Lâm Ấp (Vietnamese pronunciation of
Middle Chinese
Middle Chinese (formerly known as Ancient Chinese) or the Qieyun system (QYS) is the historical variety of Chinese language, Chinese recorded in the ''Qieyun'', a rime dictionary first published in 601 and followed by several revised and expande ...
林邑 *''liɪm ʔˠiɪp̚'',
standard Chinese
Standard Chinese ( zh, s=现代标准汉语, t=現代標準漢語, p=Xiàndài biāozhǔn hànyǔ, l=modern standard Han speech) is a modern standard form of Mandarin Chinese that was first codified during the republican era (1912–1949). ...
: Línyì) was a kingdom located in central Vietnam that existed from around 192 AD to 629 AD in what is today central Vietnam, and was one of the earliest recorded
Champa
Champa (Cham language, Cham: ꨌꩌꨛꨩ, چمڤا; ; 占城 or 占婆) was a collection of independent Chams, Cham Polity, polities that extended across the coast of what is present-day Central Vietnam, central and southern Vietnam from ...
kingdoms. The name Linyi however had been employed by official Chinese histories from 192 to even 758 AD to describe a particular early Champa kingdom located north of the
Hải Vân Pass. The ruins of its capital, the ancient city of Kandapurpura is now located in Long Tho Hill, 3 kilometers to the west of the city of
Huế
Huế (formerly Thừa Thiên Huế province) is the southernmost coastal Municipalities of Vietnam, city in the North Central Coast region, the Central Vietnam, Central of Vietnam, approximately in the center of the country. It borders Quảng ...
.
Earlier western scholarship believed Linyi in Chinese records to refer to
Champa
Champa (Cham language, Cham: ꨌꩌꨛꨩ, چمڤا; ; 占城 or 占婆) was a collection of independent Chams, Cham Polity, polities that extended across the coast of what is present-day Central Vietnam, central and southern Vietnam from ...
itself, but Champa expansion northwards may have resulted in the Chinese applying the name Linyi to the Champa imperial city
Trà Kiệu
Trà Kiệu is a village in Duy Sơn commune, Duy Xuyên district, Quảng Nam province, Vietnam.
Geography
Trà Kiệu is located in the Thu Bồn River, Thu Bồn river valley inland west of Hội An (halfway between Hội An and My Son Sanc ...
(Simhapura) along with
Mỹ Sơn Sanctuary and the
Thu Bồn River valley around 600 AD.
History
Lâm Ấp was founded by
Khu Liên (Ōu Lián 甌連,
EMC: ''*ʔəw-lian''), a Cham leader who led a successful rebellion against the
Han dynasty
The Han dynasty was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China (202 BC9 AD, 25–220 AD) established by Liu Bang and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–206 BC ...
in Tượng Lâm (Xianglin) county (modern-day
Huế
Huế (formerly Thừa Thiên Huế province) is the southernmost coastal Municipalities of Vietnam, city in the North Central Coast region, the Central Vietnam, Central of Vietnam, approximately in the center of the country. It borders Quảng ...
city). He might have been mentioned as Śrī Māra in the
Võ Cạnh stele which was erected around 4th century AD. During the
Three Kingdoms
The Three Kingdoms of Cao Wei, Shu Han, and Eastern Wu dominated China from AD 220 to 280 following the end of the Han dynasty. This period was preceded by the Eastern Han dynasty and followed by the Jin dynasty (266–420), Western Jin dyna ...
period of China, turmoil plagued the region of
Jiaozhou. In 248, Lâm Ấp force invaded from the south, seized most of
Rinan, and marched on into
Jiuzhen, provoking major uprisings there and in
Jiaozhi
Jiaozhi (standard Chinese, pinyin: ''Jiāozhǐ''), or
,
was a historical region ruled by various Chinese dynasties, corresponding to present-day northern Vietnam. The kingdom of Nanyue (204–111 BC) set up the Jiaozhi Commandery (; , ch� ...
. One Jiaozhi rebel commanded thousands and invested several walled towns before
Wu officials got him to surrender. The maternal grandson of Khu Liên,
Phạm Hùng attacked Jiaozhou with aid from
Funan
Funan (; , ; , Chữ Hán: ; ) was the name given by Chinese cartographers, geographers and writers to an ancient Khmer-Mon Indianized state—or, rather a loose network of states ''( Mandala)''—located in Mainland Southeast Asia covering ...
