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Kṣitigarbha (, , Wylie: ''sa yi snying po'') is a
bodhisattva In Buddhism, a bodhisattva is a person who has attained, or is striving towards, '' bodhi'' ('awakening', 'enlightenment') or Buddhahood. Often, the term specifically refers to a person who forgoes or delays personal nirvana or ''bodhi'' in ...
primarily revered in
East Asian Buddhism East Asian Buddhism or East Asian Mahayana is a collective term for the schools of Mahāyāna Buddhism which developed across East Asia and which rely on the Chinese Buddhist canon. These include the various forms of Chinese, Japanese, Kore ...
and usually depicted as a Buddhist monk. His name may be translated as "Earth Treasury", "Earth Store", "Earth Matrix", or "Earth Womb". Kṣitigarbha is known for his vow to take responsibility for the instruction of all beings in the six worlds between the death of
Gautama Buddha Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha (),* * * was a śramaṇa, wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism. According to Buddhist lege ...
and the rise of
Maitreya Maitreya (Sanskrit) or Metteyya (Pali), is a bodhisattva who is regarded as the future Buddhahood, Buddha of this world in all schools of Buddhism, prophesied to become Maitreya Buddha or Metteyya Buddha.Williams, Paul. ''Mahayana Buddhism: Th ...
, as well as his vow not to achieve
Buddhahood In Buddhism, Buddha (, which in classic Indo-Aryan languages, Indic languages means "awakened one") is a title for those who are Enlightenment in Buddhism, spiritually awake or enlightened, and have thus attained the Buddhist paths to liberat ...
until all
hell In religion and folklore, hell is a location or state in the afterlife in which souls are subjected to punishment after death. Religions with a linear divine history sometimes depict hells as eternal destinations, such as Christianity and I ...
s are emptied. He is therefore often regarded as the bodhisattva of hell-beings, as well as the guardian of children and patron deity of deceased children and aborted fetuses in Japanese culture. Usually depicted as a monk with a
halo HALO, halo, halos or haloes may refer to: Most common meanings * Halo (optical phenomenon) * Halo (religious iconography), a ring of light around the image of a head * ''Halo'' (franchise), a sci-fi video game series (2001–2021) Arts and en ...
around his shaved head, he carries a staff to force open the gates of hell and a wish-fulfilling jewel to light up the darkness.


Overview

Kṣitigarbha is one of the four principal
bodhisattva In Buddhism, a bodhisattva is a person who has attained, or is striving towards, '' bodhi'' ('awakening', 'enlightenment') or Buddhahood. Often, the term specifically refers to a person who forgoes or delays personal nirvana or ''bodhi'' in ...
s along with Samantabhadra,
Manjusri Manjushri () is a ''bodhisattva'' who represents ''Prajñā (Buddhism), prajñā'' (transcendent wisdom) of the Buddhas in Mahāyāna Buddhism. The name "Mañjuśrī" is a combination of Sanskrit word "wikt:%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%9E%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9C%E0 ...
, and
Avalokiteśvara In Buddhism, Avalokiteśvara (meaning "the lord who looks down", International Phonetic Alphabet, IPA: ), also known as Lokeśvara ("Lord of the World") and Chenrezig (in Tibetan), is a Bodhisattva#Bhūmis (stages), tenth-level bodhisattva associ ...
(
Guanyin Guanyin () is a common Chinese name of the bodhisattva associated with Karuṇā, compassion known as Avalokiteśvara (). Guanyin is short for Guanshiyin, which means " he One WhoPerceives the Sounds of the World". Originally regarded as m ...
) in
East Asia East Asia is a geocultural region of Asia. It includes China, Japan, Mongolia, North Korea, South Korea, and Taiwan, plus two special administrative regions of China, Hong Kong and Macau. The economies of Economy of China, China, Economy of Ja ...
n
Mahayana Buddhism Mahāyāna ( ; , , ; ) is a term for a broad group of Buddhist traditions, texts, philosophies, and practices developed in ancient India ( onwards). It is considered one of the three main existing branches of Buddhism, the others being Thera ...
. At the pre-
Tang dynasty The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, c=唐朝), or the Tang Empire, was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907, with an Wu Zhou, interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dynasty and followed ...
grottos in
Dunhuang Dunhuang () is a county-level city in northwestern Gansu Province, Western China. According to the 2010 Chinese census, the city has a population of 186,027, though 2019 estimates put the city's population at about 191,800. Sachu (Dunhuang) was ...
and
Longmen Longmen () may refer to: *Longmen (mythology), The Dragon Gate in Chinese mythology, located at the top of a waterfall cascading from a legendary mountain *Longmen Grottoes, collection of Buddhist cave art in Luoyang *Longmen Mountains, mountain r ...
, he is depicted in a classical bodhisattva form. After the Tang, he became increasingly depicted as a monk carrying Buddhist prayer beads and a staff. His full name in Chinese is ''Dayuan Dizang Pusa'' ( zh, t=大願地藏菩薩, p=Dàyuàn Dìzàng Púsà), or "Kṣitigarbha Bodhisattva of the Great Vow," pronounced ''Daigan Jizō Bosatsu'' in Japanese, ''Jijang Bosal'' in Korean, ''Đại Nguyện Địa Tạng Vương Bồ Tát'' in Vietnamese. This name is a reference to his pledge, as recorded in the
sutra ''Sutra'' ()Monier Williams, ''Sanskrit English Dictionary'', Oxford University Press, Entry fo''sutra'' page 1241 in Indian literary traditions refers to an aphorism or a collection of aphorisms in the form of a manual or, more broadly, a ...
s, to take responsibility for the instruction of all beings in the six worlds in the era between the
parinirvana In Buddhism, ''Parinirvana'' (Sanskrit: '; Pali: ') describes the state entered after death by someone who has attained '' nirvana'' during their lifetime. It implies a release from '' '', karma and rebirth as well as the dissolution of the '' ...
of the Buddha and the rise of Maitreya. Because of this important role, shrines to Kṣitigarbha often occupy a central role in temples, especially within the memorial halls or mausoleums.


