Chamber_of_the_House_of_Representatives_of_Japan

In modern politics and history, a parliament is a

legislative A legislature (, ) is a deliberative assembly with the legal authority to make laws for a political entity such as a country, nation or city on behalf of the people therein. They are often contrasted with the executive and judicial powers ...

body of government. Generally, a modern parliament has three functions: representing the

electorate Electorate may refer to: * The people who are eligible to vote in an election, especially their number e.g. the term ''size of (the) electorate'' * The dominion of a prince-elector in the Holy Roman Empire until 1806 * An electoral district ...

, making laws, and overseeing the government via hearings and inquiries. The term is similar to the idea of a

senate A senate is a deliberative assembly, often the upper house or chamber of a bicameral legislature. The name comes from the ancient Roman Senate (Latin: ''Senatus''), so-called as an assembly of the senior (Latin: ''senex'' meaning "the el ...

synod A synod () is a council of a Christian denomination, usually convened to decide an issue of doctrine, administration or application. The word '' synod'' comes from the Ancient Greek () ; the term is analogous with the Latin word . Originally, ...

congress A congress is a formal meeting of the representatives of different countries, constituent states, organizations, trade unions, political parties, or other groups. The term originated in Late Middle English to denote an encounter (meeting of ...

and is commonly used in countries that are current or former

monarchies A monarchy is a form of government in which a person, the monarch, reigns as head of state for the rest of their life, or until abdication. The extent of the authority of the monarch may vary from restricted and largely symbolic (constitutio ...

. Some contexts restrict the use of the word ''parliament'' to

parliamentary system A parliamentary system, or parliamentary democracy, is a form of government where the head of government (chief executive) derives their Election, democratic legitimacy from their ability to command the support ("confidence") of a majority of t ...

s, although it is also used to describe the legislature in some

presidential system A presidential, strong-president, or single-executive system (sometimes also congressional system) is a form of government in which a head of government (usually titled " president") heads an executive branch that derives its authority and l ...

s (e.g., the

Parliament of Ghana The Parliament of Ghana is the unicameral legislature of Ghana. It consists of 276 members, who are elected for four-year terms in single-seat Electoral district, constituencies using a first-past-the-post voting system. History Legislature, L ...

), even where it is not in the

official name A legal name is the name that identifies a person for legal, administrative and other official purposes. A person's legal birth name generally is the name of the person that was given for the purpose of Civil registry, registration of the birth ...

. Historically, parliaments included various kinds of deliberative, consultative, and judicial assemblies. What is considered to be the first modern parliament, was the

Cortes of León Cortes, Cortés, Cortês, Corts, or Cortès may refer to: People * Cortes (surname), including a list of people with the name ** Hernán Cortés (1485–1547), a Spanish conquistador Places * Cortes, Navarre, a village in the South border of ...

, held in the

Kingdom of León The Kingdom of León was an independent kingdom situated in the northwest region of the Iberian Peninsula. It was founded in 910 when the Christian princes of Kingdom of Asturias, Asturias along the Bay of Biscay, northern coast of the peninsula ...

in 1188. According to the

UNESCO The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO ) is a List of specialized agencies of the United Nations, specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) with the aim of promoting world peace and International secur ...

, the Decreta of Leon of 1188 is the oldest documentary manifestation of the European parliamentary system. In addition, UNESCO granted the 1188 Cortes of Alfonso IX the title of "Memory of the World" and the city of

Leon Leon, Léon (French) or León (Spanish) may refer to: Places Europe * León, Spain, capital city of the Province of León * Province of León, Spain * Kingdom of León, an independent state in the Iberian Peninsula from 910 to 1230 and again fro ...

has been recognized as the "Cradle of Parliamentarism".

Etymology

The English term is derived from Anglo-Norman and dates to the 14th century, coming from the 11th century

Old French Old French (, , ; ) was the language spoken in most of the northern half of France approximately between the late 8th [2-4; we might wonder whether there's a point at which it's appropriate to talk of the beginnings of French, that is, when it wa ...

word , from , . The meaning evolved over time, originally referring to any discussion, conversation, or negotiation through various kinds of deliberative or judicial groups, often summoned by a monarch. By the 15th century, in Britain, it had come to specifically mean the legislature.

Early parliaments

Since ancient times, when societies were tribal, there were councils or a headman whose decisions were assessed by village elders. This is called tribalism. Some scholars suggest that in ancient Mesopotamia there was a primitive democratic government where the kings were assessed by council. The same has been said about ancient India, where some form of deliberative assemblies existed, and therefore there was some form of

democracy Democracy (from , ''dēmos'' 'people' and ''kratos'' 'rule') is a form of government in which political power is vested in the people or the population of a state. Under a minimalist definition of democracy, rulers are elected through competitiv ...

. However, these claims are not accepted by other scholars, who see these forms of government as

oligarchies Oligarchy (; ) is a form of government in which power rests with a small number of people. Members of this group, called oligarchs, generally hold usually hard, but sometimes soft power through nobility, fame, wealth, or education; or thr ...

Ancient Athens Athens is one of the List of oldest continuously inhabited cities, oldest named cities in the world, having been continuously inhabited for perhaps 5,000 years. Situated in southern Europe, Athens became the leading city of ancient Greece in t ...

was the cradle of

. The

Athenian assembly The ecclesia or ekklesia () was the assembly of the citizens in city-states of ancient Greece. The ekklesia of Athens The ekklesia of ancient Athens is particularly well-known. It was the popular assembly, open to all male citizens as soon a ...

