The Muslim uprisings in Kars and Sharur–Nakhichevan were a series of insurgencies by local
Muslims
Muslims () are people who adhere to Islam, a Monotheism, monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God ...
against the administration of the
First Republic of Armenia
The First Republic of Armenia, officially known at the time of its existence as the Republic of Armenia, was an independent History of Armenia, Armenian state that existed from May (28th ''de jure'', 30th ''de facto'') 1918 to 2 December 1920 in ...
, beginning on 1 July 1919 and ending 28 July 1920. The areas of uprising were persuaded into insurrection by the sedition of Turkish and Azerbaijani agents who were trying to destabilise Armenia in order to form a pan-Turkic corridor between their nations.
Following the withdrawal of the
Ottoman army
The Military of the Ottoman Empire () was the armed forces of the Ottoman Empire. It was founded in 1299 and dissolved in 1922.
Army
The Military of the Ottoman Empire can be divided in five main periods. The foundation era covers the years ...
from the
South Caucasus
The South Caucasus, also known as Transcaucasia or the Transcaucasus, is a geographical region on the border of Eastern Europe and West Asia, straddling the southern Caucasus Mountains. The South Caucasus roughly corresponds to modern Armenia, ...
, local Muslims in the formerly occupied areas were armed and assisted in establishing political states with the aim of resisting reincorporation into Armenia. In the spring of 1919, the British command in the Caucasus assisted Armenia in defeating these statelets; however, some months later due to the efforts of Turkish and Azerbaijani emissaries, Armenian administration collapsed and the region fell under local control again until the Armenian counteroffensive in the summer of 1920. The Armenian campaign to reabsorb the Nakhichevan region was halted by the forces of
Soviet Russia
The Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (Russian SFSR or RSFSR), previously known as the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and the Russian Soviet Republic, and unofficially as Soviet Russia,Declaration of Rights of the labo ...
who had invaded Azerbaijan earlier in the year. The Kars region was briefly reincorporated into Armenian governance until it was conquered by Turkish forces by the end of the Turkish–Armenian war in December 1920.
Investigations conducted by American relief workers confirmed the reports of large-scale massacres of the local Armenians in the Sharur–Nakhichevan region. Armenia was assisted only by the
forces
In physics, a force is an influence that can cause an object to change its velocity unless counterbalanced by other forces. In mechanics, force makes ideas like 'pushing' or 'pulling' mathematically precise. Because the magnitude and directi ...
of
Anton Denikin
Anton Ivanovich Denikin (, ; – 7 August 1947) was a Russian military leader who served as the Supreme Ruler of Russia, acting supreme ruler of the Russian State and the commander-in-chief of the White movement–aligned armed forces of Sout ...
who dispatched ammunition to replenish the enervated Armenian army.
Background
On 4 June 1918, in the aftermath of the
October Revolution
The October Revolution, also known as the Great October Socialist Revolution (in Historiography in the Soviet Union, Soviet historiography), October coup, Bolshevik coup, or Bolshevik revolution, was the second of Russian Revolution, two r ...
and the collapse of Russian authority in the
South Caucasus
The South Caucasus, also known as Transcaucasia or the Transcaucasus, is a geographical region on the border of Eastern Europe and West Asia, straddling the southern Caucasus Mountains. The South Caucasus roughly corresponds to modern Armenia, ...
, the newly independent First Republic of Armenia was forced to relinquish extensive territories to the Ottoman Empire through the
Treaty of Batum
The Treaty of Batum was signed in Batumi on 4 June 1918, between the Ottoman Empire and the three Transcaucasian states: the First Republic of Armenia, the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic and the Democratic Republic of Georgia. It was the first ...
. The districts surrendered consisted of
Kars
Kars ( or ; ; ) is a city in northeast Turkey. It is the seat of Kars Province and Kars District.� ...
Iğdır Province
Iğdır Province (, , , ) is a Provinces of Turkey, province in eastern Turkey, located along the borders with Armenia, Azerbaijan (the area of Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic), and Iran. Its adjacent provinces are Kars Province, Kars to the north ...
