Maître De Conférences
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The following summarizes basic
academic rank Academic rank (also scientific rank) is the rank of a scientist or teacher in a college, high school, university or research establishment. The academic ranks indicate relative importance and power of individuals in academia. The academic ran ...
s in the French
higher education Tertiary education (higher education, or post-secondary education) is the educational level following the completion of secondary education. The World Bank defines tertiary education as including universities, colleges, and vocational schools ...
system. Most academic institutions are state-run and most academics with permanent positions are
civil servants The civil service is a collective term for a sector of government composed mainly of career civil service personnel hired rather than elected, whose institutional tenure typically survives transitions of political leadership. A civil service offic ...
, and thus are
tenured Tenure is a type of academic appointment that protects its holder from being fired or laid off except for cause, or under extraordinary circumstances such as financial exigency or program discontinuation. Academic tenure originated in the United ...
(after a one-year probationary period). Several parallel career paths exist, depending on the type of institution. The three paths correspond to teacher-researchers (''enseignants-chercheurs''), researchers, and teachers. It is possible to be promoted from one path to another. Several ranks exist within each path. Increases in rank (for example, the promotion from associate professor to full professor) come with an increase in salary and responsibility and are subject to some conditions, such as the
habilitation Habilitation is the highest university degree, or the procedure by which it is achieved, in Germany, France, Italy, Poland and some other European and non-English-speaking countries. The candidate fulfills a university's set criteria of excelle ...
. In most cases, moving to a higher rank requires going through an open recruitment competition, the same procedure used for initially obtaining the position in the lower rank. Temporary positions include PhD students,
postdoctoral researcher A postdoctoral fellow, postdoctoral researcher, or simply postdoc, is a person professionally conducting research after the completion of their doctoral studies (typically a PhD). Postdocs most commonly, but not always, have a temporary acade ...
s, and temporary teachers (usually called ''vacataires'' or ''chargé d'enseignement''). There also exist some administrative ranks, held by permanent employees and often elected by their peers, such as university president or dean. Ranks in
private schools A private school or independent school is a school not administered or funded by the government, unlike a public school. Private schools are schools that are not dependent upon national or local government to finance their financial endowme ...
and ''
grandes écoles Grandes may refer to: *Agustín Muñoz Grandes, Spanish general and politician * Banksia ser. Grandes, a series of plant species native to Australia * Grandes y San Martín, a municipality located in the province of Ávila, Castile and León, Spain ...
'' are often organized differently.


Public institutions


Overview

The following table summarizes the various academic titles used in France, determined by the paths (faculty, research, teaching) and the ranks, together with some equivalent titles in schools with special status. The common abbreviation for the title is presented in parentheses after the title.


