Oneness Pentecostals

Oneness Pentecostalism (also known as Apostolic Pentecostalism, Jesus' Name Pentecostalism, or the Oneness movement) is a nontrinitarian branch of Pentecostal Christianity that emphasizes the absolute oneness of God and the full deity of Jesus Christ. It teaches that God is a singular divine spiritundivided and without distinction of personswho reveals himself in various ways, including as Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. This theology is often categorized by scholars as a form of Modalistic Monarchianism, though Oneness theologians distinguish their beliefs from historical Sabellianism and Patripassianism. Oneness Pentecostal soteriology emphasizes repentance, full-submersion water baptism in the name of Jesus Christ, and baptism in the Holy Spirit with the evidence of speaking in other tongues, which together constitute what is known as the new birth experience. Many Oneness Pentecostal groups also promote holiness standards in dress, grooming, and conduct, which are understood as outward expressions of inward spiritual transformation and obedience to biblical commands.

The Oneness Pentecostal movement first emerged in North America in the early 20th century following doctrinal disputes within the nascent Finished Work Pentecostal movement. It has since grown into a global movement with an estimated 30 million adherents worldwide. It was often referred to as the Jesus Only movement in its early days, which may be misleading as it does not deny the existence of the Father or Holy Spirit.

History

The first Pentecostals were Holiness Pentecostals, teaching three works of grace: the new birth, receipt of entire sanctification, and baptism with the Holy Spirit accompanied by glossolalia. Finished Work Pentecostals broke away from the Holiness Pentecostals before further partitioning into Trinitarian and nontrinitarian branches, with the latter forming Oneness Pentecostalism. Finished Work Pentecostals rejected the Wesleyan doctrines of outward holiness and Christian perfection, which Holiness Pentecostals teach is an instantaneous, definitive second work of grace in which the baptized person's soul is cleansed of its original sin and perfected. The Oneness Pentecostal movement began in 1913 as the result of doctrinal disputes within the nascent Pentecostal movement, specifically within the Assemblies of God, the first Finished Work Pentecostal denomination.

Beginnings of the Oneness movement

In April 1913, at the Apostolic Faith World-Wide Camp Meeting held in Arroyo Seco, California, conducted by Maria Woodworth-Etter, organizers promised that God would "deal with them, giving them a unity and power that we have not yet known." Canadian R.E. McAlister preached what was described by some as a "new revelation" (though others interpreted it as a rediscovery of apostolic practice) that a baptismal formula in "the name of Jesus" only was to be preferred over the Trinitarian formula "Father, Son, and Holy Ghost" found in Matthew 28:19, pointing rather to Acts 2:38. The revelation immediately caused controversy, with Frank Denny, a Pentecostal missionary to China, jumping on the platform and trying to censor McAlister.

McAlister's revelation inspired a young minister named John G. Schaepe. After all-night prayer and bible study, he proclaimed the following day that he had also received a private revelation against Trinitarian baptism. His judgment was accepted by several others in the camp and given further theological development by a minister named Frank Ewart. Ewart also continued to promote the theology of the movement through his periodical ''Meat in Due Season'' and became the primary developer of the doctrine in its early stages. Another attendee of the camp meeting, evangelist Glenn Cook took the message with him back to the Midwest. Although early proponents described their doctrinal insights as a "revelation," both Oneness and Trinitarian Pentecostals affirmed that all doctrine must be grounded in Scripture, not independent of it.

A year later, on April 15, 1914, Ewart and Cook publicly baptized each other specifically in "the name of the Lord Jesus Christ" in a tank set up in Ewart's crusade tent. This is considered to be the historical point when Oneness Pentecostalism emerged as a distinct movement. As it grew, the movement added prominent leaders as G. T. Haywood, the African-American pastor of a large Assembiles of God church in Indianapolis, IN, Franklin Small from Winnipeg, Canada, and Andrew Urshan, a Persian evangelist. The soteriology of the Oneness movement was primarily outlined by these three men, who identified Acts 2:38 as the primary plan of salvation.

A number of ministers claimed they were baptizing in Jesus' name before 1914, including Urshan and Small. Urshan claimed to have baptized others in Jesus' name as early as 1910, and Small claimed to have baptized 30 in Jesus' name only at the Annual
Pentecostal Convention in Winnipeg in November 1913. In addition, Charles Parham was recorded baptizing using a similar formula during the Azusa Street revival; until 1914, both Parham and William J. Seymour baptized using this Christological formula but repudiated the new movement's nontrinitarian teachings amidst the controversy as they baptized as Christocentric Trinitarians. Other baptisms in the name of Jesus were performed as far back as the 19th century, prior to the development of Pentecostal or Oneness theologythough some used justification similar to that of the later Oneness Pentecostals.

