Operation Kitona
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Operation Kitona was a Rwandan/Ugandan offensive that marked the beginning of the
Second Congo War The Second Congo War, also known as Africa's World War or the Great War of Africa, was a major conflict that began on 2 August 1998, in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, just over a year after the First Congo War. The war initially erupted ...
. Rwanda hoped to depose
Laurent-Désiré Kabila Laurent-Désiré Kabila (; 27 November 1939 – 16 January 2001) usually known as Laurent Kabila or Kabila the Father (American English, US: ), was a Congolese rebel and politician who served as the third president of the Democratic Republic of t ...
and install a government more favorable to Rwanda's interests by quickly taking control of Kinshasa and the strategic western province of
Bas-Congo Kongo Central (), formerly Bas-Congo, is one of the 26 provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Its capital is Matadi. History At the time of independence, the area now encompassing Kongo Central was part of the greater province of ...
(today Kongo Central). On August 4, 1998, joint Rwandan and Ugandan forces launched a
surprise attack Military deception (MILDEC) is an attempt by a military unit to gain an advantage during warfare by misleading adversary decision makers into taking action or inaction that creates favorable conditions for the deceiving force. This is usually ...
on Kitona airbase in Western Congo using hijacked civilian airliners. While initially successful in taking control of major ports and infrastructure, Zimbabwean and Angolan intervention prevented the Rwandans and Ugandans from taking control of Kinshasa. The invading forces were forced to withdraw to the jungles of Angola until they were evacuated by air to Rwanda in late 1998. Today the operation is studied for its daring initial aerial assault, as well as the intelligence failures on the Rwandan side.


Prelude

In the aftermath of the
First Congo War The First Congo War, also known as Africa's First World War, was a Civil war, civil and international military conflict that lasted from 24 October 1996 to 16 May 1997, primarily taking place in Zaire (which was renamed the Democratic Republi ...
, Rwanda, Uganda and Eastern Congolese allied groups had installed
Laurent-Désiré Kabila Laurent-Désiré Kabila (; 27 November 1939 – 16 January 2001) usually known as Laurent Kabila or Kabila the Father (American English, US: ), was a Congolese rebel and politician who served as the third president of the Democratic Republic of t ...
in May 1997 as leader of the newly renamed
Democratic Republic of the Congo The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), also known as the DR Congo, Congo-Kinshasa, or simply the Congo (the last ambiguously also referring to the neighbouring Republic of the Congo), is a country in Central Africa. By land area, it is t ...
. In turn, Kabila appointed many Rwandans as key officials in his new government and armed forces; including
James Kabarebe James Kabarebe (born 1959) is a Rwandan retired military officer who serves as Minister of State for Regional Integration in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Kabarebe was a key figure in both the First Congo War and the Second Congo War as a c ...
who served as the
Congolese army Congolese or Kongolese may refer to: African peoples * Congolese people (disambiguation) * Kongo people, a Bantu ethnic group who live along the Atlantic coast of Africa from Pointe-Noire (Republic of Congo) to Luanda, Angola, primarily defined by ...
Chief of Staff. For over a year Rwandan soldiers and officials supported the Kabila Government, using the influence to export raw materials to Rwanda. By late 1997 the Congolese population was growing weary of the
Rwandan Patriotic Army The Rwandan Defence Force (RDF, , , ) is the military of Rwanda. Prior to 1994, Rwanda's military was officially known as the Rwandan Armed Forces (FAR), but following the Rwandan Civil War and the Rwandan genocide, the Rwandan Patriotic Front ( ...
, which fought anti-Rwandan insurgencies in the eastern Congo with considerable brutality, smuggled natural resources out of the country, confiscated land and dwellings, and disrespected civilians. By mid-1998, internal ethnic tensions convinced Kabila that Rwandan influence was a threat to his power. On July 13, he removed all Rwandans from government positions and on July 27 ordered all remaining RPA and UPDF soldiers to leave the country. Kabila replaced these losses with friends, local militias, and surviving Hutu Génocidaires.
Banyamulenge The Banyamulenge are a community that lives mainly in South Kivu Province, Democratic Republic of the Congo, with roots from mainly Rwanda. The Banyamulenge are culturally and socially related to the Banyarwanda Tutsi found in Rwanda, with mos ...
(Congolese Tutsis) were also removed from power as they were thought to be Rwandan sympathizers. These actions angered many in the Rwandan government, as it posed a threat to their influence in the Congo as well as the safety of Tutsis in both the DRC and Rwanda.
Paul Kagame Paul Kagame ( ; born 23 October 1957) is a Rwandan politician and former military officer who has been the President of Rwanda since 2000. He was previously a commander of the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), a rebel armed force which invaded ...
, Rwandan Minister of Defence, concerned of these outcomes for months, had begun drawing up plans for a second military intervention in the Congo in April 1998.


