallpox virus), which belongs to the genus '' Orthopoxvirus''. The last naturally occurring case was diagnosed in October 1977, and the World Health Organization (W ...
.
Worship

Shinra Myōjin is regarded as the protective deity of
Onjō-ji (Mii-dera). It has been pointed out that the historical
Ōmi Province
was a Provinces of Japan, province of Japan, which today comprises Shiga Prefecture. It was one of the provinces that made up the Tōsandō Circuit (subnational entity), circuit. Its nickname is . Under the ''Engishiki'' classification system, ...
, where the temple is located, had a close connection with Silla, and therefore the presence of Shinra Myōjin might be related to the settlement of
Korean immigrants
The Korean diaspora consists of around 7.3 million people, both descendants of early emigrants from the Korean Peninsula, as well as more recent emigrants from Korea. Around 84.5% of overseas Koreans live in just five countries: the United Stat ...
. The
Ōtomo clan
The was a Japanese samurai family whose power stretched from the Kamakura period through the Sengoku period, spanning over 400 years. The clan's hereditary lands lay in Kyūshū.
Origins
The first family head, Ōtomo Yoshinao (1172–1223), ...
in particular was involved in promoting the veneration of this deity early on. However, it is not certain if its members originally arrived in Japan from
Silla
Silla (; Old Korean: wikt:徐羅伐#Old Korean, 徐羅伐, Yale romanization of Korean, Yale: Syerapel, Revised Romanization of Korean, RR: ''Seorabeol''; International Phonetic Alphabet, IPA: ) was a Korean kingdom that existed between ...
, as textual sources preserve traditions about the clan's arrival from
Paekche
Baekje or Paekche (; ) was a Korean kingdom located in southwestern Korea from 18 BCE to 660 CE. It was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, together with Goguryeo and Silla. While the three kingdoms were in separate existence, Baekje had the h ...
or alternatively about its descent from
Chinese emperor
Throughout Chinese history, "Emperor" () was the superlative title held by the monarchs of imperial China's various dynasties. In traditional Chinese political theory, the emperor was the " Son of Heaven", an autocrat with the divine manda ...
Xian of Han. Reconstruction of the early history of Shinra Myōjin is complicated by the small number of surviving records from Onjō-ji predating the
Muromachi
The , also known as the , is a division of History of Japan, Japanese history running from approximately 1336 to 1573. The period marks the governance of the Ashikaga shogunate, Muromachi or Ashikaga shogunate ( or ), which was officially establ ...
and
Edo
Edo (), also romanized as Jedo, Yedo or Yeddo, is the former name of Tokyo.
Edo, formerly a (castle town) centered on Edo Castle located in Musashi Province, became the '' de facto'' capital of Japan from 1603 as the seat of the Tokugawa shogu ...
periods. While according to the temple's tradition a statue representing Shinra Myōjin was already made by
Enchin in the ninth century, there is no other evidence supporting this notion. The oldest reference to him occurs in a document from 971. The first known priest of his shrine was a certain Kiyomura (淸村) from the Ōtomo clan, who lived in the tenth century. Various rituals were held in his honor regularly between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries. One of them was known simply as the "Shinra Myōjin
festival
A festival is an event celebrated by a community and centering on some characteristic aspect or aspects of that community and its religion or cultures. It is often marked as a local or national holiday, Melā, mela, or Muslim holidays, eid. A ...
" (新羅明神祭礼, ''Shinra Myōjin sairei''), and was first held by Myōson in 1052. Shinra Myōjin reportedly revealed to this monk through an
oracle
An oracle is a person or thing considered to provide insight, wise counsel or prophetic predictions, most notably including precognition of the future, inspired by deities. If done through occultic means, it is a form of divination.
Descript ...
that he will act as the protector of the local clergy. While initially only monks took part in his festival, it eventually became one of the largest public celebrations held in Onjō-ji, with a particularly well documented parade involving eleven portable shrines (神輿, ''
mikoshi
A is a sacred religious palanquin (also translated as portable Shinto shrine). Shinto followers believe that it serves as the vehicle to transport a deity in Japan while moving between main shrine and temporary shrine during a festival or when ...
'') taking place in 1210. Other examples of rituals focused on Shinra Myōjin include the ''Thirty Lectures of the Shinra'' (新羅三十講, ''Shinra sanjūkō''), possibly a series of lectures focused on the
Lotus Sutra
The ''Lotus Sūtra'' (Sanskrit: ''Saddharma Puṇḍarīka Sūtram'', ''Sūtra on the White Lotus of the True Dharma'', zh, p=Fǎhuá jīng, l=Dharma Flower Sutra) is one of the most influential and venerated Buddhist Mahāyāna sūtras. ...
, first held in 1202; the ''Shinra
nenbutsu
250px, Chinese Nianfo carving
The Nianfo ( zh, t= 念佛, p=niànfó, alternatively in Japanese ; ; or ) is a Buddhist practice central to East Asian Buddhism. The Chinese term ''nianfo'' is a translation of Sanskrit '' '' ("recollection of the ...
'' (新羅念仏), first held in 1109 and most likely focused on the recitation of Shinra Myōjin's name to invoke him for the sake of healing and securing longevity, as well as a variety of ''ennen'' (延年) celebrations, similarly focused on guaranteeing longevity.