Faculty positions

Faculty members are called ''enseignants-chercheurs'' (literally, teachers-researchers). In general, their statute is governed by the Decree 84-431 of June 6, 1984 (with some exceptions: for example, faculty members in public hospitals have a statute governed by another decree). They are
civil servant The civil service is a collective term for a sector of government composed mainly of career civil service personnel hired rather than elected, whose institutional tenure typically survives transitions of political leadership. A civil service offic ...
s, but they benefit from a special statute which guarantees
academic freedom Academic freedom is the right of a teacher to instruct and the right of a student to learn in an academic setting unhampered by outside interference. It may also include the right of academics to engage in social and political criticism. Academic ...
. While most civil service roles are only available to citizens of the EU, appointments to these positions are made regardless of citizenship. After gaining a
doctorate A doctorate (from Latin ''doctor'', meaning "teacher") or doctoral degree is a postgraduate academic degree awarded by universities and some other educational institutions, derived from the ancient formalism '' licentia docendi'' ("licence to teach ...
from a university, and usually after several years of temporary postdoctoral positions, scholars who wish to enter a permanent academic career may apply for the position of ''maître de conférences'' (MCF). To achieve this, they must first be approved by the National Council of Universities, made up of elected and appointed MCFs and university professors. For candidates who have first been approved in this way, the recruitment to positions is carried out in each individual university, mostly by a selection committee of other MCFs and professors, half from the university where the position is available, half from other universities, rather than by administrators. However, the final decision is made by the Academic Council of the university. The salary scale is national, so pay does not vary from one university to another. A recent reform allows for the possibility of salary modulation in the universities, but for now this remains to be implemented. After some years in the ''maître de conférences'' position, an MCF may apply for a ''habilitation à diriger des recherches'' ("
habilitation Habilitation is the highest university degree, or the procedure by which it is achieved, in Germany, France, Italy, Poland and some other European and non-English-speaking countries. The candidate fulfills a university's set criteria of excelle ...
to direct research", HDR), which allows them to supervise doctoral theses. Although this qualification is most commonly pursued by MCFs, it is not restricted to them—postdoctoral researchers and other non‐permanent academics may also apply for the HDR. The HDR is a prerequisite for applying for a position of ''professeur des universités'' ("university professor"), whether at their home university or at another institution. Their suitability for such a position will be judged by the National Council of Universities (restricted to full professors). Each individual application is examined by a selection committee, composed exclusively of full professors. Application are mostly judged on their published original research as well as on teaching and administrative duties. In the past, this required a higher doctorate ("state doctorate"). In some fields, such as
law Law is a set of rules that are created and are enforceable by social or governmental institutions to regulate behavior, with its precise definition a matter of longstanding debate. It has been variously described as a science and as the ar ...
, management (''gestion''), and
economics Economics () is a behavioral science that studies the Production (economics), production, distribution (economics), distribution, and Consumption (economics), consumption of goods and services. Economics focuses on the behaviour and interac ...
, candidates take the competitive examination known as ''
agrégation In France, the () is the most competitive and prestigious examination for civil service in the French public education A state school, public school, or government school is a primary school, primary or secondary school that educates all stu ...
''; only those achieving the highest grades are appointed. Note that in French, the word ''professeur'' is used much more widely than the English "professor", and when used on its own it suggests a schoolteacher in
secondary education Secondary education is the education level following primary education and preceding tertiary education. Level 2 or ''lower secondary education'' (less commonly ''junior secondary education'') is considered the second and final phase of basic e ...
. Qualified terms such as ''professeur des universités'' are therefore used to clarify the function of the ''professeur''. In higher educational establishments outside the university system, such as the
École polytechnique (, ; also known as Polytechnique or l'X ) is a ''grande école'' located in Palaiseau, France. It specializes in science and engineering and is a founding member of the Polytechnic Institute of Paris. The school was founded in 1794 by mat ...
, teaching staff follow different hierarchies and career paths. In particular, senior staff at the
EHESS The School for Advanced Studies in the Social Sciences (, EHESS) is a graduate ''grande école'' and '' grand établissement'' in Paris focused on academic research in the social sciences. The school awards Master and PhD degrees alone and conjo ...
, EPHE,
École des chartes École or Ecole may refer to: * an elementary school in the French educational stages normally followed by secondary education establishments (collège and lycée) * École (river), a tributary of the Seine flowing in région Île-de-France * Éco ...
and
École française d'Extrême-Orient The French School of the Far East (, ; also translated as The French School of Asian StudiesPreferred translation by EFEO staff. SeEFEO official website), abbreviated EFEO, is an associated college of PSL University dedicated to the study of ...
are called directeurs d'études instead of professeurs des universités.


Permanent positions

''Maître de conférences'' and ''Professeurs des universités'' are both permanent positions. This is not the same as tenure, strictly speaking, but is instead due to the status of civil servant in public universities. Since all French universities are state-run, faculty members are civil servants and enjoy increased employment protection compared to the private sector. * ''Professeur des universités'' (PR, professor) is the highest rank in the faculty path of French academia. In some institutions ( école des chartes, ), professors use the title ''directeur d'études'' (Director of Studies). According to their statute, professors have priority to teach lectures (as opposed to exercise sessions) and to be elected as director of research units. The rank has three pay grades: 2nd class, 1st class, and exceptional class. * ''Maître de conférences'' (MCF, associate professor), is the second rank of the faculty path in French academia. The rank has two pay grades: normal class and outstanding class ("hors-classe": "H.C."). No one can become ''Professeur'' or ''Maître de Conférences'' without a doctorate. The
habilitation Habilitation is the highest university degree, or the procedure by which it is achieved, in Germany, France, Italy, Poland and some other European and non-English-speaking countries. The candidate fulfills a university's set criteria of excelle ...
(HDR) to direct doctoral theses is a necessary step to be promoted from MCF to PR. There exists no internal promotion to go from MCF to PR. Instead, a candidate must participate in the competition for an open position, usually in a different university. Progression from one pay grade to the next (e.g. 2nd class to 1st class) is internal to the university, and entails an increase in salary and responsibility. In Law, Political Science, and Economics, it is possible to be recruited directly as a full professor by passing the ''agrégation'' (distinct from the secondary school system's ''agrégation'', more widespread). Consequently, some scholars become professors without prior experience as a Maître de conférences. This remains rare however, most of the time the aggregation is a way to accelerate career advancement for the Maîtres de conférences (this is known as the ''voie courte'', or short way, as opposed to the ''voie longue''). The French Ministry of Higher Education and Research provides a comparative table for faculty ranks in France and worldwide. For example, ''professeur'' corresponds to (full) professor in North America and the UK, while ''maître de conférences'' corresponds to (
tenured Tenure is a type of academic appointment that protects its holder from being fired or laid off except for cause, or under extraordinary circumstances such as financial exigency or program discontinuation. Academic tenure originated in the United ...
)
associate professor Associate professor is an academic title with two principal meanings: in the North American system and that of the ''Commonwealth system''. In the ''North American system'', used in the United States and many other countries, it is a position ...
in North America, or to lecturer/reader/senior lecturer in the UK depending on pay grade and whether the habilitation was obtained or not.