(, ''ekklesia'') was the most important institution, and every free male

citizen Citizenship is a membership and allegiance to a sovereign state. Though citizenship is often conflated with nationality in today's English-speaking world, international law does not usually use the term ''citizenship'' to refer to nationality ...

could take part in the discussions. Slaves and women could not. However,

Athenian democracy Athenian democracy developed around the 6th century BC in the Ancient Greece, Greek city-state (known as a polis) of Classical Athens, Athens, comprising the city of Athens and the surrounding territory of Attica, and focusing on supporting lib ...

was not representative, but rather direct, and therefore the ''ekklesia'' was different from the parliamentary system. The

Roman Republic The Roman Republic ( ) was the era of Ancient Rome, classical Roman civilisation beginning with Overthrow of the Roman monarchy, the overthrow of the Roman Kingdom (traditionally dated to 509 BC) and ending in 27 BC with the establis ...

had legislative assemblies, who had the final say regarding the election of magistrates, the enactment of new

statute A statute is a law or formal written enactment of a legislature. Statutes typically declare, command or prohibit something. Statutes are distinguished from court law and unwritten law (also known as common law) in that they are the expressed wil ...

s, the carrying out of capital punishment, the declaration of war and peace, and the creation (or dissolution) of alliances. The

Roman Senate The Roman Senate () was the highest and constituting assembly of ancient Rome and its aristocracy. With different powers throughout its existence it lasted from the first days of the city of Rome (traditionally founded in 753 BC) as the Sena ...

controlled money, administration, and the details of foreign policy. Some Muslim scholars argue that the Islamic

shura Shura () is the term for collective decision-making in Islam. It can, for example, take the form of a council or a referendum. The Quran encourages Muslims to decide their affairs in consultation with each other. Shura is mentioned as a praise ...

(a method of taking decisions in Islamic societies) is analogous to the parliament. However, other scholars (notably from

Hizb ut-Tahrir Hizb ut-Tahrir (HT; ) is an international pan-Islamist and Islamic fundamentalist political organization whose stated aim is the re-establishment of the Islamic caliphate to unite the Muslim community (called ''ummah'') and implement sharia glo ...

) highlight what they consider fundamental differences between the shura system and the parliamentary system.

England

Early forms of assembly

England has long had a tradition of a body of men who would assist and advise the king on important matters. Under the

Anglo-Saxon The Anglo-Saxons, in some contexts simply called Saxons or the English, were a Cultural identity, cultural group who spoke Old English and inhabited much of what is now England and south-eastern Scotland in the Early Middle Ages. They traced t ...

kings, there was an advisory council, the

Witenagemot The witan () was the king's council in the Anglo-Saxon government of England from before the 7th century until the 11th century. It comprised important noblemen, including ealdormen, thegns, and bishops. Meetings of the witan were sometimes ...

. The name derives from the

Old English Old English ( or , or ), or Anglo-Saxon, is the earliest recorded form of the English language, spoken in England and southern and eastern Scotland in the Early Middle Ages. It developed from the languages brought to Great Britain by Anglo-S ...

ƿitena ȝemōt, or witena gemōt, for "meeting of wise men". The first recorded act of a witenagemot was the law code issued by King Æthelberht of Kent around 600, the earliest document which survives in sustained Old English prose; however, the Witan was certainly in existence long before then. The Witan, along with the folkmoots (local assemblies), is an important ancestor of the modern English parliament. As part of the

Norman Conquest The Norman Conquest (or the Conquest) was the 11th-century invasion and occupation of England by an army made up of thousands of Normans, Norman, French people, French, Flemish people, Flemish, and Bretons, Breton troops, all led by the Du ...

, the new king,

William I William I may refer to: Kings * William the Conqueror (–1087), also known as William I, King of England * William I of Sicily (died 1166) * William I of Scotland (died 1214), known as William the Lion * William I of the Netherlands and Luxembour ...

, did away with the Witenagemot, replacing it with a Curia Regis ("King's Council"). Membership of the Curia was largely restricted to the

tenants-in-chief In medieval and early modern Europe, a tenant-in-chief (or vassal-in-chief) was a person who held his lands under various forms of feudal land tenure directly from the king or territorial prince to whom he did homage, as opposed to holding them ...

, the few nobles who "rented" great estates directly from the king, along with

ecclesiastic {{Short pages monitor. Today the term lives on in the official names of national legislatures and other institutions in the North Germanic countries. In Yorkshire and former Danelaw areas of England, which were subject to Norse invasion and settlement, the wapentake was another name for the same institution.

Italy

The Sicilian Parliament, dating to 1097, evolved as the legislature of the Kingdom of Sicily.

Hungary

The Diet of Hungary, or originally Parlamentum Publicum and Parlamentum Generale (), became the supreme legislative institution in the Kingdom of Hungary in the Middle Ages, medieval kingdom of Hungary from the 1290s, and in its successor states, Royal Hungary and the Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen, Habsburg kingdom of Hungary throughout the Early Modern period. The name of the legislative body was originally "Parlamentum" during the Middle Ages, the "Diet" expression gained mostly in the Early Modern period. It convened at regular intervals with interruptions during the period of 1527 to 1918, and again until 1946. Some researchers have traced the roots of the Hungarian institution of national assemblies as far back as the 11th century. This based on documentary evidence that, on certain "important occasions" under the reigns of Ladislaus I of Hungary, King Ladislaus I and Coloman of Hungary, King Coloman "the Learned", assemblies were held on a national scale where both ecclesiastic and secular dignitaries made appearances. The first exact written mention of the word "parlamentum" (Parliament) for the nation-wide assembly originated during the reign of Andrew II of Hungary, King Andrew II in the Golden Bull of 1222, which reaffirmed the rights of the smaller nobles of the old and new classes of royal servants (servientes regis) against both the crown and the magnates, and to defend the rights of the whole nation against the crown by restricting the powers of the latter in certain fields and legalizing refusal to obey its unlawful/unconstitutional commands (the "''ius resistendi''"). The lesser nobles also began to present Andrew with grievances, a practice that evolved into the institution of the Hungarian Diet. An institutionalized Hungarian parliament emerged during the 14th and 15th centuries. Beginning under Charles I of Hungary, King Charles I, continuing under subsequent kings through into the reign of Matthias Corvinus, King Matthias I, the Diet was essentially convened by the king. However, under the rule of heavy handed kings like Louis the Great and during reign of the early absolutist Matthias Corvinus the parliaments were often convened to announce the royal decisions, and had no significant power of its own. Since the reign of the Jagiellonian dynasty, the parliament has regained most of its former power.