Historical role

People were afraid of the period that is known as ''
mappō The Decline of the Dharma or Ages of the Dharma, refers to traditional Buddhist accounts of how the Buddhism, Buddhist religion and the Buddha's teaching (Dharma) is believed to decline throughout history. It constitutes a key aspect of Buddhist ...
'', the decline and disappearance of
Dharma Dharma (; , ) is a key concept in various Indian religions. The term ''dharma'' does not have a single, clear Untranslatability, translation and conveys a multifaceted idea. Etymologically, it comes from the Sanskrit ''dhr-'', meaning ''to hold ...
, which was propagated by
Pure Land Buddhism Pure Land Buddhism or the Pure Land School ( zh, c=淨土宗, p=Jìngtǔzōng) is a broad branch of Mahayana, Mahayana Buddhism focused on achieving rebirth in a Pure land, Pure Land. It is one of the most widely practiced traditions of East Asi ...
as a period in which it is impossible to understand the original Buddhist teachings anymore and attain enlightenment through traditional means. This foundation supported the role among people of Kṣitigarbha as he helped those who were in danger of falling into hell realm in hearing their confessions and to ensure their salvation. One of the widespread practices of Kṣitigarbha-worship in Japan was the citation and copying of the Lotus Sutra as it promised benefits in the present and future. Kṣitigarbha satisfied those immediate needs and the mundane wishes of worshippers to the extent of delivering them to the Pure Land of Amida in the times of declining Dharma.


Sources


As a Brahmin maiden

The story of Kṣitigarbha was first described in the '' Kṣitigarbha Bodhisattva Pūrvapraṇidhāna Sūtra'', a popular Mahayana sutra. This sutra is said to have been spoken by the Buddha towards the end of his life to the beings of the
Trāyastriṃśa The (Sanskrit; Pali ), (''Tushita''; ''Heaven of the Thirty-three''), is an important celestial realm of the devas in Buddhist cosmology. The word ' is an adjective formed from the numeral ', or "33" and can be translated in English as "bel ...
Heaven as a mark of gratitude and remembrance for his beloved mother,
Maya Maya may refer to: Ethnic groups * Maya peoples, of southern Mexico and northern Central America ** Maya civilization, the historical civilization of the Maya peoples ** Mayan languages, the languages of the Maya peoples * Maya (East Africa), a p ...
. The '' Kṣitigarbha Bodhisattva Pūrvapraṇidhāna Sūtra'' begins, "
Thus have I heard ''Thus have I heard'' (; ) is the common translation of the first line of the standard introduction (Pāli and ) of sutra, Buddhist discourses. This phrase serves to confirm that the discourse is coming from the Buddha himself, as a "seal of a ...
. Once the Buddha was abiding in Trayastrimsas Heaven in order to expound the Dharma to his mother." The ''Kṣitigarbha Bodhisattva Pūrvapraṇidhāna Sūtra'' was first translated from
Sanskrit Sanskrit (; stem form ; nominal singular , ,) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in northwest South Asia after its predecessor languages had Trans-cultural ...
into Chinese between 695 and 700 CE, during the
Tang dynasty The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, c=唐朝), or the Tang Empire, was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907, with an Wu Zhou, interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dynasty and followed ...
, by the
Tripiṭaka There are several Buddhist canons, which refers to the various scriptural collections of Buddhist sacred scriptures or the various Buddhist scriptural canons.
master Śikṣānanda, a Buddhist monk from
Khotan Hotan (also known by #Etymology, other names) is a major oasis town in southwestern Xinjiang, an Autonomous regions of China, autonomous region in Northwestern China. The city proper of Hotan broke off from the larger Hotan County to become an ...
who also provided a new translation of the '' Avataṃsaka Sūtra'' and the ''
Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra The ''Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra'' (Sanskrit: लङ्कावतारसूत्रम्, "Discourse of the Descent into Laṅkā", , Chinese: 入楞伽經) is a prominent Mahayana Buddhist sūtra. It is also titled ''Laṅkāvatāraratnasūt ...
''. However, some scholars have suspected that instead of being translated, this text may have originated in
China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. With population of China, a population exceeding 1.4 billion, it is the list of countries by population (United Nations), second-most populous country after ...
, since no Sanskrit manuscripts of this text have been found. Part of the reason for suspicion is that the text advocates
filial piety Filial piety is the virtue of exhibiting love and respect for one's parents, elders, and ancestors, particularly within the context of Confucian ethics, Confucian, Chinese Buddhism, Chinese Buddhist ethics, Buddhist, and Daoism, Daoist ethics. ...
, which was stereotypically associated with
Chinese culture Chinese culture () is one of the Cradle of civilization#Ancient China, world's earliest cultures, said to originate five thousand years ago. The culture prevails across a large geographical region in East Asia called the Sinosphere as a whole ...
. It stated that Kṣitigarbha practised filial piety as a mortal, which eventually led to making great vows to save all sentient beings. Since then, other scholars such as Gregory Schopen have pointed out that Indian Buddhism also had traditions of filial piety. Currently there is no definitive evidence indicating either an Indian or Chinese origin for the text. In the ''Kṣitigarbha Sūtra'', the Buddha states that in the distant past eons, Kṣitigarbha was a maiden of the
Brahmin Brahmin (; ) is a ''Varna (Hinduism), varna'' (theoretical social classes) within Hindu society. The other three varnas are the ''Kshatriya'' (rulers and warriors), ''Vaishya'' (traders, merchants, and farmers), and ''Shudra'' (labourers). Th ...
caste by the name of ''Sacred Girl''. This maiden was deeply troubled upon the death of her mother - who had often been slanderous towards the
Three Jewels In Buddhism, refuge or taking refuge refers to a religious practice which often includes a prayer or recitation performed at the beginning of the day or of a practice session. Its object is typically the Three Jewels (also known as the Triple ...
. To save her mother from the great tortures of hell, the girl sold whatever she had and used the money to buy offerings that she offered daily to the Buddha of her time, known as the Buddha of the Flower of Meditation and Enlightenment. She prayed fervently that her mother be spared the pains of hell and appealed to the Buddha for help. While she was pleading for help at the temple, she heard the Buddha telling her to go home, sit down, and recite his name if she wanted to know where her mother was. She did as she was told and her consciousness was transported to a Hell realm, where she met a guardian who informed her that through her fervent prayers and pious offerings, her mother had accumulated much merit and had already ascended to heaven. "Sacred Girl" was greatly relieved and would have been extremely happy, but the sight of the suffering she had seen in Hell touched her heart. She vowed to do her best to relieve beings of their suffering in her future lives for kalpas.