.
In the early period of
Jin dynasty, the imperial court favored the southern trade networks with the prosperous kingdoms of
Funan
Funan (; , ; , Chữ Hán: ; ) was the name given by Chinese cartographers, geographers and writers to an ancient Khmer-Mon Indianized state—or, rather a loose network of states ''( Mandala)''—located in Mainland Southeast Asia covering ...
and Lâm Ấp. Along with this brief peacetime "boom" in the southern trade, Jiaozhi and Jiuzhen enjoyed some autonomy from China until the 320s. Frustrated by the difficulty of trade, Lâm Ấp itself resorted from 323 to seaborne raids on northern ports in Jiaozhou. In 347, king
Fan Wen (范文) attacked Jin-controlled Jiaozhou with 40–50,000 troops. In 399,
Phạm Hồ Đạt (Fàn Húdá) or
Bhadravarman I (r. 380?–413?) tried to seize the coast of Jiaozhou and Rinan, and was driven back by Du Yian, the Chinese governor of Jiao. In 413, he attacked Jiao again, but was defeated, captured and beheaded by the Governor of Jiaozhou, Du Xuedu. His son
Gaṅgārāja or Fan Dizhen/Phạm Địch Chớn soon abdicated the throne and went on pilgrimage to the
Ganges
The Ganges ( ; in India: Ganga, ; in Bangladesh: Padma, ). "The Ganges Basin, known in India as the Ganga and in Bangladesh as the Padma, is an international which goes through India, Bangladesh, Nepal and China." is a trans-boundary rive ...
river in India, although that might be two different persons. In 420,
Phạm Dương Mại I (r. ?–421) launched a new attack against the Jin, but was driven back and more than half of Lâm Ấp's people were slaughtered. In 431, his son
Phạm Dương Mại II (r. 421–446) again attacked, but again was driven back. The next year, Phạm Dương Mại II sent an embassy to the court of
Liu Song
Song, known as Liu Song (), Former Song (前宋) or Song of (the) Southern dynasties (南朝宋) in historiography, was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China and the first of the four Northern and Southern dynasties#Southern dynasti ...
asking for the appointment of Prefect of
Jiao, which was declined. He then turned against the
Khmers and annexed the Khmer district of
Panduranga.
In February 446, the
Liu Song dynasty
Song, known as Liu Song (), Former Song (前宋) or Song of (the) Southern dynasties (南朝宋) in historiography, was an imperial dynasty of China and the first of the four Southern dynasties during the Northern and Southern dynasties peri ...
led by Tan Hezhi invaded Lâm Ấp, captured Lâm Ấp's capital (near modern
Huế
Huế (formerly Thừa Thiên Huế province) is the southernmost coastal Municipalities of Vietnam, city in the North Central Coast region, the Central Vietnam, Central of Vietnam, approximately in the center of the country. It borders Quảng ...
). The Chinese attackers plundered its eight temples and treasury, carrying off 100,000 pounds of gold. Despite that, the revived Lâm Ấp was flourishing on the ever more lucrative passing sea trade.
The destruction of Lâm Ấp capital in
Huế
Huế (formerly Thừa Thiên Huế province) is the southernmost coastal Municipalities of Vietnam, city in the North Central Coast region, the Central Vietnam, Central of Vietnam, approximately in the center of the country. It borders Quảng ...
paved the way for the subsequent emergence of several Chamic kingdoms and chiefdoms south of Lâm Ấp that their connections are remaining unclear, and the country fell into chaos. South of Lam Ap there was the Kingdom of
Xitu (Western Citadel) in the
Thu Bồn River valley, and Chinese histories told that a refugee from
Funan
Funan (; , ; , Chữ Hán: ; ) was the name given by Chinese cartographers, geographers and writers to an ancient Khmer-Mon Indianized state—or, rather a loose network of states ''( Mandala)''—located in Mainland Southeast Asia covering ...
