Sasanian Civil War Of 628–632
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The Sasanian civil war of 628–632, also known as the Sasanian Interregnum was a conflict that broke out after the execution of the
Sasanian The Sasanian Empire (), officially Eranshahr ( , "Empire of the Iranians"), was an Iranian empire that was founded and ruled by the House of Sasan from 224 to 651. Enduring for over four centuries, the length of the Sasanian dynasty's reign ...
king
Khosrow II Khosrow II (spelled Chosroes II in classical sources; and ''Khosrau''), commonly known as Khosrow Parviz (New Persian: , "Khosrow the Victorious"), is considered to be the last great Sasanian King of Kings (Shahanshah) of Iran, ruling from 590 ...
between the nobles of different factions, notably the
Parthia Parthia ( ''Parθava''; ''Parθaw''; ''Pahlaw'') is a historical region located in northeastern Greater Iran. It was conquered and subjugated by the empire of the Medes during the 7th century BC, was incorporated into the subsequent Achaemeni ...
n (''Pahlav'') faction, the Persian (''Parsig'') faction, the Nimruzi faction, and the faction of general
Shahrbaraz Shahrbaraz (also spelled Shahrvaraz or Shahrwaraz; New Persian: ) was shah (king) of the Sasanian Empire from 27 April 630 to 9 June 630. He usurped the throne from Ardashir III, and was killed by Iranian nobles after forty days. Before usurp ...
. Rapid turnover of rulers and increasing provincial landholder power further diminished the empire. Over a period of four years and fourteen successive kings, the Sasanian Empire weakened considerably, and the power of the central authority passed into the hands of its generals, contributing to its fall.


Background

In 628,
Khosrow II Khosrow II (spelled Chosroes II in classical sources; and ''Khosrau''), commonly known as Khosrow Parviz (New Persian: , "Khosrow the Victorious"), is considered to be the last great Sasanian King of Kings (Shahanshah) of Iran, ruling from 590 ...
was overthrown by the feudal families of Iran, which included the Ispahbudhan ''
spahbed ''Spāhbad'' (also spelled ''spahbod'') is a Middle Persian title meaning "army chief" used chiefly in the Sasanian Empire. Originally there was a single ''spāhbad'', called the , who functioned as the generalissimo of the Military of the Sasani ...
'' Farrukh Hormizd and his two sons,
Rostam Farrokhzad Rostam Farrokhzād () was a dynast from the Ispahbudhan family, who served as the '' spahbed'' ("military marshal") of the northwestern quarter (''kust'') of Adurbadagan under the Sasanian monarchs Boran () and Yazdegerd III (). Rostam is rem ...
and Farrukhzad,
Shahrbaraz Shahrbaraz (also spelled Shahrvaraz or Shahrwaraz; New Persian: ) was shah (king) of the Sasanian Empire from 27 April 630 to 9 June 630. He usurped the throne from Ardashir III, and was killed by Iranian nobles after forty days. Before usurp ...
of the Mihran family, the Armenian faction represented by Varaztirots II Bagratuni, and finally Kanadbak of the Kanārangīyān family. On 25 February, Khosrow's son Sheroe, along with his commander Aspad Gushnasp, captured Ctesiphon and imprisoned Khosrow II. He then proclaimed himself as shah of the Sasanian Empire and assumed the dynastic name of Kavad II. He proceeded to have all his brothers and half-brothers executed, including the heir
Mardanshah Mardanshah () was a Sassanian Persians, Persian general, the Arabs referred him to as Dhul Hājib (, the "owner of bushy eyebrows") as was Bahman Jadhuyih. See also *Battle of Muzayyah *Battle of the Bridge *Islamic conquest of Iran *Early Muslim ...
, who was Khosrow's favourite son. The murder of all his brothers, "all well-educated, valiant, and chivalrous men", stripped the Sasanian dynasty of a future competent ruler, and has been described as a "mad rampage" and "reckless". Three days later he ordered Mihr Hormozd to execute his father. However, after the regicide of his father, Kavad also proceeded to have Mihr Hormozd killed. Due to Kavad's actions, his reign is seen as a turning point in Sasanian history, and has been argued by some scholars as playing a key role in the fall of the Sasanian Empire. The overthrow and death of Khosrow culminated in the Sasanian civil war of 628–632, with the most powerful members of the nobility gaining full autonomy and starting to create their own government. The hostilities between the Persian (''Parsig'') and
Parthia Parthia ( ''Parθava''; ''Parθaw''; ''Pahlaw'') is a historical region located in northeastern Greater Iran. It was conquered and subjugated by the empire of the Medes during the 7th century BC, was incorporated into the subsequent Achaemeni ...
n (''Pahlav'') noble families were also resumed, which split up the wealth of the nation. With the agreement of the Iranian nobles, he then made peace with the victorious emperor
Heraclius Heraclius (; 11 February 641) was Byzantine emperor from 610 to 641. His rise to power began in 608, when he and his father, Heraclius the Elder, the Exarch of Africa, led a revolt against the unpopular emperor Phocas. Heraclius's reign was ...
, which allowed the Byzantines to (re)gain all their lost territories, their captured soldiers, a war indemnity, along with the
True Cross According to Christian tradition, the True Cross is the real instrument of Jesus' crucifixion, cross on which Jesus of Nazareth was Crucifixion of Jesus, crucified. It is related by numerous historical accounts and Christian mythology, legends ...
and other relics that were lost in Jerusalem in 614. Kavad also took all the properties of Farrukhzad and put him under arrest in Istakhr. During this period, Piruz Khosrow assumed the leadership of the Parsig faction, while the Ispahbudhan Farrukh Hormizd, assumed the leadership of the Pahlav faction. Kavad II later died from a devastating plague after only a few months reign on 6 September 628. He was succeeded by his eight year old son Ardashir III.''SASANIAN DYNASTY''
A. Shapur Shahbazi, Encyclopaedia Iranica, (20 July 2005).


