A nefesh (from ; plural: ''nefashot'') is a Semitic funerary monument typically placed near a grave, intended to be seen from a distance as a visible marker of the deceased.

Judea

Jerusalem

Some examples of monumental funerary sculpture near Jerusalem bear inscriptions that include the term ''nephesh'', and the word is generally accepted as a reference to the pyramid structure above or beside the tomb.

Tomb of Absalom

Standing among a group of tombs in

Jerusalem Jerusalem is a city in the Southern Levant, on a plateau in the Judaean Mountains between the Mediterranean Sea, Mediterranean and the Dead Sea. It is one of the List of oldest continuously inhabited cities, oldest cities in the world, and ...

, the

tomb of Absalom The Tomb of Absalom (), also called Absalom's Pillar, is an ancient Rock-cut tombs in ancient Israel, monumental rock-cut tomb with a conical roof located in the Kidron Valley in Jerusalem, a few metres from the Tomb of Zechariah and the Tomb of ...

is an important example of Late Second Temple funerary architecture. To the lower left of the entrance to the tomb, the word ''nephesh'' is inscribed in Greek. In this context, the Greek ''nephesh'' is translated as two Hebrew-Aramaic words as ''nephesh'' and , now interpreted as an amalgam of "tomb" and "stele." The carved rock is thus a memorial that evokes the essence or spirit of the deceased.

Jason's Tomb

Dated to the first century BCE,

Jason's Tomb Jason's Tomb (Hebrew: ''kever Yason'') is a Jewish rock-cut tomb dating to the first century BCE in the Hasmonean period, discovered in the Rehavia neighborhood in Jerusalem. It has been identified as the burial site of a certain Jason, possi ...

bears an Aramaic inscription that states: "because I built for you a tomb (''nephesh'') and a memorial (), be in peace in Jer a e."

Tomb of Benei Hezir

The

Tomb of Benei Hezir The Tomb of Benei Hezir (), previously known as the Tomb of Saint James, is the oldest of four monumental rock-cut tombs that stand in the Kidron Valley, adjacent to the Tomb of Zechariah and a few meters from the Tomb of Absalom. It dates to ...

also bears an epithet in Hebrew that states: "This is the tomb and the stele/memorial (''nephesh'') of

Eleazar Eleazar (; ) or Elazar was a priest in the Hebrew Bible, the second High Priest, succeeding his father Aaron after he died. He was a nephew of Moses. Biblical narrative Eleazar played a number of roles during the course of the Exodus, from ...

...".

Horvat Midras

A rural example of a ''nefesh'' outside Jerusalem is found at Horvat Midras, an archaeological site containing the remains of a once-prosperous rural settlement in the Judean Foothills. This monument consists of a stepped pyramid built atop a 10-by-10-metre podium, reaching a total height of about seven metres and prominently positioned on a hilltop for maximum visibility. It was likely built by a wealthy family, possibly one whose influence rose through connections with the

Herodian dynasty The Herodian dynasty was a royal dynasty of Idumaean (Edomite) descent, ruling the Herodian Kingdom of Judea and later the Herodian tetrarchy as a vassal state of the Roman Empire. The Herodian dynasty began with Herod the Great who assumed ...

Nabataea

In a Nabataean

votive A votive offering or votive deposit is one or more objects displayed or deposited, without the intention of recovery or use, in a sacred place for religious purposes. Such items are a feature of modern and ancient societies and are generally ...

inscription Epigraphy () is the study of inscriptions, or epigraphs, as writing; it is the science of identifying graphemes, clarifying their meanings, classifying their uses according to dates and cultural contexts, and drawing conclusions about the wr ...

from

Salkhad Salkhad () is a Syrian city in the As-Suwayda Governorate, southern Syria. It is the capital of Salkhad District, one of the governorate's three districts. It has a population of 15,000 inhabitants. It is located at 1350 metres above sea level ...

, an

Aramaic Aramaic (; ) is a Northwest Semitic language that originated in the ancient region of Syria and quickly spread to Mesopotamia, the southern Levant, Sinai, southeastern Anatolia, and Eastern Arabia, where it has been continually written a ...

heap of stones set up in memorial is described as "for

Allat Al-Lat (, ), also spelled Allat, Allatu, and Alilat, is a pre-Islamic Arabian goddess, at one time worshipped under various associations throughout the entire Arabian Peninsula, including Mecca, where she was worshipped alongside Al-Uzza and ...

and her ''wgr''", a term equated to the

Hasaitic Hasaitic is an Ancient North Arabian dialect attested in inscriptions in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia at Thaj, Hinna, Qatif, Ras Tanura, Abqaiq in the al-Hasa region, Ayn Jawan, Mileiha and at Uruk Uruk, the archeological site k ...