Poland

According to the ''Chronicles'' of Gallus Anonymus, the first legendary Polish ruler, Siemowit, who began the Piast dynasty, was chosen by an ancient ''Veche, wiec'' council. The idea of the ''wiec'' led to the development of the Polish parliament, the ''Sejm'', in around 1180. 20070907 sejm rp 100B5000

The term "sejm" comes from an old Polish expression denoting a meeting of the populace. The power of early sejms grew between 1146 and 1295, when the power of individual rulers waned and various councils grew stronger. Since the 14th century irregular sejms (described in various Latin sources as ''contentio generalis, conventio magna, conventio solemna, parlamentum, parlamentum generale, dieta'') have been convened by Poland's monarchs. From 1374, the king had to receive permission from that assembly to raise taxes and the 1454 Nieszawa Statutes granted the szlachta (nobles) unprecedented concessions and authority. The General Sejm (Polish ''sejm generalny'' or ''sejm walny''), first convoked by the John I Albert in 1493 near Piotrków Trybunalski, Piotrków, evolved from earlier regional and provincial meetings called ''sejmiks''. Simultaneously, the Senate of Poland, Senate was founded on the earlier ''curia regis'', convened at the king's discretion. Hence, the year 1493 marked the beginning of a Bicameral parliament, bicameral legislative body of government. With the subsequent development of Polish Golden Liberty in the next several decades, the Sejm's powers systematically increased. Poland was among the few countries in Europe where the parliament played an especially important role in its national identity as it contributed to the unity of the nation and the state. The general parliament of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth consisted of three estates – the King of Poland, the Senate (consisting of Ministers, Palatines, Castellans and Roman Catholic Bishops) and the Chamber of Envoys comprising 170 nobles acting on behalf of their holdings as well as representatives of major cities, who did not possess any voting privileges. In 1573, a convocation sejm established an Royal elections in Poland, elective monarchy in the Commonwealth.

Portugal

After its self-proclamation as an independent kingdom in 1139 by Afonso I of Portugal (followed by the recognition by the

in the Treaty of Zamora of 1143), the first historically established Cortes of the Kingdom of Portugal occurred in 1211 in Coimbra by initiative of Afonso II of Portugal. These established the first general laws of the kingdom (''Leis Gerais do Reino''): protection of the king's property, stipulation of measures for the administration of justice and the rights of his subjects to be protected from abuses by royal officials, and confirming the clerical donations of the previous king Sancho I of Portugal. These Cortes also affirmed the validity of canon law for the Church in Portugal, while introducing the prohibition of the purchase of lands by churches or monasteries (although they can be acquired by donations and legacies). After the conquest of Algarve in 1249, the Kingdom of Portugal completed its Reconquista. In 1254 King Afonso III of Portugal summoned Portuguese Cortes in Leiria, with the inclusion of bourgeoisie, burghers from old and newly incorporated municipalities. This inclusion establishes the Cortes of Leiria of 1254 as the second sample of modern parliamentarism in the history of Europe (after the

in 1188). In these Cortes the monetagio was introduced: a fixed sum was to be paid by the burghers to the Crown as a substitute for the septennium (the traditional revision of the face value of coinage by the Crown every seven years). These Cortes also introduced Staple staple laws on the Douro River, favoring the new royal city of Vila Nova de Gaia at the expense of the old episcopal city of Porto. The Portuguese Cortes met again under King Afonso III of Portugal in 1256, 1261 and 1273, always by royal summon. Medieval Kings of Portugal continued to rely on small assemblies of notables, and only summoned the full Cortes on extraordinary occasions. A Cortes would be called if the king wanted to introduce new taxes, change some fundamental laws, announce significant shifts in foreign policy (e.g. ratify treaties), or settle matters of royal succession, issues where the cooperation and assent of the towns was thought necessary. Changing taxation (especially requesting war subsidies), was probably the most frequent reason for convening the Cortes. As the nobles and clergy were largely tax-exempt, setting taxation involved intensive negotiations between the royal council and the bourgeoisie, burgher delegates at the Cortes. Delegates (''procuradores'') not only considered the king's proposals, but, in turn, also used the Cortes to submit petitions of their own to the royal council on a myriad of matters, e.g. extending and confirming town privileges, punishing abuses of officials, introducing new price controls, constraints on Jews, pledges on coinage, etc. The royal response to these petitions became enshrined as ordinances and statutes, thus giving the Cortes the aspect of a legislature. These petitions were originally referred to as ''aggravamentos'' (grievances) then ''artigos'' (articles) and eventually ''capitulos'' (chapters). In a Cortes-Gerais, petitions were discussed and voted upon separately by each estate and required the approval of at least two of the three estates before being passed up to the royal council. The proposal was then subject to royal veto (either accepted or rejected by the king in its entirety) before becoming law. Nonetheless, the exact extent of Cortes power was ambiguous. Kings insisted on their ancient prerogative to promulgate laws independently of the Cortes. The compromise, in theory, was that ordinances enacted in Cortes could only be modified or repealed by Cortes. But even that principle was often circumvented or ignored in practice. The Cortes probably had their heyday in the 14th and 15th centuries, reaching their apex when John I of Portugal relied almost wholly upon the bourgeoisie for his power. For a period after the 1383–1385 Crisis, the Cortes were convened almost annually. But as time went on, they became less important. Portuguese monarchs, tapping into the riches of the Portuguese empire overseas, grew less dependent on Cortes subsidies and convened them less frequently. John II of Portugal, John II (r.1481-1495) used them to break the high nobility, but dispensed with them otherwise. Manuel I of Portugal, Manuel I (r.1495-1521) convened them only four times in his long reign. By the time of Sebastian of Portugal, Sebastian (r.1554–1578), the Cortes was practically an irrelevance. Curiously, the Cortes gained a new importance with the Iberian Union of 1581, finding a role as the representative of Portuguese interests to the new Habsburg monarch. The Cortes played a critical role in the 1640 Restoration, and enjoyed a brief period of resurgence during the reign of John IV of Portugal (r.1640-1656). But by the end of the 17th century, it found itself sidelined once again. The last Cortes met in 1698, for the mere formality of confirming the appointment of Infante John (future John V of Portugal) as the successor of Peter II of Portugal. Thereafter, Portuguese kings ruled as absolute monarchs and no Cortes were assembled for over a century. This state of affairs came to an end with the Liberal Revolution of 1820, which set in motion the introduction of a new constitution, and a permanent and proper parliament, that however inherited the name of Cortes Gerais.