Early phase of the civil war

During the reign of Ardashir III, Mah-Adhur Gushnasp was appointed as his minister, and administered the empire greatly.''ARDAŠĪR III'', A. Sh. Shahbazi, Encyclopaedia Iranica,(11 August 2011

/ref> One year later,
Shahrbaraz Shahrbaraz (also spelled Shahrvaraz or Shahrwaraz; New Persian: ) was shah (king) of the Sasanian Empire from 27 April 630 to 9 June 630. He usurped the throne from Ardashir III, and was killed by Iranian nobles after forty days. Before usurp ...
with a force of 6,000 men, marched towards
Ctesiphon Ctesiphon ( ; , ''Tyspwn'' or ''Tysfwn''; ; , ; Thomas A. Carlson et al., “Ctesiphon — ܩܛܝܣܦܘܢ ” in The Syriac Gazetteer last modified July 28, 2014, http://syriaca.org/place/58.) was an ancient city in modern Iraq, on the eastern ba ...
and besieged the city. Shahrbaraz, however, was unable to capture the city, and then made an alliance with Piruz Khosrow, the leader of the Parsig faction, and the previous minister of the Empire during the reign of Ardashir's father, Kavad II. He also made an alliance with Namdar Gushnasp, the ''
spahbed ''Spāhbad'' (also spelled ''spahbod'') is a Middle Persian title meaning "army chief" used chiefly in the Sasanian Empire. Originally there was a single ''spāhbad'', called the , who functioned as the generalissimo of the Military of the Sasani ...
'' of Nimruz. Shahrbaraz, with the aid of these two powerful figures, captured Ctesiphon, and executed Ardashir III, along with Mah-Adhur himself, including other Sasanian nobles like Ardabīl. Forty days later, Shahrbaraz was murdered by Farrukh Hormizd, who then made Boran, the daughter of Khosrow II, ascend the throne. She then appointed Farrukh as the minister of the empire. Boran was deposed by Shapur-i Shahrvaraz, the son of
Khosrow II Khosrow II (spelled Chosroes II in classical sources; and ''Khosrau''), commonly known as Khosrow Parviz (New Persian: , "Khosrow the Victorious"), is considered to be the last great Sasanian King of Kings (Shahanshah) of Iran, ruling from 590 ...
's sister Mirhran, and the Sasanian usurper Shahrbaraz. He was shortly thereafter deposed by Piruz and his faction, who did not acknowledge his rule. Piruz crowned Azarmidokht, the sister of Boran, as monarch of Iran.