, Jiu Choulou, who "collaborated with the rebels, conquered Linyi and proclaimed himself king" or a usurper named Bhadravarman/Fan Dānggēnchún 范當根純 from
Xitu that assassinated the current king because he was the head of the lineage of king Wéndí 文敌 or Manorathavarman in 490 AD, acknowledged by the Chinese in the next year. By 530, a descendant of king Wendi,
Rudravarman I (r. 529–572), was recognized as king of Linyi by the Chinese
Liang dynasty
The Liang dynasty (), alternatively known as the Southern Liang () or Xiao Liang () in historiography, was an imperial dynasty of China and the third of the four Southern dynasties during the Northern and Southern dynasties period. It was pre ...
.
In 534,
Rudravarman I sent an embassy to China. In 543, he attacked
Lý Bôn
LY or ly may refer to:
Government and politics
* Libya (ISO 3166-1 country code LY)
* Lý dynasty, a Vietnamese dynasty
* Labour Youth of Ireland
* Legislative Yuan, the unicameral legislature of the Republic of China (Taiwan)
Science and tech ...
in Jiaozhou who was in revolt against the Liang dynasty but was defeated by Lý Bôn's general Phaum Tu. In 595,
Sambhuvarman (r. 572–629) sent a tribute gift to the
Sui dynasty
The Sui dynasty ( ) was a short-lived Dynasties of China, Chinese imperial dynasty that ruled from 581 to 618. The re-unification of China proper under the Sui brought the Northern and Southern dynasties era to a close, ending a prolonged peri ...
. In 605 Yang Chien ordered Liu Fang to
invade Lâm Ấp. Chinese troops captured the Cham capital of
Trà Kiệu
Trà Kiệu is a village in Duy Sơn commune, Duy Xuyên district, Quảng Nam province, Vietnam.
Geography
Trà Kiệu is located in the Thu Bồn River, Thu Bồn river valley inland west of Hội An (halfway between Hội An and My Son Sanc ...
, plundered the city. While returning to China, Liu Fang and his army were decimated by diseases.
Since 629, the Chams had used the name "Champa" (
Vietnamese: ''Chăm Pa'') to refer their state. Sambhuvarman's son
Kandarpadharma (r. 629–640) was the first Cham king officially to offer the title ''śrī campeśvara'' (Lord of Campa) of ''Campādeśa'' (the country of Champa). However official Chinese historical texts maintained to usage of the name Linyi for a while, until the last Linyi mission to the Tang court in 749 was reported having been sent by a ruler named Lútuóluó 盧陀羅, or perhaps
Rudravarman II (r. 741–758), but is still blunder in some extent.
From the mid-8th century, Chinese xenonym for Champa had changed from Linyi to
Huánwáng (環王), an area that likely located in the north of the realm.
By the 9th century Zhànchéng 占城 (
MC: ''*tɕiam-dʑiajŋ'') had been become the official Chinese designation for Champa, makes it clear that Champa was directly former Linyi, although there were earlier Chinese Buddhist pilgrims
Xuanzang
Xuanzang (; ; 6 April 6025 February 664), born Chen Hui or Chen Yi (), also known by his Sanskrit Dharma name Mokṣadeva, was a 7th-century Chinese Bhikkhu, Buddhist monk, scholar, traveller, and translator. He is known for the epoch-making ...
and
Yijing
The ''I Ching'' or ''Yijing'' ( ), usually translated ''Book of Changes'' or ''Classic of Changes'', is an ancient Chinese divination text that is among the oldest of the Chinese classics. The ''I Ching'' was originally a divination manual in ...
mentions of "Champa" in the name "Zhàn Pó" 占婆. Historian Anton O. Zakharov anticipates that the Linyi/Lâm Ấp of Chinese and Vietnamese histories and the center of Cham kingdom in Cham history are seemed unlikely to be related.
Linyi and Champa theory
Recent academics, tracing from the work of
Rolf Stein in 1947 with new archaeological and historical evidence, discard the early French scholar
Georges Maspero's classical narrative of 'a vividly unified Champa'.
Michael Vickery, an outspoken critic of Maspero's ''The Champa Kingdom'', expresses that there was never a single Champa in history and the linking of Linyi kings to Champa kings is an illusion. From 220 to 645, Chinese annals give almost the same title for rulers of Linyi: Fan 范 (
MC: ''*buam’''), that may be connected with the Khmer title poñ found in seventh century
Khmer inscriptions. Vickery proposes that the Linyi (Huế) of what Chinese historians had described, was not the actual Champa or Chamic at all. Instead, Linyi's demographics might have been predominantly
Mon-Khmer
The Austroasiatic languages ( ) are a large language family spoken throughout Mainland Southeast Asia, South Asia and East Asia. These languages are natively spoken by the majority of the population in Vietnam and Cambodia, and by minority popu ...