Armistice of Mudros
The Armistice of Mudros () ended hostilities in the Middle Eastern theatre between Ottoman Turkey and the Allies of World War I. It was signed on 30 October 1918 by the Ottoman Minister of Marine Affairs Rauf Bey and British Admiral Somerset ...
, the Ottoman army was forced to withdraw from the formerly-Russian territories it had seized. The withdrawal which occurred throughout 1918–1919 left Muslim puppet states in the wake of the retreat to hinder the westward expansion of the fledgling
Armenian
Armenian may refer to:
* Something of, from, or related to Armenia, a country in the South Caucasus region of Eurasia
* Armenians, the national people of Armenia, or people of Armenian descent
** Armenian diaspora, Armenian communities around the ...
Provisional National Government of the Southwestern Caucasus
The Provisional National Government of the Southwestern Caucasus, Provisional National Government of South West Caucasia ( Modern Turkish: ''Güneybatı Kafkas Geçici Milli Hükûmeti''; Ottoman Turkish: ''Cenub-ı Garbi Kafkas Hükûmet-i Muva ...
and the Republic of Aras existed for some months until their capitulation by
Armenian
Armenian may refer to:
* Something of, from, or related to Armenia, a country in the South Caucasus region of Eurasia
* Armenians, the national people of Armenia, or people of Armenian descent
** Armenian diaspora, Armenian communities around the ...
and
British
British may refer to:
Peoples, culture, and language
* British people, nationals or natives of the United Kingdom, British Overseas Territories and Crown Dependencies.
* British national identity, the characteristics of British people and culture ...
forces in April 1919. Despite the apparent defeat of the Ottoman Empire, Turkish agitators, invigorated by the
British
British may refer to:
Peoples, culture, and language
* British people, nationals or natives of the United Kingdom, British Overseas Territories and Crown Dependencies.
* British national identity, the characteristics of British people and culture ...
withdrawal from the
South Caucasus
The South Caucasus, also known as Transcaucasia or the Transcaucasus, is a geographical region on the border of Eastern Europe and West Asia, straddling the southern Caucasus Mountains. The South Caucasus roughly corresponds to modern Armenia, ...
, were reportedly encouraging sedition amongst Muslim villagers in Armenia—the subversive activities culminating in a series of anti-Armenian uprisings in the summer of 1919.
A contemporary source writes: "By the summer of 1919, the question of repatriation was completely overshadowed by widespread Muslim uprisings. The issues at stake had transformed the repatriation question into a matter of Armenian survival." In 1921, C. E. Bechhofer Roberts wrote: " nthe Igdir front ... General Sebo was holding the Kurds at bay ... wards Ararat ... was the Kamarloo front. There the enemy was the Tartar, supported, of course, by Turkish auxiliaries and excited by their agents. Far away in the East is the way to Nahichevan, which was in the possession of the enemy."
Azerbaijani uprisings
Zangibasar
Named for the Zangi (present-day
Hrazdan
Hrazdan ( ) is a town and urban municipal community in Armenia serving as the administrative centre of Kotayk Province, located northeast of the capital Yerevan. As of the 2011 census, the population of the town is 44,231.
During the Soviet Uni ...
) river passing through the territory, Zangibasar, which was located in northwest of the contemporary
Ararat Province
Ararat (, ) is a administrative divisions of Armenia, province (''marz (territorial entity), marz'') of Armenia. Its capital and largest city is the town of Artashat, Armenia, Artashat.
The province is named after the biblical Mount Ararat. It i ...
of Armenia, consisted of 30,000 Muslims in 26 villages some southwest of Armenia's capital
Yerevan
Yerevan ( , , ; ; sometimes spelled Erevan) is the capital and largest city of Armenia, as well as one of the world's List of oldest continuously inhabited cities, oldest continuously inhabited cities. Situated along the Hrazdan River, Yerev ...
—the principal town of the district was also named Zangibasar and now forms part of the town Masis. Despite Armenia appointing a local Azerbaijani official in the region, the latter's authority did not effectively extend from their post in Ulukhanlu (now also part of Masis) as it was undermined by the presence of Turkish and Azerbaijani envoys who were encouraging locals to sabotage infrastructure and to raid nearby
Armenian
Armenian may refer to:
* Something of, from, or related to Armenia, a country in the South Caucasus region of Eurasia
* Armenians, the national people of Armenia, or people of Armenian descent
** Armenian diaspora, Armenian communities around the ...
villages—which many did with the help of Turkish soldiery.