Russia

The Zemsky Sobor, zemsky sobor (Russian: зе́мский собо́р) was the first Russian parliament of the feudal Estates type, in the 16th and 17th centuries. The term roughly means assembly of the land. It could be summoned either by Tsardom of Russia, tsar, or Patriarch of Moscow and all Rus', patriarch, or the Boyar Duma. Three categories of population, comparable to the Estates-General of France but with the numbering of the first two Estates reversed, participated in the assembly: * Nobility and high bureaucracy, including the Boyar Duma * The Holy Sobor of high Russian Orthodox Church, Orthodox clergy * Representatives of merchants and townspeople (third estate) The name of the parliament of nowadays Russian Federation is the Federal Assembly of Russia. The term for its lower house, State Duma (which is better known than the Federal Assembly itself, and is often mistaken for the entirety of the parliament) comes from the Russian word ''думать'' (''dumat''), "to think". The Boyar Duma was an advisory council to the grand princes and tsars of Tsardom of Russia, Muscovy. The Duma was discontinued by Peter I of Russia, Peter the Great, who transferred its functions to the Governing Senate in 1711.

Novgorod and Pskov

The ''veche'' was the highest legislature and judicial authority in the republic of Novgorod Republic, Novgorod until 1478. In its sister state, Pskov Republic, Pskov, a separate veche operated until 1510. Since the Novgorod revolution of 1137 ousted the ruling grand prince, the veche became the supreme state authority. After the reforms of 1410, the veche was restructured on a model similar to that of Venice, becoming the Commons chamber of the parliament. An upper Senate-like Council of Lords was also created, with title membership for all former city magistrates. Some sources indicate that veche membership may have become full-time, and parliament deputies were now called ''vechniks''. It is recounted that the Novgorod assembly could be summoned by anyone who rung the veche bell (instrument), bell, although it is more likely that the common procedure was more complex. This bell was a symbol of republican sovereignty and independence. The whole population of the city—boyars, merchants, and common citizens—then gathered at Yaroslav's Court. Separate assemblies could be held in the districts of Novgorod. In Pskov the veche assembled in the court of the Trinity Cathedral in Pskov, Trinity cathedral.

Roman Catholic Church

"Conciliarism" or the "conciliar movement", was a reform movement in the 14th and 15th century Roman Catholic Church which held that final authority in spiritual matters resided with the Roman Church as corporation of Christians, embodied by a Ecumenical council, general church council, not with the pope. In effect, the movement sought – ultimately, in vain – to create an All-Catholic Parliament. Its struggle with the Papacy had many points in common with the struggle of parliaments in specific countries against the authority of Kings and other secular rulers.

Scotland

From the 10th century the Kingdom of Alba was ruled by chiefs (''Taoiseach, toisechs'') and subkings (''mormaers'') under the suzerainty, real or nominal, of a High King. Popular assemblies, as in Ireland, were involved in law-making, and sometimes in king-making, although the introduction of tanistry—naming a successor in the lifetime of a king—made the second less than common. These early assemblies cannot be considered "parliaments" in the later sense of the word, and were entirely separate from the later, Norman-influenced, institution. The

Parliament of Scotland In modern politics and history, a parliament is a legislative body of government. Generally, a modern parliament has three functions: Representation (politics), representing the Election#Suffrage, electorate, making laws, and overseeing ...

evolved during the Middle Ages from the King's Council of Bishops and Earls. The unicameral parliament is first found on record, referred to as a ''Parliament of Scotland, colloquium'', in 1235 at Kirkliston (a village now in Edinburgh). By the early fourteenth century the attendance of knights and freehold (law), freeholders had become important, and from 1326 burgh commissioners attended. Consisting of the Three Estates; of clerics, lay

and burgh commissioners sitting in a single chamber, the Scottish parliament acquired significant powers over particular issues. Most obviously it was needed for consent for

taxation A tax is a mandatory financial charge or levy imposed on an individual or legal person, legal entity by a governmental organization to support government spending and public expenditures collectively or to Pigouvian tax, regulate and reduce nega ...