Temporary positions

* ''Attaché temporaire d'enseignement et de recherche'' (ATER, Temporary Research and Teaching
Attaché In diplomacy, an attaché () is a person who is assigned ("to be attached") to the diplomatic or administrative staff of a higher placed person or another service or agency. Although a loanword from French, in English the word is not modified ac ...
). They have a one-year contract renewable once, except for civil servants, who may hold an ATER position up to 4 years in total. ATERs have the same responsibilities and compensation as many non tenure-track faculty in North America. They do research work, and they also teach 192 hours/year. This kind of position is sometimes used as a "bridge" at the end of a PhD, if the candidate is not able to complete their dissertation in three years and needs an extension. * ''Doctorant contractuel'' (Contractual PhD candidate): PhD candidates who have obtained a specific type of grant to fund their PhD. This grant is a 3-years position (non renewable), and the candidate is an employee of the university during that time. They are expected to work on a dissertation and to participate in research activities. In addition, ''doctorants'' are sometimes also ''chargé d'enseignement'', meaning that they teach 64 hours per year, usually at the undergraduate level.


Part-time

There also exist equivalent ranks as state employees (non civil service) for professors coming from industry and working part-time in a university. These ranks are ''maître de conférences associé'' (MAST) and ''professeur des universités associé'' (PAST), depending on academic experience. Despite the similarity, "associé" is not synonymous with "associate" (an associate professor is a mid-seniority professor, where a ''professeur associé'' is a part-time professor) and would be closer to adjunct.


Research-only positions

There also exist permanent, research positions, without teaching duties. They are offered by certain public research institutions, the
Public Scientific and Technical Research Establishment A Public Scientific and Technical Research Establishment (, EPST) is a category of public research institutes. In France, they were authorized by Law No. 82-610 of 15 July 1982. In Algeria, they were authorized by decree No. 99-256 of 16 November 19 ...
s, for instance the
French National Centre for Scientific Research The French National Centre for Scientific Research (, , CNRS) is the French state research organisation and is the largest fundamental science agency in Europe. In 2016, it employed 31,637 staff, including 11,137 tenured researchers, 13,415 engi ...
(CNRS), th
Institute of Research for Development
(IRD), the National Institute of Health and Medical Research (INSERM), or the
French Institute for Research in Computer Science and Automation The National Institute for Research in Digital Science and Technology (Inria) () is a French national research institution focusing on computer science and applied mathematics. It was created under the name French Institute for Research in Comp ...
(Inria). Again, people in these positions are civil servants (thus, in this sense, tenured). Their statute is governed by the Decree #83-1260 of December 30, 1983. There are two levels, matching those of the teaching-research staff *''Chargé de recherche'' (CR, Scientist): equivalent to ''maître de conférences.'' It is a permanent research-only position. The pay grades are "normal class" and "outstanding class". *''Directeur de recherche'' (DR, Senior Scientist): equivalent to ''professeur''. It is a permanent research-only position. The pay grades are "2nd class", "1st class", and "exceptional class". The main differences between these research positions and the faculty positions are, of course, the absence of teaching duties, and the ability to move between different labs (for example, a CNRS researcher can request to move to any CNRS lab in France or abroad, whereas a faculty member is employed by a specific university). Just like for faculty appointments, there are no internal promotion from CR to DR. Instead, each year, national competitions are open to fill new positions, and it is necessary to participate in the national competition to move from one rank to the next. It is possible for a ''maître de conférences'' to become ''directeur de recherches'', just like it is possible for a ''chargé de recherches'' to become ''professeurs des universités''. The complete name of the position usually makes the institution explicit, for example ''directeur de recherche au CNRS'', or ''chargé de recherche à l'INRIA''. It has to be noticed that some of these positions can be located not in a laboratory proper to the
Public Scientific and Technical Research Establishment A Public Scientific and Technical Research Establishment (, EPST) is a category of public research institutes. In France, they were authorized by Law No. 82-610 of 15 July 1982. In Algeria, they were authorized by decree No. 99-256 of 16 November 19 ...
, but in a mixed research structure, common with a university (UMR). These establishments also offer engineer positions that include a research part, besides more technical duties (e.g. preparation of a database, experimental apparatus, etc.): ''ingénieur d'études'' may include an important research part, ''ingénieur de recherche'' always includes a dominant research part. There also exists some contractual positions (from a few months to a few years).