In the Assemblies of God, the re-baptisms in only Jesus' name caused a backlash from many Trinitarians. Particularly controversial was the re-baptism of E. N. Bellwho was the chairman of the Assemblies of God at the timeby Indianapolis pastor L.V. Roberts at a camp meeting in Jackson, TN in 1915. Though he remained Trinitarian, the re-baptism remained a source of confusion over his views. The Oneness position on both baptism and the Godhead became known by the term "New Issue", which was widely used during the controversy. It became an issue in the General Council of 1914, and in 1915, the General Council specifically focused on the issue, resulting in an "appeal for tolerance" by the Assemblies of God. The issue finally came to a head in October 1916 at the fourth General Council, where the mostly Trinitarian leadership, fearing that the new movement might overtake their organization, drew up a doctrinal statement affirming the truth of Trinitarianism. When the resulting Assemblies of God Statement of Fundamental Truths was adopted, a third of the Assemblies' ministers left to form Oneness congregations. After this separation, most Oneness believers became relatively isolated from other Pentecostals and Nicene Christianity more broadly.

Forming Oneness organizations

Several small Oneness ministerial groups formed during and after the controversy between 1914 and 1916. Many of these groups ultimately merged into the Pentecostal Assemblies of the World (PAW), while others remained independent (e.g., the Apostolic Faith Mission Church of God).

The early PAW was racially diverse: it had both strong African-American representation in the North and white representation in the South. The organization's headquarters was located in Indianapolis, IN, and many of the organization's conferences were held in the North where segregation laws were not in place. However, as the organization grew, divisions occurred within the Pentecostal Assemblies of the World over the role of women in ministry, usage of wine or grape juice in communion observance, divorce and remarriage, and the proper mode of water baptism. Additionally, there were also reports of racial tension in the organization. White Southerners expressed objections to the logistical and financial burdens associated with annual travel to the North, and many African Americans held significant leadership positions within the PAW. In particular, Haywood served as the PAW's general secretary and signed all ministerial credentials.

Amid these tensions, White Southerners broke away from the PAW in 1924, and three new organizations were formed by 1925: the Apostolic Churches of Jesus Christ, Emmanuel's Church in Jesus Christ, and the Pentecostal Ministerial Alliance. The former two later merged to become the Apostolic Church of Jesus Christ, and the latter became the Pentecostal Church, Inc. (PCI). In 1945, a merger of two predominantly-white Oneness groups—the PCI and the Pentecostal Assemblies of Jesus Christ—resulted in the formation of the United Pentecostal Church International (UPCI). Toronto pastor Howard Goss became the first UPCI general superintendent after previously holding credentials with the PCI and preaching the Oneness message, despite being affiliated with the Pentecostal Assemblies of Canada until 1937. Starting with 521 member-churches, it became the largest and most influential Oneness Pentecostal organization, reporting a membership of over 5.75 million in 2024.

United States and Europe

A majority of Black Pentecostal churches in both the United States and United Kingdom remain Oneness Pentecostal. In Great Britain particularly, there is a substantial presence of Oneness African-Caribbean churches, originating from Oneness Pentecostal influence in the poor urban centers of North America and the villages of the Caribbean islands. Additionally, Oneness Pentecostalism has seen growth in Western Europe through the evangelistic efforts of African organizations.

South America

The Oneness movement has grown throughout South America. The United Pentecostal Church of Colombia (the national branch of the UPCI) is the second-largest denomination in the country behind the Catholic Church, whereas countries such as Brazil, Argentina, and Chile have seen indigenous growth complemented by denominations from the United States.

Asia

The Asian Pacific region has seen substantial growth by Oneness Pentecostal organizations, especially in countries such as Indonesia and Australia. Particularly, in the Philippines, there are over two million adherents across more than 120 different Oneness organizations. In China, True Jesus Church became the largest indigenous Christian group in China in 1949 and has seen extensive growth in Singapore, the Philippines, Australia, Europe, and the Americas.

Oneness theology

Oneness Pentecostalism has a historical precedent in the Modalistic Monarchianism of the second and third centuries. The early movement affirmed two central aspects of later Oneness belief:
#There is one indivisible God with no distinction of persons or components within God's eternal essence.
#Jesus was the manifestation, human personification, and/or incarnation of the same singular God.

Oneness Pentecostals contend, based on Colossians 2:9, that the concept of God's personhood is reserved for the immanent and incarnate presence of Jesus only.

Doctrine of God

Oneness theology maintains that God is a singular spirit who is absolutely and indivisibly unitary, not three persons, individuals, or minds. They contend that the terms "Father", " Son", and " Holy Ghost" (or "Holy Spirit") are mere ''titles'' reflecting the different personal manifestations of God in the universe. To Oneness believers, the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are three manifestations of ''one'' personal God.

Oneness theologians often quote a phrase used by early pioneers of the movement: "God was manifested as the Father in creation, the Son in redemption, and the Holy Ghost in emanation." However, Oneness theologian David Norris points out that this does not mean that Oneness Pentecostals believe that God can only be one of those manifestations at a time, which may be suggested by the quote.

According to Oneness theology, the Father and the Holy Spirit are the same personal God. It teaches that the term "Holy Spirit" is a descriptive title for God manifesting himself through the broader Christian Church. These two titles—as well as others—do not reflect divisible persons within the Godhead, but rather two different ways in which the one God reveals himself to his creatures. Thus, when the Old Testament (Hebrew Bible

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