Occitan literature (referred to in older texts as Provençal literature) is a body of texts written in

Occitan Occitan may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to the Occitania territory in parts of France, Italy, Monaco and Spain. * Something of, from, or related to the Occitania administrative region of France. * Occitan language, spoken in parts o ...

, mostly in the south of France. It was the first literature written in a

Romance language The Romance languages, also known as the Latin or Neo-Latin languages, are the languages that are Language family, directly descended from Vulgar Latin. They are the only extant subgroup of the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-E ...

and inspired the rise of

vernacular literature Vernacular literature is literature written in the vernacular—the speech of the "common people". In the European tradition, this effectively means literature not written in Latin or Koine Greek. In this context, vernacular literature appeared ...

throughout medieval Europe. Occitan literature's Golden Age was in the 12th century, when a rich and complex body of lyrical poetry was produced by

troubadour A troubadour (, ; ) was a composer and performer of Old Occitan lyric poetry during the High Middle Ages (1100–1350). Since the word ''troubadour'' is etymologically masculine, a female equivalent is usually called a ''trobairitz''. The tr ...

s writing in

Old Occitan Old Occitan (, ), also called Old Provençal, was the earliest form of the Occitano-Romance languages, as attested in writings dating from the 8th to the 14th centuries. Old Occitan generally includes Early and Old Occitan. Middle Occitan is some ...

, which still survives to this day. Although Catalan is considered by some a variety of Occitan, this article will not deal with

Catalan literature Catalan literature (or Valencian literature) is the name conventionally used to refer to literature written in the Catalan language. The focus of this article is not just the literature of Catalonia, but literature written in Catalan from anywhe ...

, which started diverging from its Southern French counterpart in the late 13th century.

Introduction

Occitan

literature Literature is any collection of Writing, written work, but it is also used more narrowly for writings specifically considered to be an art form, especially novels, Play (theatre), plays, and poetry, poems. It includes both print and Electroni ...

started in the 11th century in several centres. It gradually spread first over the greater portion (though not the whole) of southern France, into what is now the north of Italy and into Spain (

Catalonia Catalonia is an autonomous community of Spain, designated as a ''nationalities and regions of Spain, nationality'' by its Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia of 2006, Statute of Autonomy. Most of its territory (except the Val d'Aran) is situate ...

, Galicia, Castile), and

Portugal Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic, is a country on the Iberian Peninsula in Southwestern Europe. Featuring Cabo da Roca, the westernmost point in continental Europe, Portugal borders Spain to its north and east, with which it share ...

. In its rise, Occitan literature stands completely by itself, and in its development, it long continued to be highly original. It presents at several points, analogies with French literature; but these analogies are due principally to certain primary elements common to both and only in a slight degree to mutual reaction.

Origin

Occitan poetry first appeared in the 11th century. The oldest surviving text is the Provençal burden (Fr. ''refrain'') attached to a 10th-century Latin poem. The text has not yet been satisfactorily interpreted. The quality of the earliest remaining works suggest earlier work was lost. The earliest Occitan poem is a 10th-century, seventeen-line charm '' Tomida femina'' probably for dispersing the pain of childbirth. Much longer is an 11th-century fragment of two hundred and fifty-seven

decasyllabic Decasyllable (Italian language, Italian: ''decasillabo'', French language, French: ''décasyllabe'', Serbian language, Serbian: ''десетерац'', ''deseterac'') is a Poetry, poetic Meter (poetry), meter of ten syllables used in poetic trad ...

verses preserved in an

Orléans Orléans (,"Orleans"
(US) and Raynouard. The linguistic features of the poem suggest it originated in

Limousin Limousin (; ) is a former administrative region of southwest-central France. Named after the old province of Limousin, the administrative region was founded in 1960. It comprised three departments: Corrèze, Creuse, and Haute-Vienne. On 1 Jan ...

Marche Marche ( ; ), in English sometimes referred to as the Marches ( ) from the Italian name of the region (Le Marche), is one of the Regions of Italy, twenty regions of Italy. The region is located in the Central Italy, central area of the country, ...

in the north of the Occitan region. The unknown author takes

Boethius Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius, commonly known simply as Boethius (; Latin: ''Boetius''; 480–524 AD), was a Roman Roman Senate, senator, Roman consul, consul, ''magister officiorum'', polymath, historian, and philosopher of the Early Middl ...

's treatise as the groundwork of his composition. The poem is a didactic piece composed by a clerk. The ''

Cançó de Santa Fe The (or ) (, ; , ), a hagiographical poem about Saint Faith, is an early surviving written work in Old Occitan and has been proposed to be the earliest work in Old Catalan. It is 593 octosyllabic lines long, divided into between 45 and 55 mo ...

'' dates from 1054–1076, but probably represents a Catalan dialect that evolved into a distinct language from Occitan. From the same century there is ''

Las, qu'i non sun sparvir, astur Oh, to be a sparrow-hawk, a goshawk! I'd fly to my love, Touch her 'la sintil'' embrace her, Kiss her lips so soft,Sweeten and soothe our pain 'dulur'' ''Las, ...

'', a secular love poem. From the close of the same century are the poems of William (Guilhem) IX, the grandfather of Eleanor of Aquitaine. They consist of eleven diverse strophic pieces, and were consequently meant to be sung. Several are love songs. The only one which can be approximately dated was composed around 1119, when William was setting out for Spain to fight the

Saracens file:Erhard Reuwich Sarazenen 1486.png, upright 1.5, Late 15th-century History of Germany, German woodcut depicting Saracens ''Saracen'' ( ) was a term used both in Greek language, Greek and Latin writings between the 5th and 15th centuries to ...

. It expresses the writer's regret for the frivolity of his past life and his apprehensions as he bade farewell to his country and his young son. We also know from

Ordericus Vitalis Orderic Vitalis (; 16 February 1075 – ) was an English chronicler and Benedictine monk who wrote one of the great contemporary chronicles of 11th- and 12th-century Normandy and Anglo-Norman England.Hollister ''Henry I'' p. 6 Working out of ...

that William had composed various poems on the incidents of his ill-fated

Crusade of 1101 The Crusade of 1101, also known as the Crusade of the Faint-Hearted, was launched in the aftermath of the First Crusade with calls for reinforcements from the newly established Kingdom of Jerusalem and to rescue the famous Bohemond of Taranto fr ...

. In one of his pieces ''Ben voil que sapchon ii plusor'' he makes an allusion to the

partimen The ''partimen'' (; ; also known as ''partia'' or ''joc partit'') is a cognate form of the French jeu-parti (plural ''jeux-partis''). It is a genre of Occitan lyric poetry composed between two troubadours, a subgenre of the ''tenso'' or ''cobla'' ...

. The origins of this poetry are uncertain. It bears no relation to

Latin poetry The history of Latin poetry can be understood as the adaptation of Greek models. The verse comedies of Plautus, the earliest surviving examples of Latin literature, are estimated to have been composed around 205–184 BC. History Scholars conv ...