Rwandan plans

Kabarebe proposed flying Rwandan troops over 1,900 km (1,200 miles) to Kitona Air Base in western Congo, only 320 km (200 miles) from
Kinshasa Kinshasa (; ; ), formerly named Léopoldville from 1881–1966 (), is the Capital city, capital and Cities of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, largest city of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Kinshasa is one of the world's fastest-grow ...
. Here they would be able to take control of the economically important
Bas-Congo province Kongo Central (), formerly Bas-Congo, is one of the 26 provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Its capital is Matadi. History At the time of independence, the area now encompassing Kongo Central was part of the greater province of ...
, home to Congo's only seaports, as well as the
Inga Dams The Inga Dams (French language, French: ''Barrages d'Inga''; Dutch language, Dutch: ''Ingadam'') are two hydroelectric dams connected to one of the largest waterfalls in the world, Inga Falls. They are located in the western Democratic Republic o ...
, the main source of electricity for western Congo. In the ensuing chaos, they would then march to Kinshasa, depose Kabila, and install another pro-Rwandan regime. Kabarebe's experience in the Congo convinced him that various local dissidents, from interned Banyamulenge to ex-FAZ soldiers, would join the Rwandans and help swiftly depose the Kabila government.


Opening moves in Goma

On the evening of August 2 in
Goma Goma is a city in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is the Capital city, capital and largest city of the North Kivu, North Kivu Province; it is located on the northern shore of Lake Kivu and shares borders with the Bukumu Chiefdo ...
, FAC General Sylvain Mbuki and his deputy went to the local Rwandan-controlled Radio-Télévision Nationale Congolaise station. Once there, he announced a mutiny in the FAC and declared his intention to overthrow Kabila. While this message was broadcast, commandos from the Rwandan High Command Unit (HCU) moved into the city seized
Goma International Airport Goma International Airport ( French: ''Aéroport International de Goma''), colloquially known by its acronym AIG based on its French name, is the primary international airport serving Goma, the capital of North Kivu province in the Democratic R ...
as well as four civilian airliners and a number of lighter transports. The following day, Rwandan HCU commandos took control of
Goma International Airport Goma International Airport ( French: ''Aéroport International de Goma''), colloquially known by its acronym AIG based on its French name, is the primary international airport serving Goma, the capital of North Kivu province in the Democratic R ...
, hijacking four civilian aircraft, 2
Boeing 727 The Boeing 727 is an American Narrow-body aircraft, narrow-body airliner that was developed and produced by Boeing Commercial Airplanes. After the heavier Boeing 707, 707 quad-jet was introduced in 1958, Boeing addressed the demand for shorter ...
s and 2
Boeing 707 The Boeing 707 is an early American long-range Narrow-body aircraft, narrow-body airliner, the first jetliner developed and produced by Boeing Commercial Airplanes. Developed from the Boeing 367-80 prototype, the initial first flew on Decembe ...
s, sitting on the runway. On August 4, the commandos were joined by more Rwandan and Ugandan soldiers, including a Ugandan light artillery unit, numbering over 500 soldiers in total. The pilots were then ordered at gunpoint to fly west to Kitona Air Base.