Late phase of the civil war

Azarmidokht, under the advice of the nobles, recalled Farrukhzad from his arrest and invited him to serve the Sasanians in high office once again. Farrukhzad, however, declined the invitation and refused to serve under a woman. He then retired to a fire-temple in Istakhr. Farrukh Hormizd, in order to strengthen his authority and create a ''
modus vivendi ''Modus vivendi'' (plural ''modi vivendi'') is a Latin phrase that means "mode of living" or " way of life". In international relations, it often is used to mean an arrangement or agreement that allows conflicting parties to coexist in peace. In ...
'' between the ''Pahlav'' and ''Parsig'', asked Azarmidokht (who was a ''Parsig'' nominee) to marry him. Azarmidokht, however, declined. After having his proposal declined, Farrukh Hormizd "no longer shied away from the throne itself", declaring "Today I am the leader of the people and the pillar of the country of Iran." He started minting coins in the same fashion as a monarch, notably in Istakhr in Pars and
Nahavand Nahavand () is a city in the Central District of Nahavand County, Hamadan province, Iran, serving as capital of both the county and the district. It is south of the city of Hamadan, west of Malayer and northwest of Borujerd. Inhabited ...
in
Media Media may refer to: Communication * Means of communication, tools and channels used to deliver information or data ** Advertising media, various media, content, buying and placement for advertising ** Interactive media, media that is inter ...
. In order to deal with Farrukh Hormizd, Azarmidokht supposedly allied herself with Mihranid dynast Siyavakhsh, who was the grandson of
Bahram Chobin Bahrām Chōbīn () or Wahrām Chōbēn (Middle Persian: ; died 591), also known by his epithet Mehrbandak ("servant of Mithra"), was a nobleman, general, and political leader of the late Sasanian Empire and briefly its ruler as Bahram VI (). So ...
, the famous military commander (''
spahbed ''Spāhbad'' (also spelled ''spahbod'') is a Middle Persian title meaning "army chief" used chiefly in the Sasanian Empire. Originally there was a single ''spāhbad'', called the , who functioned as the generalissimo of the Military of the Sasani ...
'') and briefly shah of Iran. With Siyavakhsh's aid, Azarmidokht had Farrukh Hormizd killed. Farrukh Hormizd's son
Rostam Farrokhzad Rostam Farrokhzād () was a dynast from the Ispahbudhan family, who served as the '' spahbed'' ("military marshal") of the northwestern quarter (''kust'') of Adurbadagan under the Sasanian monarchs Boran () and Yazdegerd III (). Rostam is rem ...
, who was at that time stationed in Khorasan, succeeded him as the leader of the ''Pahlav''. In order to avenge his father, he left for Ctesiphon, "defeating every army of Azarmidokht that met". He then defeated Siyavakhsh's forces at Ctesiphon and captured the city. Azarmidokht was shortly afterwards blinded and killed by Rostam, who restored Boran to the throne. However, in the following year a revolt broke out in Ctesiphon; while the Iranian army was occupied with other matters, the ''Parsig'', dissatisfied with the regency of Rostam, called for the overthrow of Boran and the return of the prominent ''Parsig'' figure Bahman Jaduya, who had been dismissed by her. Boran was shortly killed, presumably from suffocation by Piruz Khosrow. Hostilities were thus resumed between the two factions. However, not long after both Rostam and Piruz Khosrow were threatened by their own men, who had become alarmed by the declining state of the country. Rostam and Piruz Khosrow thus agreed to work together once more, installing Khosrow II's grandson
Yazdegerd III Yazdegerd III (also Romanized as ''Yazdgerd'', ''Yazdgird'') was the last Sasanian Empire, Sasanian King of Kings from 632 to 651. His father was Shahriyar (son of Khosrow II), Shahriyar and his grandfather was Khosrow II. Ascending the throne a ...
on the throne, putting an end to the civil war.