(although taxation was only raised irregularly in Scotland in the medieval period), but it also had a strong influence over justice, foreign policy, war, and all manner of other legislation, whether political, ecclesiastical, social or economic. Parliamentary business was also carried out by "sister" institutions, before c. 1500 by General Council (Scotland), General Council and thereafter by the Convention of Estates. These could carry out much business also dealt with by Parliament – taxation, legislation and policy-making – but lacked the ultimate authority of a full parliament. The parliament, which is also referred to as the Estates of Scotland, the Three Estates, the Scots Parliament or the auld Scots Parliament (English language, Eng: ''old''), met until the Acts of Union merged the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of England, creating the new

Parliament of Great Britain The Parliament of Great Britain was formed in May 1707 following the ratification of the Acts of Union 1707, Acts of Union by both the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland. The Acts ratified the treaty of Union which created a ...

in 1707. Following the 1997 Scottish devolution referendum, and the passing of the Scotland Act 1998 by the Parliament of the United Kingdom, the Scottish Parliament was reconvened on 1 July 1999, although with much more limited powers than its 18th-century predecessor. The parliament has sat since 2004 at its newly constructed Scottish Parliament Building in Edinburgh, situated at the foot of the Royal Mile, next to the royal palace of Holyroodhouse.

Spain

Although there are documented councils held in 873, 1020, 1050 and 1063, there was no representation of commoners. What is considered to be the first parliament, the

, was held in the

in 1188. According to the UNESCO, the Decreta of Leon of 1188 is the oldest documentary manifestation of the European parliamentary system. In addition, UNESCO granted the 1188 Cortes of Alfonso IX the title of "Memory of the World" and the city of

has been recognized as the "Cradle of Parliamentarism". After coming to power, King Alfonso IX, facing an attack by his two neighbors, Kingdom of Castile, Castile and Portugal, decided to summon his curia regis, royal council (). This was a medieval organization composed of aristocrats and bishops but because of the seriousness of the situation and the need to maximize political support, Alfonso IX took the decision to also call the representatives of the urban middle class from the most important cities of the kingdom to the assembly. León's Cortes dealt with matters like the right to private property, the inviolability of domicile, the right to appeal to justice opposite the King and the obligation of the King to consult the Cortes before entering a war. Prelates, nobles, and commoners met separately in the three estates of the Cortes. In this meeting, new laws were approved to protect commoners against the arbitrarities of nobles, prelates, and the king. This important set of laws is known as the . Following this event, new Cortes would appear in the other different territories that would make up Spain: Principality of Catalonia in 1192, the Kingdom of Castile in 1250, Kingdom of Aragon in 1274, Kingdom of Valencia in 1283 and Kingdom of Navarre in 1300. After the union of the Kingdoms of Leon and Castile under the Crown of Castile, their Cortes were united as well in 1258. The Castilian Cortes had representatives from Burgos, Toledo, León, Seville, Córdoba, Murcia, Jaén, Zamora, Segovia, Ávila, Salamanca, Cuenca, Toro, Valladolid, Soria, Madrid, Guadalajara and Granada (after 1492). The Cortes' assent was required to pass new taxes, and could also advise the king on other matters. The Revolt of the Comuneros, comunero rebels intended a stronger role for the Cortes, but were defeated by the forces of Habsburg Spain, Habsburg Emperor Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V in 1521. The Cortes maintained some power, however, though it became more of a consultative entity. However, by the time of Philip II of Spain, King Philip II, Charles's son, the Castilian Cortes had come under functionally complete royal control, with its delegates dependent on the Crown for their income. The Cortes of the Crown of Aragon kingdoms retained their power to control the king's spending with regard to the finances of those kingdoms. But after the War of the Spanish Succession and the victory of another royal house – the House of Bourbon, Bourbons – and King Philip V of Spain, Philip V, their Cortes were suppressed (those of Aragon and Valencia, Spain, Valencia in 1707, and those of Catalonia and the Balearic islands in 1714). The first Cortes representing the whole of Spain (and the Spanish empire of the day) assembled in 1812, in Cadiz, where it operated as a government in exile as at that time most of the rest of Spain was in the hands of Napoleon's army.

Switzerland

The Federal Diet of Switzerland was one of the longest-lived representative bodies in history, continuing from the 13th century to 1848.

Ukraine

Stemming from the tribal assemblies of the ancient Slavs, the ''viche'' (from Proto-Slavonic *větje, meaning 'council', 'counsel' or 'talk') functioned not only as a form of self-organization in cities of medieval Kievan Rusʹ but also as a form of protect against policies of the Princes. The tradition of viche contributed to the culture of peaceful assemblies in contemporary Ukraine. The Sich Rada (council) was an institution of Zaporizhian Cossacks, Cossack administration from the 16th to the 18th century. With the establishment of the Cossack Hetmanate in 1648, it was officially known as the General Military Council, or Cossack Rada, until 1750. The Central Council of Ukraine, or the Central Rada, founded on March 4, 1917, was the All-Ukrainian council of the Ukrainian People's Republic, which declared its full state independence in the Fourth Universal of the Ukrainian Central Council in 1918. The contemporary Ukrainian parliament is called the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine.

Development of modern parliaments

The development of the modern concept of parliamentary government dates back to the Kingdom of Great Britain (1707–1800).