Initial successes


Landing in Kitona

On the morning of August 4, the two 727s landed first, using their
airstair An airstair is a set of steps built into an aircraft so that passengers may board and alight the aircraft. The stairs are often built into a clamshell-style door on the aircraft. Airstairs eliminate the need for passengers to use a Ground s ...
s to discharge the HCU commandos as the aircraft were still taxiing. The Kitona Air Base's airfield and main facilities were captured within 30 minutes, and the remaining two 707s then landed and offloaded their troops and supplies. The four aircraft continued to fly between Kitona and Rwanda, and by August 5 over 3,000 Rwandan and Ugandan troops had been airlifted into Kitona. After the airfield was secured, Kabarebe convinced and bribed local Congolese army units to join his invasion force. These new recruits added over 2,000 Congolese Rebels, as well as Type 59 and
Type 62 The Norinco Type 62 () is a Chinese light tank developed in the early 1960s, based on the Chinese Type 59 with a reduced main gun calibre, lighter armour and a smaller suite of electronics and other equipment to help reduce weight. Bearing ...
tanks and
ZU-23 The ZU-23-2, also known as ZU-23, is a Soviet towed 23×152mm anti-aircraft twin-barreled autocannon. ZU stands for ''Zenitnaya Ustanovka'' (Russian: Зенитная Установка) – anti-aircraft mount. The GRAU index is 2A13. Developm ...
anti-aircraft cannons.


Actions on the coast

This force quickly overwhelmed local Congolese forces loyal to Kabila. By August 5, the nearby oil infrastructure at
Moanda Moanda may refer to * Moanda, Democratic Republic of the Congo, a town in the Democratic Republic of the Congo * Moanda, Gabon, a town in Gabon ** Moanda railway station, a train station in Moanda, Gabon ** Moanda Airport, an airport in Moand ...
and the port of
Banana A banana is an elongated, edible fruit – botanically a berry – produced by several kinds of large treelike herbaceous flowering plants in the genus '' Musa''. In some countries, cooking bananas are called plantains, distinguishing the ...
had been captured. Widespread rape and looting ensued in areas occupied by the Rwandans. August 7 saw the capture of Boma, 100 km (62 miles) inland of Kitona. On August 10,
Matadi Matadi is the chief sea port of the Democratic Republic of the Congo and the capital of the Kongo Central province, adjacent to the border with Angola. It had a population of 245,862 (2004). Matadi is situated on the left bank of the Congo River, ...
, Congo's most important seaport fell to the invaders. Three days later on August 13, the
Inga Dams The Inga Dams (French language, French: ''Barrages d'Inga''; Dutch language, Dutch: ''Ingadam'') are two hydroelectric dams connected to one of the largest waterfalls in the world, Inga Falls. They are located in the western Democratic Republic o ...
, a key early objective of the operation, were secured. Immediately upon arrival, Kabarebe ordered the turbines shut down, completely cutting off power to the city of Kinshasa.


Chaos in Kinshasa

By this point, Kabila's government was in chaos; Kinshasa was cut off from the outside world and without power, portions of
eastern Congo Eastern or Easterns may refer to: Transportation Airlines *China Eastern Airlines, a current Chinese airline based in Shanghai * Eastern Air, former name of Zambia Skyways *Eastern Air Lines, a defunct American airline that operated from 192 ...
were under Rebel control, and well armed Rwandan troops were only 230 km (145 miles) from Kinshasa. This caused panic among the government and general population throughout Kinshasa. Kabila's government and media outlets called upon the population to mobilize to protect the capital and root out those disloyal to the regime. Banyamulenge,
Tutsi The Tutsi ( ), also called Watusi, Watutsi or Abatutsi (), are an ethnic group of the African Great Lakes region. They are a Bantu languages, Bantu-speaking ethnic group and the second largest of three main ethnic groups in Rwanda and Burundi ( ...
s, political opponents, as well as ordinary citizens believed to be enemies were subject to property seizures, imprisonment, rape, torture, and
summary execution In civil and military jurisprudence, summary execution is the putting to death of a person accused of a crime without the benefit of a free and fair trial. The term results from the legal concept of summary justice to punish a summary offense, a ...
.