Vedibasar
The district of Vedibasar constituted the south of the Ararat Province and was predominantly Azerbaijani-populated, with its key town in Boyuk Vedi (present-day Vedi). On 1 July 1919, raiders from Boyuk Vedi attacked the railway town of Davalu (present-day Ararat), killing several Armenian soldiers and civilians. 3 days later, a detachment of 400 soldiers of the Armenian army issued an ultimatum to Boyuk Vedi to surrender the raiders and the stolen belongings of the murdered, however, the rebels answered with machine-gun fire which scattered the detachment and caused a least 160 casualties. In the following 10 days, the Armenian army attempted to storm the village, though were unsuccessful due to the defenders being bolstered by Turkish officers. On 10 August 1919, General Drastamat Kanayan launched a counteroffensive which recaptured 5 rebelling villages and reached the heights of Boyuk Vedi, however, the town would not be retaken until the following year.
On 14 July 1919, the Azerbaijani envoy to Armenia who played a "great role in the successful resistance of Muslims" dispatched the following note to the foreign minister of Azerbaijan:
Three days earlier, Takinski had apprised the Azerbaijani government of the unsuccessful Armenian counterattack at Boyuk Vedi which resulted in 200 casualties and led to the locals seizing "two artillery pieces and eight machine guns". Though the Armenians attributed their failure to the presence of Turkish soldiery, historian Jamil Hasanli writes that it was determined that there was "not a single Turkish soldier in these villages".
Sharur–Nakhichevan
Encouraged by the uprisings near Yerevan, on 18 July 1919,
Halil Sami Bey
Halil Sami Bey (1866 – 1925) was an Ottoman Army colonel, who served in the First World War. He successfully managed to fend off British and French forces during the Landing at Cape Helles.
Career
Halil Sami was in charge of the Otto ...
crossed the border from
Doğubayazıt
Doğubayazıt (; or , ) is a town of Ağrı Province of Turkey, near the Iran–Turkey border, border with Iran. Its elevation is 1625 m. It is the seat of Doğubayazıt District.
History
For most of the periods described here, Doğubay ...
into Sharur to lead a local cavalry unit. The British command later received word that the Armenian authorities in Nakhichevan had become "powerless", as indicated by the inter-ethnic clashes that erupted over the following days. The city of Nakhchivan shortly thereafter became the center of an Armenian pogrom, thus the republic's administration over the region was shattered. On 21 July, Takinski reported to his government that Armenian governance had been ousted from Sharur. As the uprising spread throughout the Nakhichevan uezd,
Armenians
Armenians (, ) are an ethnic group indigenous to the Armenian highlands of West Asia.Robert Hewsen, Hewsen, Robert H. "The Geography of Armenia" in ''The Armenian People From Ancient to Modern Times Volume I: The Dynastic Periods: From Antiq ...
in Jugha (present-day Gülüstan) were forced to escape across the
Aras river
The Aras is a transboundary river in the Caucasus. It rises in eastern Turkey and flows along the borders between Turkey and Armenia, between Turkey and the Nakhchivan exclave of Azerbaijan, between Iran and both Azerbaijan and Armenia, and, fin ...
into
Iran
Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (IRI) and also known as Persia, is a country in West Asia. It borders Iraq to the west, Turkey, Azerbaijan, and Armenia to the northwest, the Caspian Sea to the north, Turkmenistan to the nort ...
Vayots Dzor
Vayots Dzor (, ) is a province (''marz'') of Armenia. It lies at the southeastern end of the country, bordering the Nakhchivan exclave of Azerbaijan to the west and the Kalbajar District of Azerbaijan to the east. It covers an area of . With a p ...