United Kingdom

The

was formed in 1707 by the Acts of Union that replaced the former parliaments of England and Parliament of Scotland, Scotland. A Acts of Union 1800, further union in 1801 united the Parliament of Great Britain and the Parliament of Ireland into a Parliament of the United Kingdom. The British Parliament is often referred to as the ''Mother of Parliaments'' (in fact a misquotation of John Bright, who remarked in 1865 that "England is the Mother of Parliaments") because the Parliament of the United Kingdom, British Parliament has been the model for most other parliamentary systems, and its Act of Parliament, Acts have created many other parliaments. Many nations with parliaments have to some degree emulated the British "three-tier" model known as the Westminster system. Most countries in Europe and the Commonwealth of Nations, Commonwealth have similarly organised parliaments with a largely ceremonial head of state who formally opens and closes parliament, a large elected lower house and a smaller, upper house. The Parliament of the United Kingdom has been described as characterised by the stability of its governing institutions and its capacity to absorb change. In the United Kingdom, Parliament consists of the British House of Commons, House of Commons, the House of Lords, and the Monarch. The House of Commons is composed of 650 members who are directly elected by British citizens to represent single-member constituencies. The leader of a party that wins more than half the seats, or less than half but is able to gain the support of smaller parties to achieve a majority in the house, is invited by the Monarch to form a government. The House of Lords is a body of long-serving, unelected members: Lords Temporal (92 of whom inherit their titles, of whom 90 are elected internally by members of the House to lifetime seats), 588 of whom have been appointed to lifetime seats, and Lords Spiritual (26 bishops, who are part of the house while they remain in office). Legislation can originate from either the Lords or the Commons. It is voted on in several distinct stages, called reading (legislature), readings, in each house. First reading is merely a formality. Second reading is where the bill as a whole is considered. Third reading is detailed consideration of clauses of the bill. In addition to the three readings a bill also goes through a committee stage where it is considered in great detail. Once the bill has been passed by one house it goes to the other and essentially repeats the process. If after the two sets of readings, there are disagreements between the versions that the two houses passed it is returned to the first house for consideration of the amendments made by the second. If it passes through the amendment stage Royal Assent is granted and the bill becomes law as an Act of Parliament. The House of Lords is the less powerful of the two houses as a result of the Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949. These Acts removed the veto power of the Lords over a great deal of legislation. If a bill is certified by the Speaker of the House of Commons (United Kingdom), Speaker of the House of Commons as a money bill (i.e. acts raising taxes and similar) then the Lords can only block it for a month. If an ordinary bill originates in the Commons the Lords can only block it for a maximum of one session of Parliament. The exceptions to this rule are things like bills to prolong the life of a Parliament beyond five years. In addition to functioning as the second chamber of Parliament, the House of Lords was also the final court of appeal for much of the law of the United Kingdom—a combination of judicial and legislative function that recalls its origin in the Curia Regis. This changed in October 2009 when the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom opened and acquired the former jurisdiction of the House of Lords. Since 1999, there has been a Scottish Parliament in Edinburgh, and, since 2020, a Senedd—or Welsh Parliament—in Cardiff. However, these national, unicameral legislatures do not have complete power over their respective countries of the United Kingdom, holding only those powers devolved to them by Westminster from 1997. They cannot legislate on defence issues, currency, or national taxation (e.g. VAT, or Income Tax). Additionally, the bodies can be theoretically dissolved, at any given time, by the British Parliament without the consent of the devolved government.

Sweden

In Sweden, the half-century period of parliamentary government beginning with Charles XII's death in 1718 and ending with Gustav III of Sweden, Gustav III's self-coup in 1772 is known as the Age of Liberty. During this period, civil rights were expanded and power shifted from the monarch to parliament. While suffrage did not become universal, the taxed peasantry was represented in Parliament, although with little influence and commoners without taxed property had no suffrage at all.

Poland

Changes in Poland's internal situation in the 1980s led to the Round Table Talks which ended in the signing of the famous Round Table Agreement on 5 April 1989. The Agreement spearheaded the evolutionary transformation of the country's political system; independence was regained once again. The document Position on Political Reforms provided grounds for amending the Constitution. The amended Constitution restored the office of the President of the Polish People's Republic and the Senate – both to be elected in free and democratic elections. In the Sejm, the opposition was allocated 35% of the mandates. Thus the so called "contract" elections could not be fully democratic. The Sejm (first chamber) became superior to the Senate (second chamber). In addition, the institution of National Assembly was established, consisting of the Sejm and the Senate sitting jointly to elect the President of the Polish People's Republic. A declaration of the Solidarity Citizens' Committee heralded the prompt enactment of a new, democratic constitution and electoral law. As a result of Solidarity's success in elections to the Sejm and the Senate, profound reforms of the political system were undertaken by adopting an amendment to the Constitution on 29 December 1989. In the Constitution, the Republic of Poland was defined as a democratic state ruled by law. As the provisional constitution lasted too long, it was decided to adopt a provisional regulation in the form of the so called Small Constitution. The President signed it on 17 October 1992. The Small Constitution regulated above all the relationship between the executive and legislative powers, on the basis of the doctrine of separation of powers. A bicameral parliament was maintained. After long years of legislative work, on 2 April 1997, the National Assembly adopted The Constitution of the Republic of Poland. It entered into force on 17 October 1997. The new Constitution introduced a "rationalised" parliamentary-cabinet system in Poland. It is the first Constitution of the Third Republic. That was the first Constitution of the Third Republic. The act defined the position of the Sejm and the Senate within the system without using the term "parliament". It adopted the doctrine of separation of powers, which provided for a balance between the legislative and executive powers. In practice the binding provisions of the Constitution ensure the supremacy of the legislative power. Both chambers are autonomous bodies, independent of each other, with their own powers. The Constitution retained the principle of bicameralism of the legislature. The Sejm and the Senate sitting jointly constitute the National Assembly. Characteristically, the new Constitution conferred very extensive powers on the Sejm. On the other hand, the powers of the Senate are limited, as in the Constitutions of 1921 and 1992.