As a Buddhist monk

There is a legend about how Kṣitigarbha manifested himself in China and chose his
bodhimaṇḍa Bodhimaṇḍa (Sanskrit and Pali) or daochang (; J. dōjō; T. byang chub snying po) is a term used in Buddhism meaning the "seat of awakening" or "platform of enlightenment". According to Haribhadra (Buddhist philosopher), Haribhadra, it is " ...
to be Mount Jiuhua, one of the Four Sacred Mountains of China. During the reign of
Emperor Ming of Han Emperor Ming of Han (15June 28 – 5September 75 AD), born and also known as and as , was the second Emperor of the Han dynasty#Eastern Han, Eastern Han dynasty. He was the fourth son and second crown prince of Emperor Guangwu of Han, Empero ...
, Buddhism started to flourish, reaching its peak in the Tang and eventually spreading to Korea. At the time, monks and scholars arrived from those countries to seek the
dharma Dharma (; , ) is a key concept in various Indian religions. The term ''dharma'' does not have a single, clear Untranslatability, translation and conveys a multifaceted idea. Etymologically, it comes from the Sanskrit ''dhr-'', meaning ''to hold ...
in China. One of these pilgrims was a former prince from
Silla Silla (; Old Korean: wikt:徐羅伐#Old Korean, 徐羅伐, Yale romanization of Korean, Yale: Syerapel, Revised Romanization of Korean, RR: ''Seorabeol''; International Phonetic Alphabet, IPA: ) was a Korean kingdom that existed between ...
named Kim Gyo-gak, who became a monk under the Chinese name Dizang "Kṣitigarbha," pronounced ''Jijang'' in Korean. He went to Mount Jiuhua in present-day
Anhui Anhui is an inland Provinces of China, province located in East China. Its provincial capital and largest city is Hefei. The province is located across the basins of the Yangtze and Huai rivers, bordering Jiangsu and Zhejiang to the east, Jiang ...
. After ascending, he decided to build a hut in a deep mountain area so that he could cultivate the dharma. According to records, Jijang was bitten by a venomous snake but he did not move, thus letting the snake go. A woman happened to pass by and gave the monk medicines to cure him of the venom, as well as a spring on her son's behalf. For a few years, Jijang continued to meditate in his hut, until one day, a scholar named Chu-Ke led a group of friends and family to visit the mountain. Noticing the monk meditating in the hut, they went and took a look at his condition. They had noticed that his bowl did not contain any food, and that his hair had grown back. Taking pity on the monk, Chu-Ke decided to build a temple as an offering to him. The whole group descended the mountain immediately to discuss plans to build the temple. Mount Jiuhua was also property of a wealthy person called Elder Wen-Ke, who obliged to build a temple on his mountain. Therefore, Wen-Ke and the group ascended the mountain once more and asked Jijang how much land he needed. Jijang replied that he needed a piece of land that could be covered fully by his kasaya. Initially believing that a piece of sash could not provide enough land to build a temple, they were surprised when Jijang threw the kasaya in the air, and the robe expanded in size, covering the entire mountain. Elder Wen-Ke had then decided to renounce the entire mountain to Jijang, and became his protector. Sometime later, Wen-Ke's son also left secular life to become a monk. Jijang lived in Mount Jiuhua for 75 years before passing away at the age of 99. Three years after his
nirvana Nirvana, in the Indian religions (Jainism, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Sikhism), is the concept of an individual's passions being extinguished as the ultimate state of salvation, release, or liberation from suffering ('' duḥkha'') and from the ...
, his tomb was opened, only to reveal that the body had not decayed. Because Jijang led his wayplace with much difficulty, most people had the intuition to believe that he was indeed an incarnation of Kṣitigarbha. Jijang's well-preserved, dehydrated body may still be viewed today at the monastery he built on Mount Jiuhua.