, Gegharkunik, and Syunik provinces, respectively). As a result of the uprising, Halil Sami Bey was responsible for the destruction of 45 Armenian villages and the massacre of 10,000 of their inhabitants in Sharur–Nakhichevan, including the
destruction
Destruction may refer to:
Concepts
* Destruktion, a term from the philosophy of Martin Heidegger
* Destructive narcissism, a pathological form of narcissism
* Self-destructive behaviour, a widely used phrase that ''conceptualises'' certain kin ...
of the large Armenian-populated town of Verin Agulis (present-day
Yuxarı Əylis
Yuxarı Əylis () is a village and municipality in the Ordubad District of Nakhchivan, Azerbaijan. It is located in the left and right sides of the Ordubad-Aylis highway, 12 km in the north-east from the district center. Its population is b ...
) and its 1,400 inhabitants. Later in the year, Azerbaijani general Samed bey Mehmandarov complained to his government about the presence of
Iran
Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (IRI) and also known as Persia, is a country in West Asia. It borders Iraq to the west, Turkey, Azerbaijan, and Armenia to the northwest, the Caspian Sea to the north, Turkmenistan to the nort ...
ian agents trying to entice Muslim refugees in Sharur–Nakhichevan to seek refuge in Iran.
Suppression
On 18 June 1920, some months after the Red Army invasion of Azerbaijan in April, Armenia issued an ultimatum to the rebels of Zangibasar some southwest of Yerevan to submit to Armenian rule. Having no expectation that the ultimatum would be answered, the Armenian army launched an offensive to recapture the rebelling villages on the following day. In the fight for Zangibasar, Lieutenant Aram Kajaznuni, the son of the first prime minister of Armenia was killed, however, the Armenians were victorious on 21 June and had secured the peripheries of Yerevan, however, the locals (mainly Tatars, later known as
Azerbaijanis
Azerbaijanis (; , ), Azeris (, ), or Azerbaijani Turks (, ) are a Turkic peoples, Turkic ethnic group living mainly in the Azerbaijan (Iran), Azerbaijan region of northwestern Iran and the Azerbaijan, Republic of Azerbaijan. They are predomin ...
) fled into the neighboring Surmalu uezd to
Aralık
Aralık (; ; ; ) is a town in the Iğdır Province in the Eastern Anatolia Region, Turkey, Eastern Anatolia region of Turkey. It is the seat of Aralık District.Aresh and Nukha uezds of Azerbaijan looted the abandoned homes.
The voices of the militaristic factions in the Armenian government were strengthened by the successes in Zangibasar and Olty, therefore, the army prepared to retake the districts of Vedibasar and Sharur–Nakhichevan; the advance into the former began on 11 July and by the next day, Armenian forces had recaptured the district and Boyuk Vedi, reaching the boundary of the Erivan and Sharur-Daralayaz uezds at the mountain pass known as the ''Volchi vorota'' ()—this again caused the local Muslims to flee, now southward to Sharur.
On 14 July, the Armenian advance continued through the ''Volchi vorota'' into the Sharur district, capturing it 2 days later whilst the locals fled across the Aras river into Iran. Before the Armenians could advance into the Nakhchevan uezd proper, the national council () of Nakhichevan appealed for peace, however, the negotiations only served in delaying Armenia's advance, after which the town of Şahtaxtı some northwest of Nakhichevan was captured. By this time, the 11th Army of
Soviet Russia
The Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (Russian SFSR or RSFSR), previously known as the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and the Russian Soviet Republic, and unofficially as Soviet Russia,Declaration of Rights of the labo ...
which had previously invaded Azerbaijan reached southern Nakhichevan to form a link with Nationalist Turkey. Colonel Tarkhov, the commander of the "united troops of the Soviet Russia and Red Turkey in Nakhichevan" in addressing the Armenians in Şahtaxtı proclaimed Soviet rule over the rest of Nakhichevan, thereby ending the Armenian campaign.
During the campaign, the Persian ministry of foreign affairs tried to delay the Armenian advance for a few days, stating that "the inhabitants of Nakhichevan were petitioning for protection through the
sardar
Sardar, also spelled as Sardaar (, , 'commander', literally 'headmaster'), is a title of royal family, royalty and nobility that was originally used to denote princes, noblemen, chiefs, kings and other Aristocracy (class), aristocrats. It ha ...
Tabriz
Tabriz (; ) is a city in the Central District (Tabriz County), Central District of Tabriz County, in the East Azerbaijan province, East Azerbaijan province of northwestern Iran. It serves as capital of the province, the county, and the distric ...