Aftermath and impact

The Sasanian Empire was greatly weakened when Yazdegerd III ascended the throne. The young king did not have the authority required to bring stability to his extensive empire, which was swiftly falling apart due to ceaseless internal conflicts between the army commanders, courtiers, and powerful members of the aristocracy, who were fighting amongst themselves and wiping out each other. Many of the governors of the empire had proclaimed independence and carved out their own kingdom. The governors of the provinces of
Mazun Mazun may refer to: * Mazun (Sasanian province) *Sohar Sohar () is the capital and largest city of the Al Batinah North Governorate in Oman. An ancient capital of the country that once served as an important Islamic port town on the Gulf of Om ...
and
Yemen Yemen, officially the Republic of Yemen, is a country in West Asia. Located in South Arabia, southern Arabia, it borders Saudi Arabia to Saudi Arabia–Yemen border, the north, Oman to Oman–Yemen border, the northeast, the south-eastern part ...
had already asserted their independence during the civil war of 628–632, thus resulting in the disintegration of Sasanian rule in the
Arabian Peninsula The Arabian Peninsula (, , or , , ) or Arabia, is a peninsula in West Asia, situated north-east of Africa on the Arabian plate. At , comparable in size to India, the Arabian Peninsula is the largest peninsula in the world. Geographically, the ...
, which was uniting under the banner of
Islam Islam is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the Quran, and the teachings of Muhammad. Adherents of Islam are called Muslims, who are estimated to number Islam by country, 2 billion worldwide and are the world ...
. The empire came to resemble the Parthian feudal system that existed before the fall of the Arsacid Empire. Yazdegerd, although being acknowledged as the rightful monarch by both the ''Parsig'' and ''Pahlav'' factions, did not seem to have held sway over all of his empire. Indeed, during the first years of his rule coins were only minted in Pars, Sakastan, and
Khuzestan Khuzestan province () is one of the 31 Provinces of Iran. Located in the southwest of the country, the province borders Iraq and the Persian Gulf, covering an area of . Its capital is the city of Ahvaz. Since 2014, it has been part of Iran's ...
, approximately corresponding to the regions of the southwest (''Xwarwarān'') and southeast (''Nēmrōz''), where the ''Parsig'' was based. The ''Pahlav'', who were mainly based in the northern portion of the empire, refused to mint coins of him. The empire was also at the same time invaded on all fronts; by the
Göktürks The Göktürks (; ), also known as Türks, Celestial Turks or Blue Turks, were a Turkic people in medieval Inner Asia. The Göktürks, under the leadership of Bumin Qaghan (d. 552) and his sons, succeeded the Rouran Khaganate as the main powe ...
in the east, and by
Khazars The Khazars ; 突厥可薩 ''Tūjué Kěsà'', () were a nomadic Turkic people who, in the late 6th century CE, established a major commercial empire covering the southeastern section of modern European Russia, southern Ukraine, Crimea, a ...
in the west, who raided
Armenia Armenia, officially the Republic of Armenia, is a landlocked country in the Armenian Highlands of West Asia. It is a part of the Caucasus region and is bordered by Turkey to the west, Georgia (country), Georgia to the north and Azerbaijan to ...
and Adurbadagan. The Sasanian army had been heavily weakened due to the war with the Byzantines and internal conflict. The circumstances were so chaotic, and the condition of the nation so alarming, that "the Persians openly spoke of the immanent downfall of their empire, and saw its portents in natural calamities." The empire would soon meet its end at the hands of an Arab invasion, during which Yazdegerd was killed in 651, possibly at the instigation of one his own subjects.


References


Sources

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Further reading

* * * * * * * * * * {{DEFAULTSORT:Sasanian civil war of 628-632 630s conflicts 630 Wars of succession involving the states and peoples of Asia Civil wars in Iran 7th century in Iran Wars involving the Sasanian Empire Fall of the Sasanian Empire