, nor to folklore. Vernacular compositions seem to have been at first produced for the amusement, or in the case of religious poetry, for the edification, of that part of lay society which had leisure and lands, and reckoned intellectual pastime among the good things of life. In the 11th century, vernacular poetry served mainly the amusement and edification of the upper class. By the 12th and 13th centuries, historical works and popular treatises on contemporary science were composed in the vernacular. Occitan poetry may have originated amongst the

jester A jester, also known as joker, court jester, or fool, was a member of the household of a nobleman or a monarch kept to entertain guests at the royal court. Jesters were also travelling performers who entertained common folk at fairs and town ma ...

s. Some, leaving buffoonery to the ruder and less intelligent members of the profession, devoted themselves to the composition of pieces intended for singing. In the north, the jesters produced ''

chansons de geste The , from 'deeds, actions accomplished') is a medieval narrative, a type of epic poem that appears at the dawn of French literature. The earliest known poems of this genre date from the late 11th and early 12th centuries, shortly before the e ...

'' full of tales of battle and combat. In the courts of the southern nobles they produced love songs.

Age of the troubadours

Starting in the early 12th century, the best-known body of Occitan literature originated with the group of poets who would later become known as troubadours, from the verb "trobar", meaning "to invent". The troubadours used a standardized form of Old Occitan (one probably based on the dialect of

Limoges Limoges ( , , ; , locally ) is a city and Communes of France, commune, and the prefecture of the Haute-Vienne Departments of France, department in west-central France. It was the administrative capital of the former Limousin region. Situated o ...

), sang their pieces to music and generally used complex and elaborate meters. Their poetry was usually lyrical, with a minority of pieces of satirical, political, moralistic, religious or erotic nature.

Early period

The first known troubadour was William IX, Duke of Aquitaine whose works gave the movement a position of honor, and indirectly contributed in a very powerful degree to ensure its development and preservation. Shortly after him, centres of poetic activity made their appearance in various places, first in Limousin and

Gascony Gascony (; ) was a province of the southwestern Kingdom of France that succeeded the Duchy of Gascony (602–1453). From the 17th century until the French Revolution (1789–1799), it was part of the combined Province of Guyenne and Gascon ...

. In the former province lived ''Ebolus cantator'' (a singer named Eble), who during the second part of William of Poitiers' life seems to have been brought into relation with him, and according to a contemporary historian, Geoffroy, prior of Vigeois, ''erat valde gratiosus in cantilenis'' ("gave a great deal of pleasure by his songs"). None of his compositions survive; but under his influence Bernart of Ventadour was trained to poetry, who, though only the son of one of the serving-men of the castle, managed to gain the love of the lady of Ventadour, and when on the discovery of their amour he had to depart elsewhere, received a gracious welcome from

Eleanor of Aquitaine Eleanor of Aquitaine ( or ; ; , or ; – 1 April 1204) was Duchess of Aquitaine from 1137 to 1204, Queen of France from 1137 to 1152 as the wife of King Louis VII, and Queen of England from 1154 to 1189 as the wife of King Henry II. As ...

, consort (from 1152) of

Henry II of England Henry II () was King of England The monarchy of the United Kingdom, commonly referred to as the British monarchy, is the form of government used by the United Kingdom by which a hereditary monarch reigns as the head of state, with the ...

. Of Bernart's compositions we possess about fifty songs of elegant simplicity, some of which may be taken as the most perfect specimens of love poetry Occitan literature has ever produced. Bernart must therefore have been in repute before the middle of the 12th century; and his poetic career extended well on towards its close. At the same period, or probably a little earlier, flourished Cercamon, of genuine importance among the

s both because of his early date and because definite information regarding him has been preserved. He was a Gascon, and composed, says his old biographer, pastorals according to the ancient custom (''pastorelas a la uzansa antiga''). This is the record of the appearance in the south of France of a poetic form which ultimately acquired large development. The period at which Cercamon lived is determined by a piece where he alludes very clearly to the approaching marriage of the king of France, Louis VII, with Eleanor of Aquitaine (1137). Among the earliest troubadours may also be reckoned Marcabru, a pupil of Cercamon, from whose pen we have about forty pieces, those which can be approximately dated ranging from 1135 to 1148 or thereabout. This poet has great originality of thought and style. His songs, several of which are historical, are free from the commonplaces of their class, and contain curious strictures on the corruptions of the time.

Golden age: trobar leu, troubar clus, and trobar ric

This article cannot do more than enumerate the leading troubadours and briefly indicate in what conditions their poetry was developed and through what circumstances it fell into decay and finally disappeared: Peire d'Alvernha, who in certain respects must be classed with Marcabru;

Arnaut Daniel Arnaut Daniel (; floruit, fl. 1180–1200) was an Occitans, Occitan troubadour of the 12th century, praised by Dante Alighieri, Dante as "the best smith" (''miglior fabbro'') and called a "grand master of love" (''gran maestro d'amore'') by Petra ...

, remarkable for his complicated versification, the inventor of the

sestina A sestina (, from ''sesto'', sixth; Old Occitan: ''cledisat'' ; also known as ''sestine'', ''sextine'', ''sextain'') is a fixed verse, fixed verse form consisting of six stanzas of six lines each, normally followed by a three-line envoi. The wor ...

, a poetic form for which Dante and

Petrarch Francis Petrarch (; 20 July 1304 – 19 July 1374; ; modern ), born Francesco di Petracco, was a scholar from Arezzo and poet of the early Italian Renaissance, as well as one of the earliest Renaissance humanism, humanists. Petrarch's redis ...

express an admiration difficult for us to understand; Arnaut de Mareuil;

Bertran de Born Bertran de Born (; 1140s – by 1215) was a baron from the Limousin in France, and one of the major Occitan troubadours of the 12th-13th century. He composed love songs (cansos) but was better known for his political songs (sirventes). He ...

, now the most generally known of all the troubadours on account of the part he is said to have played both by his sword and his sirveniescs in the struggle between Henry II of England and his rebel sons, though the importance of his part in the events of the time seems to have been greatly exaggerated; Peire Vidal of Toulouse, a poet of varied inspiration who grew rich with gifts bestowed on him by the greatest nobles of his time; Guiraut de Borneil, ''lo macsire dels trobadors'', and at any rate master in the art of the so-called close style (''trebar clus''), though he has also left us some songs of charming simplicity;

Gaucelm Faidit Gaucelm Faidit ( literally "Gaucelm the Dispossessed" c. 1156 – c. 1209) was a troubadour, born in Uzerche, in the Limousin (province), Limousin, from a family of knights in service of the count of Turenne. He travelled widely in France, Sp ...

, from whom we have a touching lament (''plaint'') on the death of Richard Cœur de Lion; Folquet of Marseille, the most powerful thinker among the poets of the south, who from being a merchant and troubadour became an

abbot Abbot is an ecclesiastical title given to the head of an independent monastery for men in various Western Christian traditions. The name is derived from ''abba'', the Aramaic form of the Hebrew ''ab'', and means "father". The female equivale ...

, and finally

bishop of Toulouse The Archdiocese of Toulouse (–Saint Bertrand de Comminges–Rieux) is a Latin Church ecclesiastical territory of the Catholic Church in France. The diocese comprises the Department of Haute-Garonne and its seat is Toulouse Cathedral. Archbi ...

(died 1231).

