The Kangxi Emperor (4 May 165420 December 1722), also known by his

temple name Temple names are posthumous titles accorded to monarchs of the Sinosphere for the purpose of ancestor worship. The practice of honoring monarchs with temple names began during the Shang dynasty in China and had since been adopted by other dynas ...

Emperor Shengzu of Qing, personal name Xuanye, was the third

emperor The word ''emperor'' (from , via ) can mean the male ruler of an empire. ''Empress'', the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife (empress consort), mother/grandmother (empress dowager/grand empress dowager), or a woman who rules ...

of the

Qing dynasty The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing, was a Manchu-led Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China and an early modern empire in East Asia. The last imperial dynasty in Chinese history, the Qing dynasty was preceded by the ...

, and the second Qing emperor to rule over

China proper China proper, also called Inner China, are terms used primarily in the West in reference to the traditional "core" regions of China centered in the southeast. The term was first used by Westerners during the Manchu people, Manchu-led Qing dyn ...

. His reign of 61 years makes him the longest-reigning emperor in

Chinese history The history of China spans several millennia across a wide geographical area. Each region now considered part of the Chinese world has experienced periods of unity, fracture, prosperity, and strife. Chinese civilization first emerged in the Y ...

and one of the

longest-reigning rulers in history This is a list of the longest-reigning monarchs in history, detailing the monarchs and lifelong leaders who have reigned the longest, ranked by length of reign. Monarchs of sovereign states with verifiable reigns by exact date The following are ...

. He is considered one of China's greatest emperors. The third son of the

Shunzhi Emperor The Shunzhi Emperor (15 March 1638 – 5 February 1661), also known by his temple name Emperor Shizu of Qing, personal name Fulin, was the second Emperor of China, emperor of the Qing dynasty, and the first Qing emperor to rule over China pro ...

, Kangxi was enthroned at the age of seven while actual power was held for six more years by the

four regents The Four Regents of the Kangxi Emperor were nominated by the Shunzhi Emperor to oversee the government of the Qing dynasty during the early reign of the Kangxi Emperor before he came of age. The four were Sonin, Ebilun, Suksaha, and Oboi. Backgr ...

nominated by his father. After assuming personal rule, Kangxi's attempt to revoke the fiefdoms of feudal princes sparked the

Revolt of the Three Feudatories The Revolt of the Three Feudatories, () also known as the Rebellion of Wu Sangui, was a rebellion lasting from 1673 to 1681 in the early Qing dynasty of China, during the reign of the Kangxi Emperor (r. 1661–1722). The revolt was led by Wu San ...

, which he suppressed. He also forced the

Kingdom of Tungning The Kingdom of Tungning, also known as Tywan, was a dynastic maritime state that ruled part of southwestern Taiwan and the Penghu islands between 1661 and 1683. It is the first predominantly ethnic Han state in Taiwanese history. At its z ...

in Taiwan and Mongols in the north and northwest to submit to Qing rule, and launched an expedition that incorporated Tibet into the empire. Domestically, he initially welcomed the

Jesuits The Society of Jesus (; abbreviation: S.J. or SJ), also known as the Jesuit Order or the Jesuits ( ; ), is a religious order (Catholic), religious order of clerics regular of pontifical right for men in the Catholic Church headquartered in Rom ...

and the propagation of

Catholicism The Catholic Church (), also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the List of Christian denominations by number of members, largest Christian church, with 1.27 to 1.41 billion baptized Catholics Catholic Church by country, worldwid ...

in China, but tolerance came to an end as a result of the Chinese Rites controversy. Later in his reign, Kangxi became embroiled in a prolonged succession dispute. He died in 1722 at the age of 68 and was succeeded by his fourth son, who assumed the throne as the

Yongzheng Emperor The Yongzheng Emperor (13 December 1678 – 8 October 1735), also known by his temple name Emperor Shizong of Qing, personal name Yinzhen, was the fourth List of emperors of the Qing dynasty, emperor of the Qing dynasty, and the third Qing em ...

. The Kangxi Emperor's reign brought about long-term stability and relative wealth after years of war and chaos. He initiated the period known as the

High Qing era The High Qing era (), or simply the High Qing, refers to the golden age of the Qing dynasty between 1683 and 1799. China was ruled by the Kangxi, Yongzheng, and Qianlong Emperors in this period, during which the prosperity and power of the emp ...

(or the "Prosperous Era of Kangxi and Qianlong"), spanning the reigns of the Kangxi Emperor, his son Yongzheng, and his grandson

Qianlong The Qianlong Emperor (25 September 17117 February 1799), also known by his temple name Emperor Gaozong of Qing, personal name Hongli, was the fifth emperor of the Qing dynasty and the fourth Qing emperor to rule over China proper. He reigned ...

. His court also accomplished such literary feats as the compilation of the ''

Kangxi Dictionary The ''Kangxi Dictionary'' () is a Chinese dictionary published in 1716 during the High Qing, considered from the time of its publishing until the early 20th century to be the most authoritative reference for written Chinese characters. Wanting ...

'', the ''

Complete Tang Poems ''Complete Tang Poems'' (or ') is the largest collection of Tang poetry, containing some 49,000 lyric poems by more than twenty-two hundred poets. In 1705, it was commissioned at the direction of the Qing dynasty Kangxi Emperor and published u ...