Iconography


Traditional iconography

In Buddhist iconography, Kṣitigarbha is typically depicted with a shaven head, dressed in a monk's simple robes (unlike most other
bodhisattva In Buddhism, a bodhisattva is a person who has attained, or is striving towards, '' bodhi'' ('awakening', 'enlightenment') or Buddhahood. Often, the term specifically refers to a person who forgoes or delays personal nirvana or ''bodhi'' in ...
s, who are dressed like Indian royalty). In his left hand, Kṣitigarbha holds a tear-shaped jewel or
cintamani Cintāmaṇi (Sanskrit; Devanagari: ; zh, c=如意寶珠, p=Rúyì bǎozhū; ; Korean: 여의보주/yeouiboju; Japanese Romaji: ), also spelled as Chintamani (or the ''Chintamani Stone''), is a wish-fulfilling jewel resembling a pearl described ...
() in his right hand, he holds a Khakkhara (), which is used to alert insects and small animals of his approach, so that he will not accidentally harm them. This staff is traditionally carried by Buddhist monks. Like other bodhisattvas, Kṣitigarbha usually is seen standing on a lotus base, symbolizing his release from
rebirth Rebirth may refer to: Arts, entertainment, and media Film * ''Rebirth'' (2011 film), a 2011 Japanese drama film * ''Rebirth'' (2016 film), a 2016 American thriller film * ''Rebirth'', a 2011 documentary film produced by Project Rebirth * '' ...
. Kṣitigarbha's face and head are also idealised, featuring the
third eye The third eye (also called the mind's eye or inner eye) is an invisible eye, usually depicted as located on the forehead, supposed to provide perception beyond ordinary sight. In Hinduism, the third eye refers to the ajna (or brow) chakra. In bot ...
, elongated ears and the other standard attributes of a
buddha Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha (),* * * was a wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism. According to Buddhist legends, he was ...
. In the Chinese tradition, Kṣitigarbha is sometimes depicted wearing a crown like the one worn by Vairocana. His image is similar to that of the fictional character
Tang Sanzang Tang Sanzang is a Buddhist monk and pilgrim who is a central character in the 16th century novel ''Journey to the West'' by Wu Cheng'en. His birth surname name was Chen (), but having been found in a river as a baby--he was abandoned after bir ...
from the classical novel ''
Journey to the West ''Journey to the West'' () is a Chinese novel published in the 16th century during the Ming dynasty and attributed to Wu Cheng'en. It is regarded as one of the Classic Chinese Novels, great Chinese novels, and has been described as arguably the ...
'', so observers sometimes mistake Kṣitigarbha for the latter. In China, Kṣitigarbha is also sometimes accompanied by a dog. This is in reference to a legend that he found his mother reborn in the animal realm as a dog named Diting, which the Bodhisattva adopted to serve as his steed and guard. In Japan, Kṣitigarbha's statues are often adorned with bibs, kerchiefs or kasa hat on his head, and sometimes dressed with a haori. Tōsen-ji in
Katsushika is a special ward in the Tokyo Metropolis in Japan. It is known as Katsushika City in English. As of May 1, 2015, the ward has an estimated population of 444,356, and a population density of 12,770 people per km2. The total area is 34.80  ...
,
Tokyo Tokyo, officially the Tokyo Metropolis, is the capital of Japan, capital and List of cities in Japan, most populous city in Japan. With a population of over 14 million in the city proper in 2023, it is List of largest cities, one of the most ...
, contains the "Bound Kṣitigarbha" of
Ōoka Tadasuke was a Japanese samurai in the service of the Tokugawa shogunate. During the reign of Tokugawa Yoshimune, as a magistrate () of Edo, his roles included chief of police, judge and jury, and Yamada Magistrate () prior to his tenure as South Ma ...
fame, dating from the
Edo period The , also known as the , is the period between 1600 or 1603 and 1868 in the history of Japan, when the country was under the rule of the Tokugawa shogunate and some 300 regional ''daimyo'', or feudal lords. Emerging from the chaos of the Sengok ...
. When petitions are requested before Kṣitigarbha, the petitioner ties a rope about the statue. When the wish is granted, the petitioner unties the rope. At the new year, the ropes of the ungranted wishes are cut by the temple priest.


Kṣitigarbha as Lord of the Six Ways

Another category of iconographic depiction is Kṣitigarbha as the Lord of the Six Ways, an allegorical representation of the Six Paths of Rebirth of the
Desire realm The desire realm (Sanskrit: कामधातु, ''kāmadhātu'') is one of the trailokya or three realms (Sanskrit: धातु, ''dhātu'', Tibetan: ''khams'') in Buddhist cosmology into which a being caught in '' '' may be reborn. The o ...
(rebirth into hell, or as pretas, animals, asuras, men, and devas). The Six Paths are often depicted as six rays or beams radiating from the bodhisattva and accompanied by figurative representations of the Six Paths. Many of these depictions in China can be found in
Shaanxi Shaanxi is a Provinces of China, province in north Northwestern China. It borders the province-level divisions of Inner Mongolia to the north; Shanxi and Henan to the east; Hubei, Chongqing, and Sichuan to the south; and Gansu and Ningxia to t ...
province, perhaps a result of Sanjiejiao teachings in the area. A Japanese variation of this depiction is the Six Kṣitigarbhas, six full sculptural manifestations of the bodhisattva. An example of this can be found in Konjikidō, the ‘Hall of Gold,’ in the
Chūson-ji is a Buddhist temple in the town of Hiraizumi in southern Iwate Prefecture, Japan. It is the head temple of the Tendai sect in Tōhoku region of northern Honshu. The temple claims it was founded in 850 by Ennin, the third chief abbot of the se ...
temple.