Later troubadours, and foreign ones

As the troubadours started scattering from Southern France after the Albigensian crusade, the quality of their poetry decayed sharply:

Dante Dante Alighieri (; most likely baptized Durante di Alighiero degli Alighieri; – September 14, 1321), widely known mononymously as Dante, was an Italian Italian poetry, poet, writer, and philosopher. His ''Divine Comedy'', originally called ...

, in his

De vulgari eloquentia ''De vulgari eloquentia'' (, ; "On eloquence in the vernacular") is the title of a Latin essay by Dante Alighieri. Although meant to consist of four books, it abruptly terminates in the middle of the second book. It was probably composed shortly ...

mentions only authors of the previous generation (Peire d'Alvernha, Giraut de Bornelh, Bertran de Born and Arnaut Daniel) as models of vernacular literature. However, the presence of troubadours in foreign courts engendered a number of imitators in

(for example Cerverì de Girona) and Italy ( Sordello, Lanfranc Cigala, Rambertino Buvalelli).

Troubadours and society

It is not without interest to discover to what social classes the troubadours belonged. Many of them, there is no doubt, had a very humble origin. Bernart of Ventadour's father was a servant, Peire Vidal's a maker of furred garments, Perdigon's a fisher. Others belonged to the

bourgeoisie The bourgeoisie ( , ) are a class of business owners, merchants and wealthy people, in general, which emerged in the Late Middle Ages, originally as a "middle class" between the peasantry and aristocracy. They are traditionally contrasted wi ...

, Peire d'Alvernha, for example, Peire Raimon of Toulouse, and Elias Fonsalada. Likewise we see merchants' sons as troubadours; this was the case with Folquet of Marseille and

Aimeric de Peguilhan Aimeric or Aimery de Peguilhan, Peguillan, or Pégulhan (c. 1170 – c. 1230) was a troubadour (fl. 1190–1221)Gaunt and Kay, 279. born in Peguilhan (near Saint-Gaudens), the son of a cloth merchant. Aimeric's first patron was Raimon ...

. A great many were clerics, or at least studied for the Church, for instance, Arnaut de Mareuil, Uc de Saint Circ, Aimeric de Belenoi, Hugh Brunet,

Peire Cardenal Peire Cardenal (or Cardinal) (c. 1180 – c. 1278) was a troubadour (floruit, fl. 1204 – 1272) known for his satirical ''sirventes'' and his dislike of the clergy. Ninety-six pieces of his remain, a number rarely matched by other poets of the age ...

; some had even taken orders: the monk of Montaudon and Gaubert de Puicibot. Ecclesiastical authority did not always tolerate this breach of discipline. Gui d'Ussel, canon and troubadour, was obliged by the injunction of the

pontifical legate A Pontifical Legate is a personal representative of the Pope. Specifically, this title is used for: * the formal title of the cardinal or bishop appointed to represent the Holy See in the administration of one or more Papal minor basilicas, notabl ...

to give up his song-making; Folquet, too, renounced it when he took orders. One point is particularly striking, the number of monarchs and nobles who were troubadours: Raimon de Miraval,

Pons de Capdoill Pons de Capduelh (floruit, fl. 1160–1220Chambers 1978, 140. or 1190–1237Aubrey 1996, 19–20.) was a troubadour from the Auvergne (region), Auvergne, probably from Chapteuil. His songs were known for their great gaiety. He was a popular poet an ...

, Guilhem Ademar,

Cadenet Cadenet () is a commune in the Vaucluse department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region in southeastern France. Geography Cadenet is a village located on the southern slopes of the Luberon Massif, overlooking the valley of the Durance. It ...

, Peirol, Raimbaut de Vacqueiras, and many more. Some of this group were poor knights whose incomes were insufficient to support their rank, and took up poetry not merely for their own pleasure, but for the sake of the gifts to be obtained from the rich whose courts they frequented. A very different position was occupied by such wealthy and powerful people as William of Poitiers, Raimbaut d'Aurenga, the viscount of Saint Antonin, Guillem de Berguedà and

Blacatz Blacatz, known in French genealogy as Blacas de Blacas III (1165–1237), was the feudal lord of Aups and a troubadour A troubadour (, ; ) was a composer and performer of Old Occitan lyric poetry during the High Middle Ages (1100–135 ...

. The profession was entirely dependent on the existence and prosperity of the feudal courts. The troubadours could hardly expect to obtain a livelihood from any other quarter than the generosity of the great. It will consequently be well to mention the more important at least of those princes who are known to have been patrons and some of them practisers of the poetic art. They are arranged approximately in geographical order, and after each are inserted the names of those troubadours with whom they were connected.

Patronage

While the troubadours found protectors in Catalonia, Castile and Italy, they do not seem to have been welcomed in French-speaking countries. This, however, must not be taken too absolutely. Occitan poetry was appreciated in the north of France. There is reason to believe that when

Constance Constance may refer to: Places * Constance, Kentucky, United States, an unincorporated community * Constance, Minnesota, United States, an unincorporated community * Mount Constance, Washington State, United States * Lake Constance (disambiguat ...

, daughter of one of the counts of

Arles Arles ( , , ; ; Classical ) is a coastal city and Communes of France, commune in the South of France, a Subprefectures in France, subprefecture in the Bouches-du-Rhône Departments of France, department of the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur Reg ...

, was married in 1001 to Robert, king of France, she brought along with her Provençal jongleurs. Poems by troubadours are quoted in the French romances of the beginning of the 13th century; some of them are transcribed in the old collections of French songs, and the preacher

Robert de Sorbon Robert de Sorbon (; 9 October 1201 – 15 August 1274) was a French theologian Theology is the study of religious belief from a religious perspective, with a focus on the nature of divinity. It is taught as an academic discipline, typic ...

informs us in a curious passage that one day a jongleur sang a poem by Folquet of Marseilles at the court of the king of France. Since the countries of the langue d'oil had a full developed literature of their own, the troubadours generally preferred to go to regions where they had less competition. The decline and fall of troubadour poetry was mainly due to political causes. When about the beginning of the 13th century the

Albigensian Crusade The Albigensian Crusade (), also known as the Cathar Crusade (1209–1229), was a military and ideological campaign initiated by Pope Innocent III to eliminate Catharism in Languedoc, what is now southern France. The Crusade was prosecuted pri ...

led by the French king had decimated and ruined the nobility and reduced to lasting poverty a part of the Occitan territories, the profession of troubadour ceased to be lucrative. It was then that many of those poets went to spend their last days in the north of Spain and Italy, where Occitan poetry had for more than one generation been highly esteemed. Following their example, other poets who were not natives of the south of France began to compose in Occitan, and this fashion continued till, about the middle of the 13th century, they gradually abandoned the foreign tongue in northern Italy, and somewhat later in

, and took to singing the same airs in the local dialects. About the same time in the Provençal region the flame of poetry had died out save in a few places,

Narbonne Narbonne ( , , ; ; ; Late Latin:) is a commune in Southern France in the Occitanie region. It lies from Paris in the Aude department, of which it is a sub-prefecture. It is located about from the shores of the Mediterranean Sea and was ...

Rodez Rodez (, , ; , ) is a small city and commune in the South of France, about 150 km northeast of Toulouse. It is the prefecture of the department of Aveyron, region of Occitania (formerly Midi-Pyrénées). Rodez is the seat of the communau ...