" and that as the rebels were "former Persian subjects and overwhelmingly
Shia
Shia Islam is the second-largest branch of Islam. It holds that Muhammad designated Ali ibn Abi Talib () as both his political successor (caliph) and as the spiritual leader of the Muslim community (imam). However, his right is understood ...
", the government "could not remain indifferent to their appeal."
Turko-Kurdish uprisings
Surmalu
The Surmalu uezd was the site of large-scale inter-ethnic clashes between Armenians and Muslims in early 1918, during the Ottoman advance—following the latter's withdrawal from the county, Armenians from Van and Sasun provided for the repatriation of Armenians in Surmalu. The following year, whilst the uprisings in the Erivan uezd raged, partisans in Aralikh led by a Turkish officer from
Erzurum
Erzurum (; ) is a List of cities in Turkey, city in eastern Anatolia, Turkey. It is the largest city and capital of Erzurum Province and is 1,900 meters (6,233 feet) above sea level. Erzurum had a population of 367,250 in 2010. It is the site of an ...
attacked the Armenian army to relieve pressure on rebelling Boyuk Vedi. In early August, Kurdish tribesmen led by Shamil bey Airumlinsky ousted the thinly stretched Armenian garrison from the peripheries of Surmalu, forcing hundreds of Armenian and
Yazidi
Yazidis, also spelled Yezidis (; ), are a Kurdish-speaking endogamous religious group indigenous to Kurdistan, a geographical region in Western Asia that includes parts of Iraq, Syria, Turkey, and Iran. The majority of Yazidis remaining in ...
civilians to flee to
Iğdır
Iğdır (; or ; ; or ) is a city in the Eastern Anatolia Region of Turkey. It is the seat of Iğdır Province and Iğdır District.
, later causing many to flee across the Aras river into the neighboring Etchmiadzin uezd (present-day Armavir and
Aragatsotn
Aragatsotn (, ) is a province ('' marz'') of Armenia. It is located in the western part of the country. The capital and largest city of the province is the town of Ashtarak. The Statistical Committee of Armenia reported its population was 128, ...
provinces) to escape the raids. Thereafter, Armenian rule was limited to the plains of the Surmalu uezd around the administrative center Iğdır. The Kurdish raids continuing into September were answered by Turkish-Armenian detachments, during which rebelling Kurdish villages were burned.
Kağızman
On 17 August 1919, more than a thousand Kurdish tribesmen led by Omar Agha and Hasan Bey fought the Armenian garrison commanded by Colonel Shaghrutyan near Kağızman in the Kagizman Okrug, demanding that the Armenians withdraw from the region. The following day, the Armenians successfully pushed the Kurds away from the town, two days later pushing the Kurds to the hills. Clashes continued on 28–30 August when a Kurdish attempt to encircle Armenian forces in Sarıkamış was thwarted, causing the former to retreat to the heights of and Verishan (present-day ). Two days later, the Armenians captured the peak Gümrüdağı, forcing the tribesmen to retreat to Barduz (present-day Gaziler). As a result of roads and railway being severed by Kurdish and Turkish partisans, 6,000 Armenian and
Greek
Greek may refer to:
Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe:
*Greeks, an ethnic group
*Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family
**Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor of all kno ...
peasants fled from Sarıkamış. In early September the Armenian army regained control over the republic's former borders in Kars and repatriated the Armenian, Greek, and
Russian
Russian(s) may refer to:
*Russians (), an ethnic group of the East Slavic peoples, primarily living in Russia and neighboring countries
*A citizen of Russia
*Russian language, the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages
*''The Russians'', a b ...
peasants who had fled the insurgents. The raiders in their retreat were accompanied by Turkish and Kurdish refugees and civilians fleeing from the areas recaptured by Armenia.
Ardahan–Kars
Since its annexation of the Kars Oblast, the Armenian administration had delegated authority to local Muslim officials in the subdistricts
Çıldır
Çıldır (, Husenian; meaning "North"; ka, ჩრდილი, Chrdili; meaning "Shadow") is a town in Ardahan Province of Turkey
Turkey, officially the Republic of Türkiye, is a country mainly located in Anatolia in West Asia, with a r ...