In Buddhist traditions


Chinese traditions

Mount Jiuhua in
Anhui Anhui is an inland Provinces of China, province located in East China. Its provincial capital and largest city is Hefei. The province is located across the basins of the Yangtze and Huai rivers, bordering Jiangsu and Zhejiang to the east, Jiang ...
is regarded as Kṣitigarbha's
bodhimaṇḍa Bodhimaṇḍa (Sanskrit and Pali) or daochang (; J. dōjō; T. byang chub snying po) is a term used in Buddhism meaning the "seat of awakening" or "platform of enlightenment". According to Haribhadra (Buddhist philosopher), Haribhadra, it is " ...
. It is one of the Four Sacred Buddhism Mountains in China, and at one time housed more than 300 temples. Today, 95 of these are open to the public. The mountain is a popular destination for pilgrims offering dedications to Kṣitigarbha. In certain Chinese Buddhist legends, the
arhat In Buddhism, an ''Arhat'' () or ''Arahant'' (, 𑀅𑀭𑀳𑀦𑁆𑀢𑁆) is one who has gained insight into the true nature of existence and has achieved ''Nirvana (Buddhism), Nirvana'' and has been liberated from the Rebirth (Buddhism ...
Maudgalyayana Maudgalyāyana (), also known as Mahāmaudgalyāyana or by his birth name Kolita, was one of Gautama Buddha, the Buddha's closest disciples. Described as a contemporary of disciples such as Subhuti, Śāriputra ('), and Mahākāśyapa (), he i ...
, known in Chinese as ''Mùlián'' (目連), acts as an assistant to Ksitigarbha in his vow to save the denizens of hell. As a result, Mùlián is usually also venerated in temples that enshrine Ksitigarbha. In folk beliefs, the mount of Ksitigarbha, Diting, is a divine beast that can distinguish good from evil, virtuous and foolish. In iconographic form, it is often enshrined at the side of Ksitigarbha, or portrayed with Ksitigarbha riding on its back as a mount. He is commonly invoked in Chinese Buddhist rituals involving the salvific liberations of
sentient beings Sentience is the ability to experience feelings and sensations. It may not necessarily imply higher cognitive functions such as awareness, reasoning, or complex thought processes. Some writers define sentience exclusively as the capacity for ''v ...
in
saṃsāra ''Saṃsāra'' (Devanagari: संसार) is a Sanskrit word that means "wandering" as well as "world," wherein the term connotes "cyclic change" or, less formally, "running around in circles." ''Saṃsāra'' is referred to with terms or p ...
, such as the Yujia Yankou rite and the Shuilu Fahui ceremony. In some areas, the admixture of traditional religions has led to Kṣitigarbha being also regarded as a deity in
Taoism Taoism or Daoism (, ) is a diverse philosophical and religious tradition indigenous to China, emphasizing harmony with the Tao ( zh, p=dào, w=tao4). With a range of meaning in Chinese philosophy, translations of Tao include 'way', 'road', ' ...
and
Chinese folk religion Chinese folk religion comprises a range of traditional religious practices of Han Chinese, including the Chinese diaspora. This includes the veneration of ''Shen (Chinese folk religion), shen'' ('spirits') and Chinese ancestor worship, ances ...
. Kṣitigarbha Temples () are Taoist temples that usually enshrine Kṣitigarbha as the main deity, along with other gods typically related to the Chinese netherworld
Diyu ''Diyu'' () is the realm of the dead or "hell" in Chinese mythology. It is loosely based on a combination of the Buddhist concept of Naraka (Buddhism), Naraka, traditional Chinese beliefs about the afterlife, and a variety of popular expansion ...
, such as
Yanluo Wang In Chinese culture and religion, Yanluo Wang (simplified Chinese: 阎罗王; traditional Chinese: 閻羅王; pinyin: ''Yánluó Wáng'') is the god of death and the ruler of Diyu, overseeing the "Ten Kings of Hell" in its capital of Youdu. Th ...
and Heibai Wuchang. Believers usually visit these temples to pray for the blessings of the ancestors and the souls of the dead. The 30th day of the seventh month of the
Chinese calendar The traditional Chinese calendar, dating back to the Han dynasty, is a lunisolar calendar that blends solar, lunar, and other cycles for social and agricultural purposes. While modern China primarily uses the Gregorian calendar for officia ...
is celebrated as his birthday.


Japanese traditions

In Japan, Kṣitigarbha, known as ''Jizō'', or respectfully as ''Ojizō-sama'', is one of the most loved of all Japanese divinities. His statues are a common sight, especially by roadsides and in graveyards. According to legend, the first Jizō-statue was introduced in Japan in the reign of emperor Shōmu in the
Nara period The of the history of Japan covers the years from 710 to 794. Empress Genmei established the capital of Heijō-kyō (present-day Nara). Except for a five-year period (740–745), when the capital was briefly moved again, it remained the capita ...
. However, while records exist that indicate a Jizō-statue in the
Tōdai-ji is a Buddhist temple complex that was once one of the powerful Nanto Shichi Daiji, Seven Great Temples, located in the city of Nara, Nara, Nara, Japan. The construction of the temple was an attempt to imitate Chinese temples from the much-admir ...
, the existence of these statues in former times is probable but no evidence has yet been discovered.Dykstra, Yoshiku Kurata (1978): ''Jizō, the Most Merciful. Tales from Jizō Bosatsu Reigenki''. In: Monumenta Nipponica, Summer, 1978, Vol. 33, No. 2 (Summer, 1978), pp. 179-200. Tōkyō: Sophia University. p. 182. In the Heian-period the influences of Jizō worship become clearer as the Konjaku Monogatari dedicates many tales to him and an own collection of his tales, ''Jizō Bosatsu Reigenki,'' was written. The latter contains twenty-five stories which focus on the miracles performed by Jizō. The devotees described in these stories recite the Lotus Sutra, a trait not often found in Chinese worship, that seem to characterise Jizō worship.