Foix Foix ( , ; ; ) is a commune, the former capital of the County of Foix. It is the capital of the department of Ariège as it is the seat of the prefecture of that department. Foix is located in the Occitanie region of southwestern France ...

and Astarac where it kept burning feebly for a little longer. In the 14th century, composition in the language of the country was still practised; but the productions of this period are mainly works for instruction and edification, translations from Latin or sometimes even from French, with an occasional romance. As for the poetry of the troubadours, it was dead for ever.

France

Patrons and their troubadours in France: *

Henry the Young King Henry the Young King (28 February 1155 – 11 June 1183) was the eldest son of Henry II of England and Eleanor of Aquitaine to survive childhood. In 1170, he became titular King of England, Duke of Normandy, Count of Anjou and Maine. Henry th ...

, son of

(?) *

Richard Coeur de Lion Richard is a male given name. It originates, via Old French, from Old Frankish and is a compound of the words descending from Proto-Germanic language">Proto-Germanic ''*rīk-'' 'ruler, leader, king' and ''*hardu-'' 'strong, brave, hardy', and ...

, Peire Vidal,

Folquet de Marselha Folquet de Marselha (alternatively Folquet de Marseille, Foulques de Toulouse, Fulk of Toulouse; c. 1150 – 25 December 1231) came from a Genoese merchant family who lived in Marseille. He is known as a troubadour, and then as a fiercely ant ...

* Ermengarde of Narbonne (1143–1192): Bernart de Ventadour,

Peire Rogier Peire Rogier (born c. 1145) was a twelfth-century Auvergnat troubadour (floruit, fl. 1160 – 1180) and cathedral canon from Clermont-Ferrand, Clermont. He left his cathedral to become a travelling minstrel before settling down for a time in Na ...

, Peire d'Alvernha * Raimon V,

count of Toulouse The count of Toulouse (, ) was the ruler of Toulouse during the 8th to 13th centuries. Originating as vassals of the Frankish kings, the hereditary counts ruled the city of Toulouse and its surrounding county from the late 9th century until 12 ...

(1143–1194): Bernart de Ventadour, Peire Rogier, Peire Raimon, Hugh Brunet, Peire Vidal, Folquet de Marselha, Bernart de Durfort * Raimon VI, count of Toulouse (1194–1222): Raimon de Miraval, Aimeric de Peguihan, Aimeric de Belenoi, Ademar le Negre, Savaric de Malleo * Alfonso II,

count of Provence The asterisk ( ), from Late Latin , from Ancient Greek , , "little star", is a Typography, typographical symbol. It is so called because it resembles a conventional image of a star (heraldry), heraldic star. Computer scientists and Mathematici ...

(1185–1209): Elias de Barjols * Raimon Berenguer IV, count of Provence (1209–1245): Sordello * Raymond Geoffrey II of Marseille (d. 1192): Peire Vidal, Folquet de Marselha * Maria de Ventadorn (d. 1222), Gaucelm Faidit, Gui d'Ussel * William VIII of Montpellier (1172–1204): Peire Raimon, Arnaut de Mareuil, Folquet de Marselha, Guiraut de Calanson, Aimeric de Sarlat * Dalfi d'Alvernha (1169–1234): Peirol, Perdigon, Peire de Maensac, Gaucelm Faidit, Uc de Saint Circ * Guillaume des Baux, prince of Orange (1182–1218): Raimbaut de Vacqueiras, Perdigon * Savaric de Malleo (1200–1230): Jausbert de Puycibot, Uc de Saint Circ *

, a Provençal noble (1200–1236):

, Jean d'Aubusson, Sordello, Guillem Figueira * Hugh II of Rodez, Hugh II, count of Rodez (1156–1208): Uc Brunet, Bernart de Venzac * Henry I of Rodez, Henry I, count of Rodez (1208–c.1222): Uc de Saint Circ * Hugh IV of Rodez, Hugh IV (1222–1274) and Henry II of Rodez, Henry II (1274–1302), counts of Rodez: Guiraut Riquier, Folquet de Lunel, Serveri de Girone, Bertran Carbonel * Nuño Sánchez, count of Roussillon (d. 1241): Aimeric de Belenoi * Bernard IV d'Astarac (1249–1291): Guiraut Riquier, Amanieu de Sescas

Aragon

Patrons and their troubadours in Aragon: * Alfonso II of Aragon (1162–1196): Peire Rogier, Peire Raimon, Peire Vidal, Cadenet, Guiraut de Cabreira, Elias de Barjols, the Monk of Montaudon, Hugh Brunet * Peter II of Aragon (1196–1213): Raimon de Miraval, Aimeric de Pegulhan, Perdigon, Ademar lo Negre, Hugh of Saint Circq * James I of Aragon (1213–1276): Peire Cardinal, Bernart Sicart de Maruejols, Guiraut Riquier, At de Mons * Peter III of Aragon (1276–1285): Paulet of Marseilles, Guiraut Riquier, Serveri de Girone

Castile and Leon

Patrons and their troubadours in Castile and Leon: * Alfonso IX of León (1138–1214): Elias Cairel, Peire Rogier, Guiraut de Borneil, Aimeric de Pegulhan, Hugh de Saint Circq * Alfonso VIII of Castile (1158–1214): Uc de Lescura * Alfonso X of Castile (1252–1284): Bertran de Lamanon, Bonifaci Calvo, Guiraut Riquier, Folquet de Lund, Arnaut Plages, Bertran Carbonel

Italy

Patrons and their troubadours in Italian peninsular: * Boniface II of Montferrat (1192–1207): Peire Vidal, Raimbaut de Vacqueiras, Elias Cairel, Gaucelm Faidit (?) * Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor, emperor (1215–1250): Jean d'Aubusson, Aimeric de Pegulhan, Guillem Figueira * Azzo VI, marquis of Este (1196–1212): Airneric de Pegulhan, Rambertin de Buvalelli * Azzo VII of Este, Azzo VII, marquis of Este (1215–1264): Aimeric de Pegulhan

Form

Originally the poems of the troubadours were intended to be sung. The poet usually composed the music as well as the words; and in several cases he owed his fame more to his musical than to his literary ability. Two manuscripts preserve specimens of the music of the troubadours, but, though the subject has been recently investigated, we are hardly able to form a clear opinion of the originality and of the merits of these musical compositions. The following are the principal poetic forms which the troubadours employed. The oldest and most usual generic term is ''Lyrics, vers'', by which is understood any composition intended to be sung, no matter what the subject. At the close of the 12th century, it became customary to call all verse treating of love ''canso (song), canso'' the name ''vers'' being then more generally reserved for poems on other themes. The ''sirventesc'' differs from the vers and the canso only by its subject, being for the most part devoted to moral and political topics. Peire Cardinal is celebrated for the sirventescs he composed against the clergy of his time. The political poems of Bertran de Born are sirventescs. There is reason to believe that originally this word meant simply a poem composed by a ''sirvent'' (Latin ''serviens'') or man-at-arms. The sirventesc is very frequently composed in the form, sometimes even with rhymes, of a love song having acquired some popularity, so that it might be sung to the same air. The ''tenson'' is a debate between two interlocutors, each of whom has a stanza, or more generally a group of lines (each group having the same structure) in turn. The