Foreign intervention


Zimbabwean intervention

Kabila had been in talks with
Zimbabwe file:Zimbabwe, relief map.jpg, upright=1.22, Zimbabwe, relief map Zimbabwe, officially the Republic of Zimbabwe, is a landlocked country in Southeast Africa, between the Zambezi and Limpopo Rivers, bordered by South Africa to the south, Bots ...
since before the outbreak of war, and on August 4
Robert Mugabe Robert Gabriel Mugabe (; ; 21 February 1924 – 6 September 2019) was a Zimbabwean revolutionary and politician who served as Prime Minister of Zimbabwe from 1980 to 1987 and then as President from 1987 to 2017. He served as Leader of th ...
, the president of Zimbabwe, and Kabila signed a military cooperation treaty. On August 8 a contingent of Zimbabwean SAS led by Air Marshal
Perrance Shiri Perrance Shiri (born Bigboy Samson Chikerema; 11 January 1955US Code Co ...
arrived at
N'Djili Airport N'djili Airport ( ), also known as N'Djili International Airport and Kinshasa International Airport (French language, French ''Aéroport international de N'Djili'' or ''Aéroport international de Kinshasa''), serves the city of Kinshasa and is ...
outside of Kinshasa. This action, code-named Operation Sovereignty Legitimacy, marked the start of Zimbabwean involvement in the Second Congo War. By August 12, over 800 Zimbabwean Paratroopers and several Cascavel armored cars had been airlifted to Kinshasa. Kabila continued his pleas for aid from
South African Development Community The Southern African Development Community (SADC) is an inter-governmental organization headquartered in Gaborone, Botswana. Goals The SADC's goal is to further regional socio-economic cooperation and integration as well as political and se ...
, and on August 17 Zimbabwe and
Namibia Namibia, officially the Republic of Namibia, is a country on the west coast of Southern Africa. Its borders include the Atlantic Ocean to the west, Angola and Zambia to the north, Botswana to the east and South Africa to the south; in the no ...
agreed to support his efforts to combat the various threats to his regime. Angola remained supportive, but refrained from entering the war, while
South Africa South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa (RSA), is the Southern Africa, southernmost country in Africa. Its Provinces of South Africa, nine provinces are bounded to the south by of coastline that stretches along the Atlantic O ...
urged further talks. Zimbabwean reinforcement efforts intensified, and by August 22, Zimbabwean troops at N'Djili totaled over 800 ground troops, ground support, and pilots, 15 Cascavels, 8 Fighter and light attack aircraft, and over a dozen
Alouette III Alouette or alouettes may refer to: Music and literature * "Alouette" (song), a French-language children's song * Alouette, a character in ''The King of Braves GaoGaiGar'' Aerospace * SNCASE Alouette, a utility helicopter developed in France i ...
and AB 412 helicopters configured for both gunship and transport use.


Rwandan setbacks

While Kabila was searching for allies, Kabarebe continued his advance towards Kinshasa. On August 11, Rwandan forces were ambushed before they could begin an attack on
Kasangulu Kasangulu is a town in Kongo Central Province in the Democratic Republic of the Congo The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), also known as the DR Congo, Congo-Kinshasa, or simply the Congo (the last ambiguously also referring to the n ...
, 45 km (28 miles) south of Kinshasa. By August 17 the main Rwandan force had advanced as far as Kinsielele, 30 km (18 miles) south of Kinshasa, using country roads before running out of fuel. From this point onward, the Zimbabwean air support proved invaluable, as the Rwandans were relatively ill-equipped to defend themselves from aerial attacks. In this regard they depended entirely upon the FAC mutineer's ZU-23 guns, which they lacked experience in operating. This proved particularly devastating on August 24, when the Rwandan Tanks were spotted by a ZAF helicopter outside of Kasangulu. The lead tank was disabled, giving Zimbabwean paratroopers time to set up an ambush further along the road. In the ensuing skirmish, several of the captured tanks were destroyed, and most of the rest captured. The Rwandans were now delayed several kilometres outside Kinshasa, with little remaining armor and under constant threat of Zimbabwean air attack.