Ryōki

In the Ryōki (ca. 822 CE), the earliest found collection of setsuwa, a story with Fujiwara Hirotari is included. He died and caught sight of his wife suffering in the Land After Death, with the aid of Jizō he returned to life and lifted the suffering of his wife through copying the
Lotus Sutra The ''Lotus Sūtra'' (Sanskrit: ''Saddharma Puṇḍarīka Sūtram'', ''Sūtra on the White Lotus of the True Dharma'', zh, p=Fǎhuá jīng, l=Dharma Flower Sutra) is one of the most influential and venerated Buddhist Mahāyāna sūtras. ...
as suggested by Jizō. This story characterises traits of Jizō such as his benevolence towards those caught in the grasps of
naraka Naraka () is the realm of hell in Indian religions. According to schools of Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism, ''Naraka'' is a place of torment. The word ''Neraka'' (modification of ''Naraka'') in Indonesian language, Indonesian and Malaysian langu ...
(hell), the lowest realm of the six paths, and the practice of copying sutras to help them.


Children's limbo legend

In the common tradition associated with the or the banks of the
Sanzu River The is a mythological river in Buddhism in Japan, Japanese Buddhist tradition similar to the Chinese mythology, Chinese concept of Diyu, Huang Quan (Yellow Springs), Indian religions, Indian concept of the Vaitarani (mythology), Vaitarani and G ...
, Kṣitigarbha is portrayed as the protector of the souls of children, who are condemned to stack piles of stones vainly, for these towers are repeatedly toppled. In a later version such as the one recorded by
Lafcadio Hearn was a Greek-born Irish and Japanese writer, translator, and teacher who introduced the culture and literature of Japan to the Western world. His writings offered unprecedented insight into Japanese culture, especially his collections of legend ...
, the
oni An ( ) is a kind of ''yōkai'', demon, orc, ogre, or troll in Japanese folklore. They are believed to live in caves or deep in the mountains or in hell. Oni are known for their superhuman strength and have been associated with powers like th ...
demons wreck the stone piles, and torment the children, and the children seek haven with Kṣitigarbha who hides them inside his garment and comforts them. In an earlier version, found written in the , c. 1600 or earlier when the dead children pile stones at the Sai no Kawara ("Children’s Riverbed Hell"), winds and flames are the agents knocking down the stone tower, and the flame reduce the children into cremated bones, to be revived back to whole by the Jizō Bodhisattva (or by demons). This concept of Sai no Kawara, or children's limbo, first appeared in the '' Otogizōshi'' of the Muromachi Period, and in fact, the "Tale of the Fuji Cave" related above is one such work from the Otogizōshi. As such, the notion was developed quite late, in the post-medieval era, although it has been associated with the priest Kūya (10th century). The Kṣitigarbha and the Sai no Kawara legend was connected with the Kūya and his ''wasan'', or chantings probably some time in the 17th century, creating the ''Jizō wasan''. Also, as to the identification of certain geographic features as Sai no Kawara on Osorezan mountain in northern Japan, the establishment of the Kṣitigarbha cult there is of late-
Tokugawa Period The , also known as the , is the period between 1600 or 1603 and 1868 in the history of Japan, when the country was under the rule of the Tokugawa shogunate and some 300 regional ''daimyo'', or feudal lords. Emerging from the chaos of the Sengok ...
vintage, early to mid 18th century, despite temple pamphlets (''engi'', or account of the founding of temples) purporting origins dating back to the 9th century, with the priest Ennin alleged to have established the place of worship for the Kṣitigarbha at Mt. Osore (in olden times styled "Mount Usori").


Lost pregnancies

Kṣitigarbha has been worshipped as the guardian of the souls of ''mizuko'', the souls of stillborn, miscarried, or aborted fetuses in the ritual of .


Offerings

Kṣitigarbha statues are sometimes accompanied by a little pile of stones and pebbles, put there by people in the hope that it would shorten the time children have to suffer in the underworld. (The act is derived from the tradition of building
stupa In Buddhism, a stupa (, ) is a domed hemispherical structure containing several types of sacred relics, including images, statues, metals, and '' śarīra''—the remains of Buddhist monks or nuns. It is used as a place of pilgrimage and m ...
s as an act of merit-making.) Traditionally, he is seen as the guardian of children, and in particular, children who died before their parents. The statues can sometimes be seen wearing tiny children's clothing or bibs, or with toys, put there by grieving parents to help their lost ones and hoping that Kṣitigarbha would specially protect them. Sometimes the offerings are put there by parents to thank Kṣitigarbha for saving their children from a serious illness. His features are commonly made more baby-like to resemble the children he protects.


Roadside god

As Kṣitigarbha is seen as the saviour of beings who have to suffer in the underworld, his statues are common in cemeteries. He is also believed to be one of the protective deities of travellers, the ''
dōsojin is a generic name for a type of Shinto ''kami'' popularly worshipped in Kantō and neighboring areas in Japan where, as tutelary deity, tutelary deities of borders and paths, they are believed to protect travellers, pilgrims, villages, and individ ...
'', and roadside statues of Kṣitigarbha are a common sight in Japan. Firefighters are also believed to be under his protection.