(French ''jeu parti'') is also a poetic debate, but it differs from the tenson insofar that the range of debate is limited. In the first stanza one of the partners proposes two alternatives; the other partner chooses one of them and defends it, the opposite side remaining to be defended by the original propounder. Often in a final couplet a judge or arbiter is appointed to decide between the parties. This poetic game is mentioned by William, count of Poitiers, at the end of the 11th century. The ''pastoreta'', afterwards ''pastorela'', is in general an account of the love adventures of a knight with a shepherdess. All these classes have one form capable of endless variations: five or more stanzas and one or two envois. The ''dansa'' and ''Balaresc, balada'', intended to mark the time in dancing, are pieces with a refrain. The aubade, which has also a refrain, is, as the name indicates, a waking or morning song at the dawning of the day. All those classes are in stanzas. The ''descort'' is not thus divided, and consequently it must be set to music right through. Its name is derived from the fact that, its component parts not being equal, there is a kind of discord between them. It is generally reserved for themes of love. Other kinds of lyric poems, sometimes with nothing new about them except the name, were developed in the Occitan regions; but those here mentioned are the more important.

Narrative poetry

Although the lyrical poetry of the troubadours formed the most original part of Occitan literature, it was not the only kind. Narrative poetry, especially, received in Occitania a great development, and, thanks to recent discoveries, a considerable body of it has already become known. Several classes must be distinguished: the ''chanson de geste'', legendary or apparently historical, the romance of adventure and the novel. All these poems are in the form of ''chansons de geste'', that is, in stanzas of indefinite length, with a single rhyme. One notable example is the saga of Girart de Roussillon, a poem of ten thousand verses, which relates the struggles of Charles Martel with his powerful vassal the Burgundian Gerard of Roussillon. Girart de Roussillon belongs only within certain limits to the Occitan literature, as it exists in two versions, one in Old Occitan and one in a hybrid language, which seems to have originated on the borders of Limousin and Poitou; both are probably a recast of an older poem, probably either of French or Burgundian origin, which is no longer extant. To Limousin also seems to belong the poem of ''Aigar e Maurin, Aigar and Maurin'' (end of the 12th century), of which we have only a fragment so short that the subject cannot be clearly made out. Of less heroic character is the poem of Daurel and Beton (first half of the 13th century), connected with the cycle of Charlemagne but, judging by the romantic character of the events, more like a regular romance of adventure. We cannot, however, form a complete judgment in regard to it, as the only manuscript in which it has been preserved is defective at the close, and that to an amount there is no means of ascertaining. Midway between legend and history may be classified the ''Canso d'Antioca, Cansó d'Antioca'', a mere fragment of which, 700 verses, has been recovered in Madrid and published in ''Archives de l'Orient latin'', vol. ii. This poem, which seems to have been composed by a Gregory Bechada, mentioned in a 12th-century chronicle and written in Limousin is one of the sources of the Spanish compilation ''La gran conquista de Ultramar''. To history proper belongs the ''Song of the Albigensian Crusade'', which, in its present state, is composed of two poems tacked onto each other: the first, containing the events from the beginning of the crusade till 1213, is the work of a cleric named William of Tudela, a moderate supporter of the crusaders; the second, from 1213 to 1218, is by a vehement opponent of the enterprise. The language and style of the two parts differs as well. Finally, around 1280, Guillaume Anelier, a native of Toulouse, composed a poem on the war carried on in Navarre by the French in 1276 and 1277. It is an historical work of little literary merit. Gerard of Roussillon, Aigar and Maurin and Daurel and Beton are in verses of ten, the others in verses of twelve syllables. The peculiarity of the versification in Gerard is that the pause in the line occurs after the sixth syllable, and not, as is usual, after the fourth. Like the chanson de geste, the romance of adventure is but slightly represented in the south; but it is to be remembered that many works of this class must have perished, as evidenced by the fact that, with few exceptions, the narrative poems which survived are known by a single manuscript only. Only three Provençal romances of adventure are extant, ''Jaufri'' (composed in the middle of the 13th century and dedicated to a List of Aragonese monarchs, king of Aragon, possibly James I of Aragon, James I), ''Blandin of Cornwall'' and ''Guillem de La Barra''. The first two are connected with the Arthurian cycle. The ''romance of Guillem de La Barra'' tells a strange story also found in Giovanni Boccaccio, Boccaccio's ''The Decameron, Decameron'' (2nd Day, viii.); it was finished in 1318, and is dedicated to a noble of Languedoc called Sicart de Montaut. Of these, only ''Jaufri'' is considered of any literary merit . Connected with the romance of adventure is the novel (''novas'' in Occitan), which is originally an account of an event newly happened. The novel must have been at first in the south what, as we see by the ''Decameron'', it was in Italy, a society pastime with the wits in turn relating anecdotes, true or imaginary, which they think likely to amuse their auditors. But before long this kind of production was treated in verse, the form adopted being that of the romances of adventure octosyllabic verses rhyming in pairs. Some of those novels which have come down to us may be ranked with the most graceful works in Provençal literature; two are from the pen of the List of Catalan people, Catalan author Raimon Vidal de Besalu. One, the ''Castia-gilos'' (the ''Chastisement of the Jealous Man''), is a treatment, not easily matched for elegance, of a frequently-handled theme the story of the husband who, in order to entrap his wife, takes the disguise of the lover whom she is expecting and receives with satisfaction blows intended, as he thinks, for him whose part he is playing; the other, ''The Judgment of Love'', is the recital of a question of the law of love, departing considerably from the subjects usually treated in the novels. Mention may also be made of ''Las novas del papagay'' by Arnaut de Carcassès, in which the principal character is a parrot of great eloquence and ability, who succeeds marvellously in securing the success of the amorous enterprises of his master. Novels came to be extended to the proportions of a long romance. ''Romance of Flamenca, Flamenca'', which belongs to the novel type, has still over eight thousand verses, though the only MS. of it has lost some leaves both at the beginning and at the end. This poem, composed in all probability in 1234, is the story of a lady who by very ingenious devices, not unlike those employed in the ''Miles gloriosus'' of Plautus, succeeds in eluding the vigilance of her jealous husband. No analysis can be given here of a work the action of which is highly complicated; suffice it to remark that there is no book in medieval literature which betokens so much quickness of intellect and is so instructive in regard to the manners and usages of polite society in the 13th century. We know that novels were in great favor in the south of France, although the specimens preserved are not very numerous. Statements made by Francesco da Barberino (early part of the 14th century), and recently brought to light, give us a glimpse of several works of this class which have been lost. From the Occitan territories the novel spread into Catalonia, where we find in the 14th century a number of novels in verse very similar to the Provençal ones, and into Italy, where in general the prose form has been adopted.