Teaching-only positions

* ''Professeur agrégé'' (PRAG): Secondary school teachers who received the ''
agrégation In France, the () is the most competitive and prestigious examination for civil service in the French public education A state school, public school, or government school is a primary school, primary or secondary school that educates all stu ...
'' (not the similarly named ''agrégation du supérieur'') but who teach at university level. * ''Professeur certifié'' (PRCE): Secondary school teacher teaching at university level. These teachers have a lesser degree than PRAGs, the ''certification''. * ''Chargé d’enseignement'': Title used broadly for every instructor who teaches at any university on a regular basis, though not at a full-time position.


Grandes écoles

The
grandes écoles Grandes may refer to: *Agustín Muñoz Grandes, Spanish general and politician * Banksia ser. Grandes, a series of plant species native to Australia * Grandes y San Martín, a municipality located in the province of Ávila, Castile and León, Spain ...
is a parallel educational system generally attributed to Napoleon. These institutions of higher education each specialize in a specific domain, such as business, political science, or engineering. Some of them are
grands établissements The (; ) are French public institutions under ministerial charter within the administrative category referred to as (EPCSP). Public institutions under ministerial charter within the Ministry of National Education and Research Ministry of Nati ...
(for example
Sciences Po Paris Sciences Po () or Sciences Po Paris, also known as the Paris Institute of Political Studies (), is a public research university located in Paris, France, that holds the status of ''grande école'' and the legal status of . The university's unde ...
) are part of the state university recruitment system. The others – mainly the private schools – follow various guidelines. Among the business schools it is common to follow the North American terminology. That is, *''Chargé d'enseignement'' or ''vacataire'': Instructor, temporary position. *''Professeur affilié'': Adjunct professor. *''Professeur assistant'': Assistant professor *''Professeur associé'': Associate professor *''Professeur'': Full professor. * Chaired professorships can be given to associate and full professors. Typically, anyone teaching in a private school will identify themselves publicly as "Professeur" regardless of their internal rank. This is an acceptable practice for tenured or full-time staff (''professeurs permanents'') and permanently employed part-time staff (''professeurs affiliés''). It is considered inappropriate for others who teach a single course (''vacataires'' or ''chargés d'enseignements''). Other titles exist, each with different ranks: *''Lecturer'': generally teaches and his research obligations are limited. Other ranks are Senior Lecturer or Principal Lecturer. *''Professor of Practice'': typically is an expert in his field. He typically teaches and maintains contacts with the business world. Other ranks are Senior Professor of Practice (rank equivalent to associate professor) or Principal Professor of Practice (rank equivalent to full professor). *''A Teaching Fellow'': most of the time teaches full time.


Administrative ranks

Several administrative appointments can be held by academics in France. Most are elected positions, with prerogatives and duties described in the statutes of the relevant organization (university, faculty, research lab...). *''Recteur'' ( Rector): High-level civil servants appointed by the Ministry of education to oversee an educational district called ''académie''. They are also chancellor of the universities in their district, meaning that they administer the real estate owned by the State and used by the university. They are usually chosen from among senior university professors. *''Président de l'université'' (
University President A chancellor is a leader of a college or university, usually either the executive or ceremonial head of the university or of a university campus within a university system. In most Commonwealth of Nations, Commonwealth and former Commonwealth na ...
): Elected position, usually held by a professor, for four years. Presides over the ''Conseil d'administration'' (Board of Directors), an elected body which governs the university. Usually also presides the ''Conseil académique'' (Academic Council), another elected body responsible for defining the University's research policies. *''Doyen'' ( Dean) or ''Directeur d'unité de formation et de recherche'' (Director of Teaching and Research Unit): Elected position, chairperson of one of the university schools, called ''faculté'' or ''unité de formation et de recherche''. Presides over the ''Conseil de faculté'' (Faculty Council) or the ''Conseil d'UFR'' (UFR Council), an elected body representing the faculty. *''Directeur d'unité de recherche'' (Director of Research Unit): Appointed chairperson of a research unit. Presides over the ''Conseil de laboratoire'' (Laboratory Council), an elected body representing the research unit. Appoints the ''Responsables d'équipe'' (team leaders) who manage the teams that constitute the research unit. *''Directeur d'école doctorale'' (Director of Graduate School): Appointed chairperson of one of a
graduate school Postgraduate education, graduate education, or graduate school consists of academic or professional degrees, certificates, diplomas, or other qualifications usually pursued by post-secondary students who have earned an undergraduate (bachel ...
.


See also

* Civil Service of France * University reform in France


References

{{Academic ranks overview Academic ranks Education in France Education policy in France Ranks