Up to the fifteenth century, members of the Ōtomo clan were the only people maintaining the shrine of Shinra Myōjin, and ''Shinra Myōjin ki'' (新羅明神記) credits them with the continuous transmission of his secret rites. However, from the eleventh century onward their power declined, and the
Seiwa Genji
The is a line of the Japanese Minamoto clan that is descended from Emperor Seiwa, which is the most successful and powerful line of the clan. Many of the most famous Minamoto members, including Minamoto no Yoshitsune, Minamoto no Yoritomo, ...
(清和源氏) branch of the
Minamoto clan
was a Aristocracy (class), noble surname bestowed by the Emperors of Japan upon members of the Imperial House of Japan, imperial family who were excluded from the List of emperors of Japan, line of succession and demoted into the ranks of Nobili ...
came to be associated with the Jimon tradition of Tendai as well. Shinra Myōjin came to be regarded as their tutelary deity following the
Former Nine Years' War, within
Minamoto no Yoriyoshi
was a Japanese samurai lord who was the head of the Minamoto clan and served as '' Chinjufu-shōgun''. Along with his son Minamoto no Yoshiie, he led the Imperial forces against rebellious forces in the north, a campaign called the Zenkunen War, ...
's lifetime (988-1075). Reportedly he swore that if victorious in this conflict, he would dedicate one of his sons to Onjō-ji. Subsequently the shrine of Shinra Myōjin served as the site of the
coming of age ceremony of
Minamoto no Yoshimitsu
was a Japanese samurai lord during the Heian period. He served as Governor of Kai Province. He is credited as the ancient progenitor of the Japanese martial art, Daitō-ryū aiki-jūjutsu and Takeda-ryū.
Biography
Yoshimitsu was born t ...
, his third son. As a result the
sobriquet
A sobriquet ( ) is a descriptive nickname, sometimes assumed, but often given by another. A sobriquet is distinct from a pseudonym in that it is typically a familiar name used in place of a real name without the need for explanation; it may beco ...
Shinra Saburō (新羅三郎) was often used to refer to him. Thanks to the influence of their family, the worship of Shinra Myōjin spread outside Ōmi, as far as
Hokkaido
is the list of islands of Japan by area, second-largest island of Japan and comprises the largest and northernmost prefectures of Japan, prefecture, making up its own list of regions of Japan, region. The Tsugaru Strait separates Hokkaidō fr ...
. A further factor which made it possible to introduce him to new areas was the involvement of the Jimon tradition in the
Kumano pilgrimages. Due to being transmitted through this route, he came to be incorporated into the practices of various religious groups in the
Kii Peninsula
The is the largest peninsula on the island of Honshū in Japan and is located within the Kansai region. It is named after the ancient Kii Province. The peninsula has long been a sacred place in Buddhism, Shinto, and Shugendo, and many people wou ...
, including pilgrims from the imperial court,
Shugendō
is a syncretic Esoteric Buddhist religion, a body of ascetic practices that originated in the Nara Period of Japan having evolved during the 7th century from an amalgamation of beliefs, philosophies, doctrines and ritual systems drawn prim ...
practitioners, and others.
The veneration of Shinra Myōjin continued in the Edo period, but its scope declined. The
Matsumae clan
The was a Japanese aristocratic family who were daimyo of Matsumae Domain, in present-day Matsumae, Hokkaidō, from the Azuchi–Momoyama period until the Meiji Restoration. They were given the domain as a march fief in 1590 by Toyotomi ...
, who from the seventeenth century onward resided in
Matsumae on Hokkaido, considered Minamoto no Yoshimitsu their ancestor, and as attested in Matsumae Kagehiro's ''
Shinra no Kiroku'' (1646) similarly viewed Shinra Myōjin as their protective deity. He is still worshiped today, and while due to rearrangements made after World War II, the shrine dedicated to him is now separate from the rest of the Onjō-ji complex, services dedicated to him still follow the ''Instructions for the Buddhist Ritual of the Three Shrines'' (三社法会法則, ''Sansha hōe hōsoku''), originally compiled in 1367 and subsequently copied by the monk Enshin (圓親) in 1615. They start with "a recitation of the
Heart Sutra
The ''Heart Sūtra'', ) is a popular sutra in Mahayana, Mahāyāna Buddhism. In Sanskrit, the title ' translates as "The Heart of the Prajnaparamita, Perfection of Wisdom".
The Sutra famously states, "Form is emptiness (''śūnyatā''), em ...
as an offering to the deity" and additionally focus on "the deity’s connection with Enchin; reciting the title of the
Lotus Sutra
The ''Lotus Sūtra'' (Sanskrit: ''Saddharma Puṇḍarīka Sūtram'', ''Sūtra on the White Lotus of the True Dharma'', zh, p=Fǎhuá jīng, l=Dharma Flower Sutra) is one of the most influential and venerated Buddhist Mahāyāna sūtras. ...
; a vow to attain enlightenment; Shinra Myōjin’s acolytes;" a prayer for "various kinds of blessings from the deity" serves as the ending.
Notes
References
Bibliography
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*{{cite book, last=Teeuwen, first=Mark, title=Challenging Paradigms. Buddhism and nativism: framing identity discourse in Buddhist environments, chapter=The Buddhist Roots of Japanese Nativism, chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/30214228, pages=51–75, publisher=Brill, date=2013, isbn=978-90-04-25568-5, oclc=852149529, doi=10.1163/9789004255685_004
Japanese gods
Buddhist gods
Tendai
Sea and river gods
Mountain gods
Arts gods
Plague gods
Silla