Didactic and religious poetry

Compositions intended for instruction, correction and edification were very numerous in the south of France as well as elsewhere, and, in spite of the enormous losses sustained by Provençal literature, much of this kind still remains. But it is seldom that such works have much originality or literary value. Originality was naturally absent, as the aim of the writers was mainly to bring the teachings contained in Latin works within the reach of lay hearers or readers. Literary value was not of course excluded by the lack of originality, but by an unfortunate chance the greater part of those who sought to instruct or edify, and attempted to substitute moral works for secular productions in favor with the people, were, with a few exceptions, persons of limited ability. It would be out of question to enumerate here all the didactic treatises, all the lives of saints, all the treatises of popular theology and morals, all the books of devotion, all the pious canticles, composed in Occitan verse during the Middle Ages; still some of these poems may be singled out. Daude de Pradas (early 13th century), a canon of Maguelone, and at the same time a troubadour, has left a poem, the , which is one of the best sources for the study of falconry. Raimon d'Avignon, otherwise unknown, translated in verses, about the year 1200, Rogerius (physician), Rogerius' ''Surgery'' (Romania, x. 63 and 496). There is also a poem on astrology by a certain C. (Guilhem?), and another, anonymous, on geomancy, both written about the end of the 13th century. The troubadour Raimon de Castelnou, active around 1274, wrote a treatise on doctrine and ethics, entitled ''Doctrinal''.Robert A. Taylor
''A Bibliographical Guide to the Study of the Troubadours and Old Occitan Literature''
Research in Medieval and Early Modern Culture, 2 (Kamloops: Medieval Institute Publications, 2015), pp. 505–506. As to moral compositions, we have to recall the Boethius poem (unfortunately a mere fragment) already mentioned as one of the oldest documents of the language, and really a remarkable work; and to notice an early (12th century?) metrical translation of the famous ''Disticha de moribus'' of Dionysius Cato (Romania, xxv. 98, and xxix. 445). More original are some compositions of an educational character known under the name of ''ensenhamenz'', and, in some respects, comparable to the English nurture-books. The most interesting are those of Garin le Brun (12th century), Arnaut de Mareuil, Arnaut Guilhem de Marsan, Amanieu de Sescas. Their general object is the education of ladies of rank. Of metrical lives of saints we possess about a dozen, written early in the 12th century; the ''Life of St Enimia'' (13th century), by Bertran of Marseilles, and that of St Honorat of Lerins by Raimon Feraud (about 1300), which is distinguished by variety and elegance of versification, but it is almost entirely a translation from Latin. Lives of saints (St Andrew, Thomas the Apostle, St Thomas the Apostle, John the Evangelist, St John the Evangelist) form a part of a poem, strictly didactic, which stands out by reason of its great extent (nearly thirty-five thousand verses) and the somewhat original conception of its scheme - the ''Breviars damor'', a vast encyclopedia, on a theological basis, composed by the Minorite friar Matfre Ermengaut of Bezers between 1288 and 1300 or thereabout.

Drama

Dramatic literature in Occitan consists of mysteries and miracle plays seldom exceeding two or three thousand lines, which never developed into the enormous dramas of northern France, whose acting required several consecutive days. Comic plays, so plentiful in medieval French literature (farces, sotties), do not seem to have found favor in the south. Specimens which we possess of Occitan drama are, comparatively few; but researches in local archives, especially in old account books, have brought to light a considerable number of entries concerning the acting, at public expense, of religious plays, called, in Latin documents, ''historia'' or ''moralitas'', most of which seem to be irretrievably lost. The ''Sponsus'', in both Latin and Occitan, is preserved from the mid-11th century and may have non-liturgical roots. It shows originality in both the treatment of its biblical theme and its musical accompaniment, since it was sung in its entirety. As all the Occitan plays, sometimes mere fragments, which have escaped destruction, are preserved in about a dozen manuscripts, unearthed within the last forty or fifty years. Generally those plays belong to the 15th century or to the sixteenth. Still, a few are more ancient and may be ascribed to the 14th century or even to the end of the thirteenth. The oldest appears to be the ''Mystery of St Agnes'' (edited by Bartsch, 1869), written in Arles. Somewhat more recent, but not later than the beginning of the 14th century, is a ''Passion of Christ'' (not yet printed) and a ''mystery of the Marriage of the Virgin'', which is partly adapted from a French poem of the 13th century, (see Romania xvi. 71). A manuscript, discovered in private archives (printed by Alfred Jeanroy and Henri Teulié, 1893), contains not less than sixteen short mysteries, three founded on the Old Testament, thirteen on the New Testament, New. They were, written in Rouergue and are partly imitated from French mysteries. At Manosque (Alpes-de-Haute-Provence) was found a fragment of a inserted in a register of notarial deeds (printed by C. Arnaud) of some kind. In 1513 French poems were first admitted in the competitions, and under Louis XIV of France, Louis XIV (from 1679) these were alone held eligible. This unfair arrangement, by which some of the leading poets of northern France profited, held good till 1893, when the town very properly transferred its patronage to a new , but very soon restored its support to the older institution, on learning that Occitan poetry was again to be encouraged.