Angolan intervention

Before beginning the operation, Rwandan intelligence had indicated
Angola Angola, officially the Republic of Angola, is a country on the west-Central Africa, central coast of Southern Africa. It is the second-largest Portuguese-speaking world, Portuguese-speaking (Lusophone) country in both total area and List of c ...
had no intention of assisting Kabila's regime. Under Kabila, the Congo had sheltered members of
UNITA The National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (, abbr. UNITA) is the second-largest political party in Angola. Founded in 1966, UNITA fought alongside the People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) and the National Liberat ...
, an insurgent group in conflict with the
MPLA The People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (, abbr. MPLA), from 1977–1990 called the People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola – Labour Party (), is an Angolan social democratic political party. The MPLA fought against the P ...
since Angola's independence from Portugal. While this information was accurate with respect to many in the
Angolan Army The Angolan Army () is the land component of the Angolan Armed Forces (FAA). History On August 1, 1974, a few months after a military coup d'état had overthrown the Lisbon regime and proclaimed its intention of granting independence to Angola, ...
,
José Eduardo dos Santos José Eduardo Van-Dúnem dos Santos (; 28 August 1942 – 8 July 2022) was an Angolan politician and military officer who served as the second president of Angola from 1979 to 2017. As president, dos Santos was also the commander-in-chief of th ...
, the President of Angola, remained a friend of Kabila. On August 22, a force of 2,500 Angolans entered the Congo, retaking Kitona the following morning. The Rwandan rear guard continued to fight however, with Banana and Moanda holding out until the 28th. Once recaptured, these cities were once again subject to rape and looting by the victorious Angolan troops. It is widely believed that Kabila's regime would not have survived the operation without Angolan Intervention.


The battle for Kinshasa

While cut off from the coast and reinforcements, Kabarebe was still in command of nearly 15,000 troops in high spirits on the outskirts of Kinshasa. Instead of attacking along the Kasangulu road a third time, Kabarebe realized the Zimbabweans at N'Djili were both outnumbered and the only real support for the Kabila government, given the unreliable performance of the remaining FAC troops. Zimbabwean Major-General Mike Nyambuya realized this and on August 25 deployed numerous SAS teams across the outskirts of Kinshasa with the aim of delaying the Rwandan advance. While these were initially effective, on August 26 FAC mutineers disguised as retreating FAC soldiers still loyal to Kabila managed to slip into the city. One of these groups headed for N'Djili Airfield, where they managed to get within 100m of the airport before being found out and gunned down by the Zimbabwean troops guarding it. The second wave of Rwandans and FAC mutineers managed to overwhelm the defenders, and the Rwandans captured the western end of the runway as well as the main terminal and hangars. The control tower and eastern end of the runway remained in Zimbabwean hands. From here all remaining ZAF helicopters and jets were made airborne. They continuously pounded the Rwandan positions throughout the city for the remainder of the day. That afternoon two ZAF helicopters extracted Kabila from the presidential palace who was then flown to safety in
Lubumbashi Lubumbashi ( , ; former ; former ) is the second-largest Cities of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, city in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, located in the country's southeasternmost part, along the border with Zambia. The capital ...
. Sporadic fighting continued throughout Kinshasa for the remainder of the 26th. On the morning of August 27 Kabarebe deployed his remaining tanks and anti-aircraft guns in a final attempt to capture the rest of the airfield. Throughout the day ZAF aircraft flew continuous sorties, taking off from the north side of the runway under Zimbabwean control, bombing the Rwandan positions on the south side, then returning to be refueled and rearmed. At the peak of the fighting, average turnaround for the aircraft was reduced to less than five minutes. Due to the constant attack from the air and determined defense of the remainder of the airfield, the first Rwandan assault was unable to take any ground. A second attack later in the afternoon also failed and resulted in the loss of all remaining tanks and anti-aircraft guns. Nyambuya ordered a counterattack to retake the airfield early on the 28th which encountered heavy resistance. Eventually the Rwandans were dislodged and forced to retreat to the
Kimbanseke Kimbanseke is a municipality ('' commune'') in the Tshangu district of Kinshasa, the capital city of the Democratic Republic of the Congo The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), also known as the DR Congo, Congo-Kinshasa, or simply the ...
and
Masina Masina may refer to: ;Places * Masina, Kinshasa, in the Democratic Republic of the Congo * Masina, alternate name of Tabas-e Masina, in Iran * Masina, Lumbini, in Nepal * Masina, Rapti, in Nepal * Masina, Purulia, West Bengal, India * Masina Empire ...
neighborhoods where they had prepared trenches and other defensive works throughout the previous few days. Two days of
trench warfare Trench warfare is a type of land warfare using occupied lines largely comprising Trench#Military engineering, military trenches, in which combatants are well-protected from the enemy's small arms fire and are substantially sheltered from a ...
ensued until August 30, when Kabarebe and the remaining Rwandan and Ugandan troops abandoned the FAC mutineers, and fled south into the Jungle. This marked the end of organized fighting for Kinshasa and Operation Kitona.