Parliamentary system

Many parliaments are part of a

of government, in which the executive branch, executive is constitutionally answerable to the parliament from the genetic moment of the birth of Government (Motion of confidence), to the final moment of his termination (Motion of no confidence), through all the commitments that can be added to the Confidence and supply, government contract from time to time through Motion (parliamentary procedure), motions and Resolution (law), resolutions. Some restrict the use of the word ''parliament'' to parliamentary systems, while others use the word for any elected legislative body. Parliaments usually consist of ''Chambers of parliament, chambers'' or ''houses'', and are usually either bicameralism, bicameral or unicameralism, unicameral although more complex models exist, or have existed (''see Tricameralism''). In some parliamentary systems, the prime minister is a member of the parliament (e.g. Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, in the United Kingdom), whereas in others they are not (e.g. Prime Minister of the Netherlands, in the Netherlands). They are commonly the leader of the majority party in the lower house of parliament, but only hold the office as long as the "confidence of the house" is maintained. If members of the lower house lose faith in the leader for whatever reason, they can call a vote of no confidence and force the prime minister to resign. This can be particularly dangerous to a government when the distribution of seats among different parties is relatively even, in which case a new election is often called shortly thereafter. However, in case of general discontent with the head of government, their replacement can be made very smoothly without all the complications that it represents in the case of a presidential system. The parliamentary system can be contrasted with a

, such as the United States Congress, American congressional system, which operates under a stricter separation of powers, whereby the executive does not form part of, nor is it appointed by, the parliamentary or legislative body. In such a system, congresses do not select or dismiss head of government, heads of governments, and governments cannot request an early dissolution as may be the case for parliaments. Some states, such as France, have a semi-presidential system which falls between parliamentary and congressional systems, combining a powerful head of state (president) with a head of government, the prime minister, who is responsible to parliament.

Women in parliament

File:10% Share of women in parliament, OWID.svg, Greater than 10% File:20% Share of women in parliament, OWID.svg, Greater than 20% File:30% Share of women in parliament, OWID.svg, Greater than 30%

List of national parliaments

Parliaments of the European Union

* European Parliament * Parliament of Austria (consisting of the National Council (Austria), National Council and the Federal Council (Austria), Federal Council) * Belgian Federal Parliament (consisting of the Chamber of Representatives of Belgium, Chamber of Representatives and the Senate of Belgium, Senate) * National Assembly of Bulgaria * Croatian Parliament * House of Representatives of Cyprus, House of Representatives (Cyprus) * Parliament of the Czech Republic (consisting of the Chamber of Deputies of the Czech Republic, Chamber of Deputies and the Senate of the Czech Republic, Senate) * Folketing (Denmark) * Riigikogu (Estonia) * Parliament of Finland (Eduskunta) * Parliament of France (consisting of the French National Assembly, National Assembly and the Senate of France, Senate) * Bundestag and Bundesrat of Germany, Bundesrat (Germany) * Hellenic Parliament (Greece) * National Assembly of Hungary, National Assembly (Hungary) * Oireachtas (Ireland) (consisting of the President of the Republic of Ireland, President of Ireland, Dáil Éireann (Lower House) and Seanad Éireann (Senate)) * Parliament of Italy (consisting of the Chamber of Deputies (Italy), Chamber of Deputies and the Senate of the Republic (Italy), Senate) * Saeima (Latvia) * Seimas (Lithuania) * Chamber of Deputies of Luxembourg, Chamber of Deputies (Luxembourg) * House of Representatives of Malta, House of Representatives (Malta) * States General of the Netherlands (consisting of the House of Representatives (Netherlands), Chamber of Representatives and the Senate (Netherlands), Senate) * Storting (Norway) * National Assembly of the Republic of Poland (consisting of the Sejm of the Republic of Poland, Sejm and the Senate of the Republic of Poland, Senate) * Assembly of the Republic of Portugal, Assembly of the Republic (Portugal) * Parliament of Romania (consisting of the Chamber of Deputies of Romania, Chamber of Deputies and the Senate of Romania, Senate) * National Council of the Slovak Republic, National Council (Slovakia) * Parliament of Slovenia (consisting of the National Assembly (Slovenia), National Assembly and the National Council (Slovenia), National Council) * Cortes Generales (Spain) (consisting of the Congress of Deputies of Spain, Congress of Deputies and the Senate of Spain, Senate) * Riksdag (Sweden)

Others

* Parliament of Albania * General Council of Andorra * Parliament of Australia (consisting of the Monarchy of Australia, King, the Australian House of Representatives, House of Representatives, and the Australian Senate, Senate) ** The federal government of the Commonwealth of Australia has a bicameral parliament and each of States and territories of Australia, Australia's six states has a bicameral parliament except for Queensland, which has a unicameral parliament. * Parliament of The Bahamas * Jatiya Sangsad (Bangladesh) * Parliament of Barbados * Parliament of Canada (consisting of the Monarchy of Canada, King, an Upper House styled the Senate of Canada, Senate, and the House of Commons of Canada, House of Commons) ** The federal government of Canada has a bicameral parliament, and each of Provinces of Canada, Canada's 10 provinces has a unicameral parliament. * National People's Congress, National People's Congress of the People's Republic of China * Løgtingið (Faroe Islands) * Parliament of Fiji *

* States of Deliberation of Guernsey * Althing, Althing (Parliament of Iceland) - Oldest surviving parliament * Parliament of India (consisting of the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha) * People's Consultative Assembly of Indonesia (consisting of the People's Representative Council and the Regional Representative Council) * Council of Representatives of Iraq * Knesset of Israel * National Diet of Japan (consisting of the House of Representatives (Japan), House of Representatives and the House of Councillors (Japan), House of Councillors) * States Assembly of Jersey * Parliament of Kazakhstan (consisting of the Mäjilis and the Senate of Kazakhstan, Senate) * Parliament of Lebanon * Tynwald, the parliament of the Isle of Man * Parliament of Malaysia * Parliament of Moldova * Parliament of Montenegro * Parliament of Morocco * Parliament of Nauru * Parliament of Nepal (recently reorganised) * Parliament of New Zealand (consisting of the King of New Zealand, King and NZ House of Representatives, House of Representatives) * Assembly of the Republic of North Macedonia * Majlis-e-Shoora, Pakistan * National Assembly of Serbia * Parliament of Singapore * Parliament of South Africa * National Assembly of South Korea * Parliament of Sri Lanka * Legislative Yuan of Taiwan * National Assembly of Thailand * Parliament of the Central Tibetan Administration * Parliament of Trinidad and Tobago * Grand National Assembly of Turkey * Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine * Parliament of the United Kingdom (consisting of the House of Lords of the United Kingdom, House of Lords and the House of Commons of the United Kingdom, House of Commons * Parliament of Zimbabwe