''nephesh''. In Sabaean, this term could mean a

tumulus A tumulus (: tumuli) is a mound of Soil, earth and Rock (geology), stones raised over a grave or graves. Tumuli are also known as barrows, burial mounds, mounds, howes, or in Siberia and Central Asia as ''kurgans'', and may be found through ...

above a tomb, while in

Arabic Arabic (, , or , ) is a Central Semitic languages, Central Semitic language of the Afroasiatic languages, Afroasiatic language family spoken primarily in the Arab world. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) assigns lang ...

this term could indicate a grotto or a tomb. The term ''nephesh'' is also linked to the

Greek Greek may refer to: Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe: *Greeks, an ethnic group *Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family **Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor of all kno ...

stele A stele ( ) or stela ( )The plural in English is sometimes stelai ( ) based on direct transliteration of the Greek, sometimes stelae or stelæ ( ) based on the inflection of Greek nouns in Latin, and sometimes anglicized to steles ( ) or stela ...

''. An

aniconic Aniconism is the cultural absence of artistic representations (''icons'') of the natural and supernatural worlds, or it is the absence of representations of certain figures in religions. The prohibition of material representations may only extend ...

culture, the Nabataean representation of deities lacked figural imagery. Related to betyls, ''nepheshes'' served as aniconic

memorial A memorial is an object or place which serves as a focus for the memory or the commemoration of something, usually an influential, deceased person or a historical, tragic event. Popular forms of memorials include landmark objects such as home ...

markers for the dead. Unlike the

Israelite Israelites were a Hebrew language, Hebrew-speaking ethnoreligious group, consisting of tribes that lived in Canaan during the Iron Age. Modern scholarship describes the Israelites as emerging from indigenous Canaanites, Canaanite populations ...

prohibition of the graven image, Nabataean aniconism allows

anthropomorphic Anthropomorphism is the attribution of human traits, emotions, or intentions to non-human entities. It is considered to be an innate tendency of human psychology. Personification is the related attribution of human form and characteristics to ...

representation of deities but demonstrates a preference for non- figural imagery. Betyls are one form of Nabataean aniconic sculpture. Often explained as representations of

Dushara Dushara (Nabataean Arabic: 𐢅𐢈𐢝𐢛𐢀 ''dwšrʾ''), also transliterated as Dusares or Dhu Shara, is a pre-Islamic Arabian god worshipped by the Nabataeans at Petra and Madain Saleh (of which city he was the patron). Safaitic inscripti ...

, the central Nabataean deity, betyls occur in a wide variety of shapes, groupings, and niches. This variety suggests that betyls may be representative of other deities as well. The Nabataean ''nephesh'' is a standing stone,

obelisk An obelisk (; , diminutive of (') ' spit, nail, pointed pillar') is a tall, slender, tapered monument with four sides and a pyramidal or pyramidion top. Originally constructed by Ancient Egyptians and called ''tekhenu'', the Greeks used th ...

oid in shape, often featuring a blossom/pinecone or stylized crown on the top. Roughly carved or engraved in

bas-relief Relief is a sculptural method in which the sculpted pieces remain attached to a solid background of the same material. The term ''relief'' is from the Latin verb , to raise (). To create a sculpture in relief is to give the impression that th ...

, these structures are often set upon a base that bears the name of the deceased. Occurring outside and inside tombs, some are engraved near or in votive niches. However, many ''nepheshes'' can be found unconnected from tombs, and many line the paths to

Petra Petra (; "Rock"), originally known to its inhabitants as Raqmu (Nabataean Aramaic, Nabataean: or , *''Raqēmō''), is an ancient city and archaeological site in southern Jordan. Famous for its rock-cut architecture and water conduit systems, P ...

or along other protruding rock faces such as those of the

Siq The Siq (, transliterated ''al-Sīq'', transcribed ''as-Sīq'', literally 'the Shaft') is the main entrance to the ancient Nabatean city of Petra in southern Jordan. Also known as Siqit, it is a dim, narrow gorge (in some points no more than ...

.Robert Wenning, “The Betyls of Petra, ”Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, No. 324. Nabataean Petra (Nov. 2001), pp. 87–88. An example of this type of funerary marker can be found in the Obelisk Tomb and Bab el-Siq Triclinium,

Jordan Jordan, officially the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, is a country in the Southern Levant region of West Asia. Jordan is bordered by Syria to the north, Iraq to the east, Saudi Arabia to the south, and Israel and the occupied Palestinian ter ...