(consisting of 40 Muslim villages), Aghbaba (present-day Amasia, consisting of 42 Muslim villages), and Zarushad (present-day
Arpaçay
Arpaçay () is a town in Kars Province in the Eastern Anatolia region of Turkey. It is the seat of Arpaçay District.
, consisting of 45 Muslim and 20 Russian sectarian villages) to ensure their loyalty—these subdistricts laid within the districts () of Ardahan and
Kars
Kars ( or ; ; ) is a city in northeast Turkey. It is the seat of Kars Province and Kars District.� ...
. Despite the presence of Turkish and Azerbaijani provocateurs carrying large sums of money in the region, Armenia did not attempt to disarm the local population. The provocateurs on 12 January 1920 intended to train a local militia from the population of the villages to occupy the railway passing the Armenian-populated town of Kizil-Chakhchakh (present-day Akyaka). On 24 January, the Armenian administration was completely ousted from Chaldyr, Aghbaba, and Zarushad—the following day, martial law was declared in the district. The Armenian army led by Colonel on 28 January unsuccessfully utilised the local "coldly neutral" Russian Molokans of Zarushad as representatives to demand that the rebelling Muslims submit to Armenia. Shortly thereafter, on 1 February, the Armenian army shelled, set fire to, and occupied a number of rebelling villages, effectively routing the rebels of Zarushad. Nine days later, Zarushad's leaders officially accepted Armenian authority, and later confirmed it in-person to the provincial administration in Kars. Chaldyr later submitted on 14 March, however, the Armenian army continued to shell their settlements. The uprising and subsequent countermeasures had resulted in the displacement of up to 10,000 inhabitants of 20 villages, many of whom sought refuge in Azerbaijan.
Penek
Occurring simultaneously with the Armenian counteroffensive against the rebels of Zangibasar, an attempt was made to seize the coal reserves in Penek in the Kurdish-controlled Olti Okrug (present-day eastern
Erzurum Province
Erzurum Province () is a province and metropolitan municipality in the Eastern Anatolia Region of Turkey. Its area is 25,006 km2, and its population is 749,754 (2022). The capital of the province is the city of Erzurum. It is the fourth lar ...
). Armenian policy towards integration of Muslim areas was divided between peaceful civilian incorporation with local autonomy, and military invasion and threats, ultimately, the latter policy prevailed in the case of Olty, to the chagrin of the governor-general of Kars. Armenian and Turkish reports confirmed the presence of Turkish soldiers operating in the district; despite this, the Armenian offensive to capture the western half of the okrug began on 19 June 1920. By 22 June, the Armenian army had converged on Penek and ousted its Turko-Kurdish defenders, setting the new Armenian–Turkish frontier at the Oltu river
Allied reaction
Proposed neutral zone
William N. Haskell, the Allied High Commissioner for Armenia, only a week after the subjugation of the Karabakh Council to Azerbaijan suggested the creation of a neutral zone in the south of Erivan Governorate including the rebelling districts of Sharur–Nakhichevan. On 29 August 1919, Fatali Khan Khoyski, the
Prime Minister of Azerbaijan
The prime minister of the Republic of Azerbaijan () is the head of government of Azerbaijan. The current prime minister is Ali Asadov on 8 October 2019 following the removal of Novruz Mammadov.
Due to the central role of the President of Azer ...
, agreed to the arrangement with modifications, such as the inclusion of the Armenian-controlled Daralayaz region in the neutral zone, also providing that Azerbaijan would bear the operational expenses of such an entity and provide for the construction of a
railway
Rail transport (also known as train transport) is a means of transport using wheeled vehicles running in railway track, tracks, which usually consist of two parallel steel railway track, rails. Rail transport is one of the two primary means of ...
Baku
Baku (, ; ) is the Capital city, capital and List of cities in Azerbaijan, largest city of Azerbaijan, as well as the largest city on the Caspian Sea and in the Caucasus region. Baku is below sea level, which makes it the List of capital ci ...