List of subnational parliaments

Australia

Australia's States and territories: *Parliament of New South Wales *Parliament of Victoria *Parliament of Queensland *Parliament of Western Australia *Parliament of South Australia *Parliament of Tasmania *Australian Capital Territory Legislative Assembly *Parliament of the Northern Territory

Belgium

In the federal (bicameral) kingdom of Belgium, there is a curious asymmetrical constellation serving as directly elected legislatures for three "territorial" ''regions''—Flanders (Dutch language, Dutch), Brussels (bilingual, certain peculiarities of competence, also the only region not comprising any of the 10 provinces) and Wallonia (French)—and three cultural ''communities''—Flemish (Dutch, competent in Flanders and for the Dutch-speaking inhabitants of Brussels), Francophone (French, for Wallonia and for Francophones in Brussels) and German (for speakers of that language in a few designated municipalities in the east of the Walloon Region, living alongside Francophones but under two different regimes): * Flemish Parliament serves both the Flemish Community and the region of Flanders (in all matters of regional competence, its decisions have no effect in Brussels-Capital Region) * Parliament of the French Community * Parliament of the German-speaking Community * Parliament of Wallonia * Parliament of the Brussels-Capital Region (within the capital's regional assembly, however, there also exist two ''Community Commissions'', a Flemish Community Commission, Dutch-speaking one and a French Community Commission, Francophone one, for various matters split up by linguistic community but under Brussels' regional competence, and even "joint community commissions" consisting of both for certain institutions that could be split up but are not.

Brazil

Canada

Canada's provinces and territories: *Legislature of Ontario, Parliament of Ontario *Quebec Legislature *General Assembly of Nova Scotia *New Brunswick Legislature *Manitoba Legislature *Parliament of British Columbia *General Assembly of Prince Edward Island *Saskatchewan Legislature *Alberta Legislature *General Assembly of Newfoundland and Labrador *Legislative Assembly of the Northwest Territories *Yukon Legislative Assembly *Legislative Assembly of Nunavut

China

* Legislative Council of Hong Kong * Legislative Assembly of Macau

Denmark

* Inatsisartut * Løgting

Finland

* Åland

Germany

* Landtag#German Legislatures, State legislatures of Germany Except for the city-states of Berlin, Bremen and Hamburg, where the city council is also the State Parliament (Germany), state parliament, all state parliaments are called ''Landtag'': *Abgeordnetenhaus of Berlin *Bürgerschaft of Bremen, Bremische Bürgerschaft *Hamburg Parliament, Bürgerschaft der Freien und Hansestadt Hamburg *Landtag of Baden-Württemberg *Landtag of Bavaria *Landtag of Brandenburg *Landtag of Hesse *Landtag of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern *Landtag of Lower Saxony *Landtag of North Rhine-Westphalia *Landtag of Rhineland-Palatinate *Landtag of Saarland *Landtag of Saxony *Landtag of Saxony-Anhalt *Landtag of Schleswig-Holstein *Landtag of Thuringia

India

Indian states and territorial legislative assemblies

Indian states legislative councils

* Andhra Pradesh Legislative Council * Bihar Legislative Council * Karnataka Legislative Council * Maharashtra Legislative Council * Telangana Legislative Council * Uttar Pradesh Legislative Council

Malaysia

Netherlands

* Provincial council (Netherlands) * States General of the Netherlands

Norway

Philippines

* Bangsamoro Parliament, Parliament of the Bangsamoro Autonomous Region

Portugal

* Legislative Assembly of the Azores * Legislative Assembly of Madeira

Spain

Sri Lanka

* Provincial Councils (Sri Lanka)

Switzerland

Trinidad and Tobago

* Tobago House of Assembly

United Kingdom

* Northern Ireland Assembly * Scottish Parliament * Senedd (Welsh Parliament)

Other parliaments

Contemporary supranational parliaments

:''List is not exhaustive'' * Pan-African Parliament * Central American Parliament * Latin American Parliament * European Parliament

Equivalent national legislatures

* Majlis, e.g. in Iran * in Indonesia: People's Consultative Assembly, consists of People's Representative Council (elected, legislative lower house) and Regional Representative Council (elected, legislative upper house with limited powers)

Defunct

* Parliament of Southern Ireland (1921–1922) * People's Parliament (1940s) * Silesian Parliament (1922–1945) * Parliament of Northern Ireland (1921–1973) * Batasang Pambansa, Batasang Pambansâ (1978–1986) * National Assembly of the Republic of China (1913–2005)

References

External links

Comparative Legislators Database
A dataset on over 67,000 legislators from 16 countries. *
United Kingdom Parliament
{{Authority control Legislatures Westminster system Parliamentary procedure

Etymology

Early parliaments

England

Early forms of assembly

Italy

Hungary

Poland

Portugal

Russia

Novgorod and Pskov

Roman Catholic Church

Scotland

Spain

Switzerland

Ukraine

Development of modern parliaments

United Kingdom

Sweden

Poland

Parliamentary system

Women in parliament

List of national parliaments

Parliaments of the European Union

Others

List of subnational parliaments

Australia

Belgium

Brazil

Canada

China

Denmark

Finland

Germany

India

Indian states and territorial legislative assemblies

Indian states legislative councils

Malaysia

Netherlands

Norway

Philippines

Portugal

Spain

Sri Lanka

Switzerland

Trinidad and Tobago

United Kingdom

Other parliaments

Contemporary supranational parliaments

Equivalent national legislatures

Defunct

See also

References

External links