Southeast Asian traditions

In
Theravada Buddhism ''Theravāda'' (; 'School of the Elders'; ) is Buddhism's oldest existing school. The school's adherents, termed ''Theravādins'' ( anglicized from Pali ''theravādī''), have preserved their version of the Buddha's teaching or '' Dhamma'' in ...
, the story of a
bhikkhu A ''bhikkhu'' (, ) is an ordained male in Buddhist monasticism. Male, and female monastics (''bhikkhunī''), are members of the Sangha (Buddhist community). The lives of all Buddhist monastics are governed by a set of rules called the pratimok� ...
named Phra Malai with similar qualities to Kṣitigarbha is well known throughout
Southeast Asia Southeast Asia is the geographical United Nations geoscheme for Asia#South-eastern Asia, southeastern region of Asia, consisting of the regions that are situated south of China, east of the Indian subcontinent, and northwest of the Mainland Au ...
, especially in
Thailand Thailand, officially the Kingdom of Thailand and historically known as Siam (the official name until 1939), is a country in Southeast Asia on the Mainland Southeast Asia, Indochinese Peninsula. With a population of almost 66 million, it spa ...
and
Laos Laos, officially the Lao People's Democratic Republic (LPDR), is the only landlocked country in Southeast Asia. It is bordered by Myanmar and China to the northwest, Vietnam to the east, Cambodia to the southeast, and Thailand to the west and ...
. Legend has it that he was an
arhat In Buddhism, an ''Arhat'' () or ''Arahant'' (, 𑀅𑀭𑀳𑀦𑁆𑀢𑁆) is one who has gained insight into the true nature of existence and has achieved ''Nirvana (Buddhism), Nirvana'' and has been liberated from the Rebirth (Buddhism ...
from
Sri Lanka Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, also known historically as Ceylon, is an island country in South Asia. It lies in the Indian Ocean, southwest of the Bay of Bengal, separated from the Indian subcontinent, ...
who achieved great supernatural powers through his own merit and meditation. He is also honoured as a successor to Mahāmoggallāna, the Buddha's disciple foremost for his supernatural attainments. In the story, this pious and compassionate monk descends to
Hell In religion and folklore, hell is a location or state in the afterlife in which souls are subjected to punishment after death. Religions with a linear divine history sometimes depict hells as eternal destinations, such as Christianity and I ...
to give teachings and comfort the suffering hell-beings there. He also learns how the hell-beings are punished according to their sins in the different hells.


Mantra

In mainstream
Chinese Buddhism Chinese Buddhism or Han Buddhism ( zh, s=汉传佛教, t=漢傳佛教, first=t, poj=Hàn-thoân Hu̍t-kàu, j=Hon3 Cyun4 Fat6 Gaau3, p=Hànchuán Fójiào) is a Chinese form of Mahayana Buddhism. The Chinese Buddhist canonJiang Wu, "The Chin ...
and Japanese Shingon Buddhism, the
mantra A mantra ( ; Pali: ''mantra'') or mantram (Devanagari: मन्त्रम्) is a sacred utterance, a numinous sound, a syllable, word or phonemes, or group of words (most often in an Indo-Iranian language like Sanskrit or Avestan) belie ...
of Kṣitigarbha comes from the "Treasury of Mantras" section of the '' Mahavairocana Tantra''. The effect of this mantra is producing the "
Samadhi Statue of a meditating Rishikesh.html" ;"title="Shiva, Rishikesh">Shiva, Rishikesh ''Samādhi'' (Pali and ), in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism, is a state of meditative consciousness. In many Indian religious traditions, the cultivati ...
Realm of Adamantine Indestructible Conduct." This mantra is the following:Giebel, Rolf
''The Vairocanābhisaṃbodhi Sutra''
Berkeley: Numata Center, 2005


Other mantras

* Mantra of Eliminating Fixed Karma: : In Chinese, this mantra is called zh, labels=no, p=miè dìngyè zhēnyán in pinyin ( zh, labels=no, s=, t=滅定業真言). It reads: * In Chinese Buddhism, the following mantra is associated with Kṣitigarbha: * In Korean Buddhism, the following mantra is associated with Kṣitigarbha: * In Tibetan Buddhism, the following mantras are associated with Kṣitigarbha: * In Shingon Buddhism, a mantra used in public religious services is: * In Sanskrit: Om! Ha ha ha! O wondrous one! svāhā!