From the sixteenth to the eighteenth century

In the two centuries that followed the medieval there was a succession of works, chiefly of a didactic and edifying character, which scarcely belong to the realm of literature proper, but at least served to keep alive some kind of literary tradition. This dreary interval was relieved by a number of religious mystery plays, which, though dull by modern tastes, probably gave keen enjoyment to the people, and represent a more popular genre; the latest that have been preserved may be placed between the years 1450 and 1515. In the opinion of Hermann Oelsner ("Provençal Literature", EB1911, ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' 11th ed., 1911) not only did the literature deteriorate during this period, but dialects took the place of the uniform literary language employed by the troubadours, while the spoken tongue yielded more and more to French. In 1539 Francis I of France, François I, with the Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts, forbade the use of Occitan in official documents a fact that is worthy of note only as being significant in itself, not as an important factor in the decadence of Provençal letters. At about this time, there are signs of a revival. In 1565 the Gascon, Pey de Garros, translated the Psalms into Gascon language, his dialect, and two years later published a volume of poems. His love for his native tongue is genuine, and his command over it considerable; he deplores its neglect, and urges others to follow his example. Auger Gaillard (c. 1530–1595) does infinitely less credit to his province: the popularity of his light pieces was probably due to their obscenity. More in the spirit of Garros is the charming trilingual composed by the famous du Bartas in honor of a visit of Marguerite de Valois to Nérac (1579): three nymphs dispute as to whether she should be welcomed in Latin, French, or Gascon, and the last, of course, wins the day. Provence proper gave birth to a poet of considerable importance in Louis Bellaud, Louis Bellaud de la Bellaudire (1532–1588), of Grasse, who, after studying at Aix-en-Provence, Aix, enlisted in the royal armies, and was made a prisoner at Moulins, Allier, Moulins in 1572. During his captivity he wrote poems inspired by real love of liberty and of his native country (Don-Don internal, 1584 or 1585). At Aix Bellaud subsequently became the centre of a literary circle which included most of the local celebrities; all of these paid their tribute to the poets memory in the edition of his works published by his uncle, Pierre Paul, himself the author of pieces of small value, included in the same volume (, Marseilles, 1595). Oelsner states that even when Bellaud is wholly frivolous, and intent on worldly pleasures only, his work has interest as reflecting the merry, careless life of the time. A writer very popular in Provence for the light-hearted productions of his youth was (1570–1650), remarkable chiefly for comedies that deal largely with duped husbands (, not published till 1628). Oelsner states that there is a certain charm, too, in the comedies of Claude's disciple, (, 1655); and those critics who have read the plays of Joan de Cabanas (1653–1712) and of Seguin (of Tarascon, c. 1640), still in manuscript in 1911, speak highly of them. The most consistently popular form of poetry in the south of France was always the novel. There has been no limit to the production of these; but very rarely does the author deserve special mention. An exception must be made in the case of Nicolas Saboly (1614–1675), who in the opinion of Oelsner produced the best pieces of this class, both as regards beauty of language and the devotion they breathe. They have deservedly maintained their popularity to the present day. In Languedoc four poets have been cited as the best of the age Pèire Godolin , Goudelin, Jean Michel (poet), Michel, Alain-René Lesage, LeSage and Bonnet. Oelsner states that this is certainly so in the case of Pierre Goudelin (, 1579–1649), of Toulouse, the most distinguished name in Occitan literature between the period of the troubadours and that of Jacques Jasmin, Jasmin. He had a good classical education, traces of which appear in all his poetry, his language and his manner being always admirable, even where his matter is lacking in depth. He is often called the François de Malherbe, Malherbe of the South, but resembles that writer only in form: his poetry, taken as a whole, has far more sap. Goudelin essayed and was successful in almost every short genre (, 1617, republished with additions till 1678), the piece of his which is most generally admired being the stanzas to Henry IV of France, though others will prefer him in his gayer moods. He enjoyed enormous popularity (extending to Spain and Italy), but never prostituted his art to cheap effects. His influence, especially but not exclusively in the Occitan area, has been deep and lasting. The fame of Jean Michel (poet), Jean Michel, of Nîmes, rests on the ', a poem of astonishing vigour, but deficient in taste. Daniel Sage, of Montpellier (, 1650), was a man of loose morals, which are reflected in nearly all his works: his moments of genuine inspiration from other causes are rare. More worthy of being bracketed with Goudelin is Bonnet, author of the best among the open air plays that were annually performed at Béziers on Ascension Day: a number of these (dated 1616–1657) were subsequently collected, but none can compare with the opening one, Bonnet's '. Another poet is Nicolas Fizes, of Frontignan, whose play, the (1670), dealing with a slight love intrigue, and an idyllic poem on the fountain of Frontignan, show a real poetic gift. A number of Toulouse poets, mostly laureats of the Academy, may be termed followers of Goudelin: of these François Boudet deserves mention, who composed an ode, (1678), in honor of his native dialect. The classical revival about this time is also generally ascribed to Goudelin's influence. Its best known representative was Jean de Vales, of Montech, who made excellent translations from Virgil and Persius, and wrote a brilliant burlesque of the former in the manner of Scarron (, 1648; only four books published). He also composed a pastoral idyll, which, though too long and inclined to obscenity, contains much tender description. The greatest of the pastoral poets was Francés de Corteta, Frariois de Cortete (1571–1655), of Prades, Pyrénées-Orientales, Prades, whose comedies, and (published, unfortunately with alterations, by his son in 1684), are written with such true feeling and in so pure a style that they can be read with real pleasure. A comedy of his dealing with Sancho Panza in the palace of the Duke has been edited. Armand Daubasse (1664–1727), of Quercy, who belonged to the working classes was very polular; he was patronized by the nobility in exchange for panegyrics. Gascony produced two typical works in the 17th century: (1610) and D'Astròs's (1642). The former depicts a regular boasting Gascon who distinguishes himself in everything; while the latter is a plea in favor of the Gascon tongue, inspired by a genuine love of country. Gabriel Bedout (, 1642) is chiefly noted for his , called forth by the sufferings he endured from a hardhearted mistress. (1612–1662), living peacefully in his native village of Pouy-Loubrin, celebrated it with great tenderness. In the 18th century the number of authors is much larger. The priests are mainly responsible for the literary output of Languedoc. Claude Peyrot (1709–1795) one of them, celebrates his county with true rural spirit in the and . But the chief of the band is (1727–1783), the prior of Celleneuve, whose , delivered by a drunken priest against intemperance, is a masterpiece. He also wrote a successful mock-heroic poem () travesties of Homer and Virgil, a prose novel depicting the country manners of the time (), and two comedies, which likewise give a vivid picture of the village life he knew so well. In the opinion of Oelsner the two genuine poets are the brothers Rigaud of Montpellier: Auguste Rigaud, Augustes (1760–1835) description of a vintage is deservedly famous; and Cyrille Rigaud, Cyrille (1750—1820s) produced an equally delightful poem in the . Pierre Hellies of Toulouse (d. 1724) a poet of the people, whose vicious life finds an echo in his works, has a certain rude charm, at times distantly recalling François Villon, Villon. In the Province François Toussaint Gros (1698–1748), of Lyon, holds, in the view of Oelsner, undisputed sway. Oelsner states that his style and language are admirable, but unfortunately he wasted his gifts largely on trivial . Jean-Baptiste Coye, Coye's 1711–1777) comedy, the , is bright and still popular, while Germain's description of a visit paid by the ancient gods to Marseille (, 1760) has considerable humour; and that in Gascony the greatest poet was Cyprien Despourrins (1698–1755), whose pastoral idylls and mournful chansons, which he himself set to music, are imbued with tenderness and charm. The French Revolution produced a large body of literature, but nothing of lasting interest. However, it gave an impetus to thought in the Occitan area, as elsewhere; and there, as elsewhere, it called forth a spirit of independence that was all in favor of a literary revival. Scholars of the stamp of Raynouard (1761–1863), of Aix, occupied themselves with the brilliant literary traditions of the Middle Ages; newspapers sprang up (the Provençal , started by Joseph Desanat, and the bilingual , edited by Bellot, both in 1842); poets banded together and collected their pieces in volume form (thus, the nine troubaire who published in 1823).