Kabarebe's retreat

Kabarebe's forces were now in a difficult position; they were nearly 1,500 km (930 miles) from the nearest allied forces in
Kivu Kivu is the name for a large region in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo that borders Lake Kivu. It was a ''Région'' (read 'province') of the country under the rule of Mobutu Sese Seko from 1966 to 1988. As an official ''Région'' ...
and surrounded on three sides. To the west lay Kitona, which was now under the control of the Angolans who were now headed towards Kinshasa, north was the
Congo River The Congo River, formerly also known as the Zaire River, is the second-longest river in Africa, shorter only than the Nile, as well as the third-largest river in the world list of rivers by discharge, by discharge volume, following the Amazon Ri ...
which Kabarebe was unable to cross due to a lack of boats, and east lay 1,500 km of jungle and the Congolese Army. As a result, they headed south towards Angola and friendly UNITA forces. September 1, Angolan troops with support from Zimbabwean SAS commandos finally recaptured the Inga Dams, whose Ugandan defenders slipped away to rendezvous with the remaining Rwandan attack force. By this point Kabarebe had identified an airfield outside the Angolan town Maquela do Zombo which was defended by over 400 Angolans. The Rwandan troops took time to regain strength and in mid-September launched an attack on the airfield with the assistance of local UNITA insurgents, quickly taking control of it. The runway however was too short, and needed to be lengthened in order to allow large cargo planes to land to complete the evacuation. For the next two months, Kabarebe's men worked on lengthening the runway from 1,400m to 1,800m. During this period they also fended off numerous Angolan attacks, including one consisting of over 26 armored vehicles. Once the runway was lengthened transports undertook over 30 flights to evacuate the remaining Rwandans and Ugandans by cover of darkness. By December 24, all remaining Rwandans and Ugandans, numbering around 3,000, had returned to Rwanda.


Aftermath

Following Kabarebe's retreat, Congolese, Zimbabwean, and Angolan troops spent much of the next few months re-establishing order throughout western Congo. In the ensuing violence thousands of suspected rebels were raped, tortured, and killed. The remaining ~12,000 FAC mutineers either fled into the Jungle, switched sides again, or were killed outright. Three years after the Rwandan failure to depose Laurent-Désiré Kabila, he was assassinated by his own bodyguards on 16 January 2001. He was succeeded by his son,
Joseph Joseph is a common male name, derived from the Hebrew (). "Joseph" is used, along with " Josef", mostly in English, French and partially German languages. This spelling is also found as a variant in the languages of the modern-day Nordic count ...
. Although powers on both sides expected the conflict to end shortly after the operation failed, Operation Kitona served as the opening act to the Second Congo War, which would continue for another 5 years and claim more than 5 million lives. Although a defeat for the Rwandans,
James Kabarebe James Kabarebe (born 1959) is a Rwandan retired military officer who serves as Minister of State for Regional Integration in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Kabarebe was a key figure in both the First Congo War and the Second Congo War as a c ...
would become a national hero in Rwanda for his leadership during the offensive. The operation is also studied at military colleges throughout the world for its innovative use of airborne infantry, and for its intelligence failures; chiefly the Rwandans' mistaken belief that Angola would not support Kabila's government.


References


Works cited

* * Second Congo War Aircraft hijackings in Africa Airborne operations August 1998 in Africa Conflicts in 1998 Military operations involving Uganda {{DEFAULTSORT:Kitona, Operation Battles involving the Democratic Republic of the Congo Battles involving Rwanda Battles involving Zimbabwe Battles involving Angola