, perhaps the Vieto-Katuic ethnolinguistic branch. The Cham, originally from
Tra Kieu and the
Thu Bồn River valley, were expanding northward and absorbed the old Linyi during the fifth and sixth centuries AD. Chinese annalists, unaware of that Chamic northward expansion, maltreated the whole realm as Linyi but it was not. Only centuries later when the Chinese figured out Champa and the Cham, the polities had already developed to become important trade partners or established political ties with Imperial China.
Culture

The later capital of Lam Ap in the
Thu Bồn River valley, Simhapura, was founded by King Bhadravarman in late-fourth century. Although there are disputes among historians and researchers about Tra Kieu, archaeologists, such as Yamagata (2007), believe that Lam Ap was early Champa, and Trà Kiệu symbolizes the state development of a unified Cham polity. The
third inscription of Bhadravarman is the oldest surviving text in
Cham language
Cham (Cham: , Cham Jawi, Jawi: چم, Latin script: Cam) is a Malayo-Polynesian languages, Malayo-Polynesian language of the Austronesian languages, Austronesian family, spoken by the Cham people, Chams of Southeast Asia. It is spoken primarily i ...
and also any Southeast Asian language. He was also the first known person to order the constructing of the first Śiva lingam, a symbol of Saivaism, in the region. His temple was reported having been destroyed by fire in the six century, and still remains today as one of oldest historical structures in Southeast Asia ever been built and used.
Archaeological excavations recovered artifacts from
Go Cam, near Tra Kieu (Simhapura) dated from late second century AD to the third century show that early Lâm Ấp had a significant amount of Chinese influences before the Indianization. These artifacts include some fragments of tiles and seal inscribed Chinese characters "Seal of the Envoy of the Yellow God," however they might be artifacts left by the previous Han
Rinan government. It appears that early Champa also might have been a commercial center, with Roman/Mediterranean and Indian ware sherds, blue glass cullet, glass jewelry rediscovered among Chinese sealings, roof tiles, mirrors, coins, daggers, silk, and pottery.
From the third to fifth centuries, there were dozens of small Chamic kingdoms and chiefdoms popped up south of Hue to modern-day
Phan Rang Phan may refer to:
* Phan (surname), a Vietnamese family name
* Phan District, Chiang Rai Province, Thailand
* Phan River
The Phan River () is a river of Bình Thuận Province, Vietnam.Vietnam Administrative Atlas, NXB Bản Đồ, 2004 It flo ...
. Stone sculptures of Cham folk divinities admixed with Hindu aesthetic dating from fifth to sixth centuries AD were found in those settlements.
Rulers
*
Khu Liên 192–220
*
Phạm Hùng 220–284
*
Phạm Dật 284–336
*
Phạm Văn 336–349
*
Phạm Phật 349–380
*
Phạm Hồ Đạt 380–413
*
Gangaraja (Phạm Địch Chớn) ?–?
* Manorathavarman ?–?
* Gangarajavarman II (Phạm Địch Văn) ?–420
*
Phạm Dương Mại I 421–431
*
Phạm Dương Mại II 431–446
* Jaya Jayavarman I (Phạm Thần Thành) 455–472
* Fan Danggenchun/Jiu Chouluo 472?–492?
* Phạm Chư Nông 492–498
* Phạm Văn Tẩn 498–510
*
Jaya Devavarman (Phạm Thiên Khởi) 510–526
* Jaya Vijayavarman 526–529? (弼毳跋摩,
MC: ''*bit-tshwiajh-bɑt-mɑ'')
* Rudravarman I 529–572
* Jaya Sambhuvarman (
Phạm Phạn Chí) 572–629
See also
*
Xitu
*
Boliao
*
Quduqian
*
Hồ Tôn Tinh
References
Sources
*
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External links
"Linyi" Lâm Ấp Kingdom
{{DEFAULTSORT:Lam Ap
Champa
Han dynasty
History of Champa
Former countries in Vietnamese history
Former countries in Southeast Asia