Félibrige

Much has been written about the , and critics are sorely at variance as to the writers that most deserve this appellation. We shall not go far wrong if we include in the list Hyacinthe Morel (1756–1829), of Avignon, whose collection of poems, ''Lou Saboulet'', has been republished by Frédéric Mistral; Louis Aubanel (178~-1842), of Nîmes, the successful translator of Anacreon (poet), Anacreon's ''Odes''; Auguste Tandon, the troubadour of Montpellier, who wrote ''Fables, contes et autres pièces en vers'' (1800); Fabre d'Olivet, the versatile littérateur who in 1803 published ''Le Troubadour: Poésies occitaniques'', which, in order to secure their success, he gave out as the work of some medieval poet Diou-loufet (1771–1840), who wrote a didactic poem, in the manner of Virgil, relating to silkworm-breeding (''Leis magnans''); Jacques Azais (1778–1856), author of satires, fables, etc.; d'Astros (1780–1863), a writer of fables in La Fontaine's manner; Castil-Blaze, who found time, amidst his musical pursuits, to compose Provençal poems, intended to be set to music; the Marquis de la Fare-Alais (1791–1846), author of some light satirical tales (''Las Castagnados''). While these writers were all more or less academic, and appealed to the cultured few, four poets of the people addressed a far wider public: Verdi (1779–1820), of Bordeaux, who wrote comic and satirical pieces; Jean Reboul (1796–1864), the baker of Nîmes, who never surpassed his first effort, ''L'Ange et l'enfant'' (1828); Victor Gelu (1806–1885), relentless and brutal, but undeniably powerful of his kind (''Fenian é Grouman; dix chansons provençales'', 1840); and, greatest of them all, the true and acknowledged forerunner of the felibres, Jacques Jasmin, whose poems, both lyrical and narrative, continue to find favour with men of the highest culture and literary attainments, as with the villagers for whom they were primarily intended. While much of this literature was still in the making, an event took place which was destined to eclipse in importance any that had gone before. In 1845 Joseph Roumanille of Saint-Rémy-de-Provence, Saint-Rémy (Bouches-du-Rhône), became usher in a small school at Avignon, which was attended by Frédéric Mistral, a native of the same district, then fifteen years of age. The former, feeling the germs of poetry within him, had composed some pieces in French; but, finding that his old mother could not understand them, he was greatly distressed, and determined thenceforth to write in his native dialect only. These poems revealed a new world to young Mistral, and spurred him on to the resolve that became the one purpose of his life "de remettre en lumière et conscience de sa gloire cette noble race que Mirabeau nomme encore la nation provençale". Mistral's personality and works are certainly better known than his fellows'. Still, in studying the Provençal renaissance, Roumanille's great claims should not be overlooked, and they have never been put forward with more force than by Mistral himself (in the ''preface to his Isclos doro''). Roumanille's secular verse cannot fail to appeal to every lover of pure and sincere poetry (''Li Margarideto'', 1836–1847; ''Li Sounjarello'', 1852; ''Li Flour de Sauvi'', 1850, 1859, etc.), his novels are second only to those of Saboly, his prose works (such as ''Lou mege de Cucugnan'', 1863) sparkling with delightful humour. He it was who in 1852 collected and published ''Li Prouvençalo'', an anthology in which all the names yet to become famous, and most of those famous already (such as Jasmin), are represented. In 1853 he was one of the enthusiastic circle that had gathered round J.B. Gaut at Aix, and whose literary output is contained in the ''Roumavagi dei Troubaire'' and in the short lived journal ''Lou gay saber'' (1854). At the same time the first attempt at regulating the orthography of Provençal was made by him (in the introduction to his play, ''La Part dou bon Dieu'', 1853). And in 1854 he was one of the seven poets who, on May 21, foregathered at the castle of Fontsgugne, near Avignon, and founded the Félibrige. The etymology of this word has given rise to much speculation: the one thing certain about the word is that Mistral came across it in an old Provençal poem, which tells how the Virgin meets Jesus in the Temple, among the seven ''felibres'' of the law. The outlines of the constitution, as finally settled in 1876, are as follows. The region of the Felibrige is divided into four ''mantenenço'' (Provence, Languedoc, Aquitaine and Catalonia). At the head of all is a consistori of fifty (called ''majourau''), presided over by the ''Capoulié'', who is chief of the entire Felibrige. The head of each mantenenço is called ''sendi'' (who is at the same time a ''majourau''); and at the head of each school (as the subdivisions of the mantenenço are called) is a ''cabiscòu''. The ordinary members, unlimited in number, are ''mantenèire''. Annual meetings and fetes are organized. The most widely read of the Felibrige publications is the ''Armana prouvençau'', which has appeared annually since, maintaining all the while its original scope and purpose; and though unpretentious in form, it contains much of the best work of the school.In common with so many other productions of the Felibrige, this ''Almanac'' is published by the firm J. Roumanille, Libraire-Editeur, Avignon . The other six were Mistral, Théodore Aubanel, Anselme Mathieu (a school fellow of Mistral's at Avignon), E. Garcin, Alphonse Tavan and Paul Giéra (owner of the castle). Of these, Théodore Aubanel has alone proved himself worthy to rank with Mistral and Roumanille. Zani, the girl of his youthful and passionate love, took the veil; and this event cast a shadow over his whole life, and determined the character of all his poetry (''La miougrano entre-duberto'', 1860; ''Li Fiho d'Avignoun'', 1883). His is, without a doubt, the deepest nature and temperament among the felibres, and his lyrics are the most poignant. He has a keen sense of physical beauty in woman, and his verse is replete with suppressed passion, but he never sinks to sensuality. His powerful love drama ''Lou pau dou peccat'' was received with enthusiasm at Montpellier in 1878, and successfully produced (some years later in Arnes version) by Antoine at his Theatre Libreno mean criterion. It is the only play of real consequence that the school has yet produced. We need not do more than glance at the work of the fourth of the group of poets who alone, amidst the numerous writers of lyrics and other works that attain a high level of excellence appear to to have so far secured permanent fame by the magnitude of their achievement. Felix Gras settled at Avignon in his youth. His rustic epic, ''Li Carbounié'' (1876) is full of elemental passion and abounds in fine descriptions of scenery, but it lacks proportion. The heroic geste of ''Toloza'' (1882), in which Simon de Montfort, 5th Earl of Leicester, Simon de Montfort's invasion of the south is depicted with unbounded vigour and intensity, shows a great advance in art. ''Lou Roumancero prouvençau'' (1887) is a collection of poems instinct with Provençal lore, and in ''Li Papalino'' (1891) we have some charming prose tales that bring to life again the Avignon of the popes. Finally, the poet gave us three tales dealing with the period of the Revolution (''Li Rouge dóu miejour'', etc.); their realism and literary art called forth general admiration. Felibrige latin

While Mistral and many of the best felibres employ the dialect of the Bouches-du-Rhône, others, who have since seceded as the ''Félibrige Latin'' (headed by Roque-Ferrier), prefer to use the dialect of Montpellier, owing to its central position. A third class favors the Limousin dialect, dialect of Limousin, considering it has been used by the troubadours. Nearly all the leaders of the Felibrige are Legitimists and Catholic Church, Catholics. There are exceptions, however, chief among them the Protestant Gras, whose ''Toloza'' clearly reflects his sympathy with the Albigenses. Yet this did not stand in the way of his election as Capoulié proof, if proof were needed, that literary merit outweighs all other considerations in this artistic body of men. Finally, it may be noted that the felibres have often been accused of lack of patriotism towards northern France, of schemes of decentralization, and other heresies; but none of these charges holds good. The spirit of the movement, as represented by its leaders, has never been expressed with greater terseness, force and truth than in the three verses set by Felix Gras at the head of his Carbounié: "I love my village more than thy village; I love my Provence more than thy province; I love France more than all".

Late twentieth and twenty-first century

Despite two hundred years of suppression by successive French centralist governments and the official prohibition of the language at school, in the administration and in the media, Occitan and Occitania have never ceased to inspire poets and authors. To the day, Article II of the French Constitution denies the existence and legitimacy of culturally rich and elaborate idioms such as Catalan, Breton, Basque and Occitan, among others. And though the use of the latter has been greatly affected by what is known as la Vergonha — which is the physical, legal, artistic and moral repression of the tongue in all areas of society aiming at making children feel ''ashamed'' of their parents' language to the benefit of French, — every region of the country of Òc gave birth to literary geniuses: Joan Bodon in Guyenne, Marcela Delpastre in

, Robèrt Lafont in Provence, Bernat Manciet in

and Max Roqueta in Languedoc. All genres of modern international literature are present in Occitan, especially since the second half of the 20th century, although some avant-garde Occitan literature already existed from the late 19th century.

Notes

References

* * Attribution: *