. When Haskell brought this agreement before Armenian officials, already signed by the Khoyski, it was rejected due to the implication it would create of the region becoming a technical part of Azerbaijan, and that it would include the Daralayaz sub-district of the Sharur-Daralayaz uezd, which was under stable Armenian control and served as a vital connection between Yerevan and Armenian-controlled Zangezur. Armenian officials insisted on an American governorship to be created, limited in size to the areas under control of insurgents, however, this was rejected by the Azerbaijani government as it would not achieve its aim of severing Zangezur from Armenia.
American investigation
In the investigation by American relief workers, it was discovered that there were 7,000 Armenian refugees from Sharur in addition to 2,400 who had remained in one of the eight villages unable to return to their homes. Halil Sami Bey, in representing the rebel authorities of Nakhichevan, declared in a meeting with American officials that they would never allow the region to be ruled by Armenia again. One of the American relief officials involved in the investigation, Clarence Ussher, reported that practically all the Armenian villages in Nakhichevan–Sharur had been abandoned or repossessed by the local Muslims.
Anton Denikin
Anton Ivanovich Denikin (, ; – 7 August 1947) was a Russian military leader who served as the Supreme Ruler of Russia, acting supreme ruler of the Russian State and the commander-in-chief of the White movement–aligned armed forces of Sout ...
, the leader of the
Volunteer Army
The Volunteer Army (; ), abbreviated to (), also known as the Southern White Army was a White Army active in South Russia during the Russian Civil War from 1917 to 1920. The Volunteer Army fought against Bolsheviks and the Makhnovists on the ...
, to protect Armenia because their existence prevented "Turkish intrusion into the Caucasus" which could jeopardise Russian military operations in the
North Caucasus
The North Caucasus, or Ciscaucasia, is a subregion in Eastern Europe governed by Russia. It constitutes the northern part of the wider Caucasus region, which separates Europe and Asia. The North Caucasus is bordered by the Sea of Azov and the B ...
. Additionally, so long as Azerbaijan and Georgia suspected a secret military alliance between Armenia and South Russia, they couldn't focus all of their military forces against Denikin. In early September, 3 million rounds of ammunition were sent from the
Armed Forces of South Russia
The Armed Forces of South Russia (AFSR or SRAF) () were the unified military forces of the White movement in southern Russia between 1919 and 1920.
On 8 January 1919, the Armed Forces of South Russia were formed, incorporating the Volunteer Ar ...
to Armenia.
Aftermath
Some 5 months after the last uprising was suppressed, in December 1920 the Armenian republic was partitioned between
Soviet Russia
The Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (Russian SFSR or RSFSR), previously known as the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and the Russian Soviet Republic, and unofficially as Soviet Russia,Declaration of Rights of the labo ...
and Kemalist Turkey, ending its two and a half years of existence. The entirety of the Surmalu and Kars regions (except Aghbaba sub-county ()) were ceded to the
Government of the Grand National Assembly
The Government of the Grand National Assembly (), self-identified as the State of Turkey () or Turkey (), commonly known as the Ankara Government (), or archaically the Angora Government, was the provisional and revolutionary Turkish government ba ...
and emptied of its Armenian population, as confirmed in the 1921 treaties of
Kars
Kars ( or ; ; ) is a city in northeast Turkey. It is the seat of Kars Province and Kars District.� ...
and
Moscow
Moscow is the Capital city, capital and List of cities and towns in Russia by population, largest city of Russia, standing on the Moskva (river), Moskva River in Central Russia. It has a population estimated at over 13 million residents with ...
. Conversely, most of the Erivan uezd was retained by
Soviet Armenia
The Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic (ArSSR), also known as Soviet Armenia, or simply Armenia, was one of the Republics of the Soviet Union, constituent republics of the Soviet Union, located in the Caucasus region of Eurasia. Soviet Armenia ...
Soviet Azerbaijan
The Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic, also referred to as the Azerbaijani Soviet Socialist Republic, Azerbaijan SSR, Azerbaijani SSR, AzSSR, Soviet Azerbaijan or simply Azerbaijan, was one of the Republics of the Soviet Union, constituent re ...
; the Sharur sub-county of the Sharur-Daralayaz uezd and most of the Nakhichevan uezd was also ceded to the latter.