Haiku & Senryū


In popular culture

* ''The Saviour Monk'' is a 1975 Hong Kong film starring David Tang wei as Dizang-wang (Ksitigarbha king), and Doris lung Chun-Erh. The film was directed by Liang Che-Fu. By 2020, the movie has been digitally restored by the Hong Kong Embassy In The Philippines and the
University of the Philippines Film Institute The University of the Philippines Film Institute, also known as the UP Film Institute or UPFI, is a film school located in Quezon City, Philippines. It is attached to the UP College of Mass Communication and engages in theater and extension ser ...
. * The vandalism of a Kṣitigarbha statue is the central theme of '' The Locker'', a 2004 Japanese horror and thriller film directed by Kei Horie. * In the 1988 video game '' Super Mario Bros. 3'',
Mario Mario (; ) is a Character (arts), character created by the Japanese game designer Shigeru Miyamoto. He is the star of the ''Mario (franchise), Mario'' franchise, a recurring character in the ''Donkey Kong'' franchise, and the mascot of the Ja ...
and
Luigi Luigi (; ) is a character created by Japanese video game designer Shigeru Miyamoto. Part of Nintendo's ''Mario'' franchise, he is a kind-hearted, cowardly Italian plumber, and the younger fraternal twin brother and sidekick of Mario. Like ...
gain the ability to turn into Kṣitigarbha statues. This ability returns in the 2011 video game '' Super Mario 3D Land''. Additionally, multiple Kṣitigarbha statues appear in '' Super Mario Odyssey''. * In the 2004 video game '' Ninja Gaiden'', a defaced Kṣitigarbha statue can be found in Ryu Hayabusa's village, with its head knocked off. If Hayabusa replaces the head, the statue's
cintamani Cintāmaṇi (Sanskrit; Devanagari: ; zh, c=如意寶珠, p=Rúyì bǎozhū; ; Korean: 여의보주/yeouiboju; Japanese Romaji: ), also spelled as Chintamani (or the ''Chintamani Stone''), is a wish-fulfilling jewel resembling a pearl described ...
becomes a "Life of the Gods" item that can extend his maximum health. * In the 2004 Hong Kong drama '' My Date with a Vampire III,'' Ksitigarbha was portrayed by Ricky Chan, also known as Ma Siu-Fu, Ma Siu-Ling's twin brother. He starts a romance with
Chang'e Chang'e ( ; ), originally known as Heng'e (), is the goddess of the Moon and wife of Hou Yi, the great archer. Renowned for her beauty, Chang'e is also known for her ascending to the Moon with her pet Yu Tu, the Moon Rabbit and living in the Mo ...
and is unaware that she has actually been going around killing people when she cannot control her vampire bloodlust. Later in the series, he is revealed to be the reincarnation of the bodhisattva Ksitigarbha (), who presides over the Underworld and relentlessly tries to help the souls of the damned get out of Hell. He helps the protagonists in their quest to stop Yaochi Shengmu and
Fuxi Fuxi or Fu Hsi ( zh, c=伏羲) is a culture hero in Chinese mythology, credited along with his sister and wife Nüwa with creating humanity and the invention of music, hunting, fishing, domestication, and cooking, as well as the Cangjie syste ...
from fighting and ending the world. * In the 2022 video game '' Ghostwire: Tokyo'', praying to Kṣitigarbha statues (referenced as Jizo statues in-game) allows the player to carry more ether, which is used to attack enemies. * In '' The House of the Lost on the Cape'', the ''ojizōsama'' play a crucial role in restoring hope to a region devastated by a ''
tsunami A tsunami ( ; from , ) is a series of waves in a water body caused by the displacement of a large volume of water, generally in an ocean or a large lake. Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and underwater explosions (including detonations, ...
''. * In the Japanese
anime is a Traditional animation, hand-drawn and computer animation, computer-generated animation originating from Japan. Outside Japan and in English, ''anime'' refers specifically to animation produced in Japan. However, , in Japan and in Ja ...
film ''
My Neighbor Totoro is a 1988 Japanese animated fantasy film written and directed by Hayao Miyazaki and animated by Studio Ghibli for Tokuma Shoten. It stars the voices of Noriko Hidaka, Chika Sakamoto and Hitoshi Takagi, and focuses on two young sisters a ...
'', the character Mei (who has become lost in the countryside) is found by her older sister waiting by a jizo statue.


See also

* Avalokitesvara, Samantabhadra &
Manjusri Manjushri () is a ''bodhisattva'' who represents ''Prajñā (Buddhism), prajñā'' (transcendent wisdom) of the Buddhas in Mahāyāna Buddhism. The name "Mañjuśrī" is a combination of Sanskrit word "wikt:%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%9E%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9C%E0 ...
*
Atago Gongen also known as Tarōbō (太郎坊), Atago Daigongen (愛宕大権現), Shōgun Jizō (勝軍地蔵) of Mount Atago is a Japanese ''kami'' and tengu believed to be the local avatar ('' Gongen'') of Buddhist bodhisattva Jizō and Shinto ...
* '' Butsu Zone'', a
manga are comics or graphic novels originating from Japan. Most manga conform to a style developed in Japan in the late 19th century, and the form has a long history in earlier Japanese art. The term is used in Japan to refer to both comics ...
in which Kṣitigarbha is a main character * Diting * Dizang of Mount Jiuhua *
Karuṇā () is generally translated as compassion or mercy and sometimes as self-compassion or spiritual longing. It is a significant spiritual concept in the Indic religions of Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, and Jainism. Hinduism In Hinduism, is o ...
(
Brahmavihara The (sublime attitudes, lit. "abodes of Brahma") is a series of four Buddhist virtues and the meditation practices made to cultivate them. They are also known as the four immeasurables (Pāli: ) or four infinite minds ( Chinese: ). The are: ...
) * King Yama &
Yanluo Wang In Chinese culture and religion, Yanluo Wang (simplified Chinese: 阎罗王; traditional Chinese: 閻羅王; pinyin: ''Yánluó Wáng'') is the god of death and the ruler of Diyu, overseeing the "Ten Kings of Hell" in its capital of Youdu. Th ...
* Kṣitigarbha Bodhisattva Pūrvapraṇidhāna Sūtra * Maliyadeva * Mizuko kuyō * Mount Jiuhua & Kim Gyo-gak * Phra Malai Kham Luang


Explanatory notes


References


Bibliography

* * * * * French, Frank G. (ed); Shi, Daoji (trans.)(2003)
The Sutra of Bodhisattva Ksitigarbha's Fundamental Vows (地藏經)
Sutra Translation Committee of the U.S. and Canada/The Corporate Body of the Buddha Educational Foundation Taipei, Taiwan, 2nd ed. * * * Moto-Sanchez, Milla Micka (2016). Jizō
Healing Rituals, and Women in Japan
Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 43 (2), 307-331 * * Visser, Marinus Willem de (1914)
The Bodhisattva Ti-Tsang (Jizo) in China and Japan
Berlin: Oesterheld


External links


Jizo Bodhisattva - Photo Dictionary of Japanese Buddhism



The Sutra of the Past Vows of Earth Store Bodhisattva
{{DEFAULTSORT:Ksitigarbha Bodhisattvas Buddhism and abortion Buddhism and children Buddhism in China Buddhism in Japan Childhood gods Chinese gods Psychopomps Stillbirth