'' poetry anthology, and the ''

Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China The ''Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China'' (or the ''Gujin Tushu Jicheng'') is a vast encyclopedic work written in China during the reigns of the Qing dynasty emperors Kangxi and Yongzheng. It was begun in 1700 and completed in 1725 ...

''.

Early reign

Born on 4 May 1654 to the

and

Empress Xiaokangzhang Empress Xiaokangzhang (1638 – 20 March 1663), of the Manchu Bordered Yellow Banner Tunggiya clan, was the concubine of the Shunzhi Emperor and mother of the Kangxi Emperor during the Qing dynasty. She was honoured as Empress Dowager Cihe dur ...

in Jingren Palace, the

Forbidden City The Forbidden City () is the Chinese Empire, imperial Chinese palace, palace complex in the center of the Imperial City, Beijing, Imperial City in Beijing, China. It was the residence of 24 Ming dynasty, Ming and Qing dynasty, Qing dynasty L ...

Beijing Beijing, Chinese postal romanization, previously romanized as Peking, is the capital city of China. With more than 22 million residents, it is the world's List of national capitals by population, most populous national capital city as well as ...

, the Kangxi Emperor was originally given the Chinese name Xuanye (; Manchu transliteration: ''hiowan yei''). He was

enthroned Enthroned is a Belgian black metal band formed in Charleroi who are one of the premier acts of the Belgian black metal scene. History The band was founded in 1993 by drummer Cernunnos. He soon recruited guitarist Tsebaoth and a vocalist from ...

at the age of seven (or eight by

East Asian age reckoning Traditional East Asian age reckoning covers a group of related methods for reckoning human ages practiced in the East Asian cultural sphere, where age is the number of calendar years in which a person has been alive; it starts at 1 at birth and i ...

), on 7 February 1661. However, his

era name A regnal year is a year of the reign of a sovereign, from the Latin meaning kingdom, rule. Regnal years considered the date as an ordinal, not a cardinal number. For example, a monarch could have a first year of rule, a second year of rule, a t ...

"Kangxi", only started to be used on 18February 1662, the first day of the following lunar year. Sinologist

Herbert Giles Herbert Allen Giles (; 8 December 184513 February 1935) was a British diplomat and sinologist who was the professor of Chinese at the University of Cambridge for 35 years. Giles was educated at Charterhouse School before becoming a British dip ...

, drawing on contemporary sources, described the Kangxi Emperor as "fairly tall and well proportioned, he loved all manly exercises, and devoted three months annually to hunting. Large bright eyes lighted up his face, which was pitted with

smallpox Smallpox was an infectious disease caused by Variola virus (often called Smallpox virus), which belongs to the genus '' Orthopoxvirus''. The last naturally occurring case was diagnosed in October 1977, and the World Health Organization (W ...

." Before the Kangxi Emperor came to the throne,

Grand Empress Dowager Zhaosheng Bumbutai (; mnc, m= ; zh, 布木布泰; 28 March 1613 – 27 January 1688), of the Khorchin Mongol Borjigit clan, was the consort of Hong Taiji. She was 21 years his junior. She was honoured as Empress Dowager Zhaosheng during the reign of ...

(in the name of

) had appointed the powerful men Sonin,

Suksaha Suksaha (Manchu: ; ; died 1667) was a Manchu official of the early Qing dynasty from the Nara clan. A military officer who participated in the Manchu conquest of China, Suksaha became one of the Four Regents during the early reign of the Kangxi ...

Ebilun Ebilun (Manchu:, Möllendorff: ebilun; ; died 1673) was a Manchu noble and warrior of the Niohuru clan, most famous for being one of the Four Regents assisting the young Kangxi Emperor from 1661 to 1667, during the early Qing dynasty (1644– ...

, and

Oboi Oboi (Manchu: , Mölendorff: Oboi; ) (c. 1610–1669) was a prominent Manchu military commander and courtier who served in various military and administrative posts under three successive emperors of the early Qing dynasty. Born to the Guwalg ...

regent In a monarchy, a regent () is a person appointed to govern a state because the actual monarch is a minor, absent, incapacitated or unable to discharge their powers and duties, or the throne is vacant and a new monarch has not yet been dete ...

s. Sonin died after his granddaughter became

Empress Xiaochengren Empress Xiaochengren (3 February 1654 – 6 June 1674), of the Manchu Plain Yellow Banner Hešeri clan, was a posthumous name bestowed to the wife and first empress consort of Xuanye, the Kangxi Emperor. She was empress consort of Qing from 1 ...

, leaving Suksaha at odds with Oboi in politics. In a fierce power struggle, Oboi had Suksaha put to death and seized absolute power as sole regent. The Kangxi Emperor and the rest of the imperial court acquiesced to this arrangement. In the spring of 1662, the regents ordered a

Great Clearance The Great Clearance (), also translated as the Great Evacuation or Great Frontier Shift, was caused by edicts issued in 1661, 1664, and 1679, which required the evacuation of the coastal areas of Guangdong, Fujian, Zhejiang, Jiangnan, and Shando ...

in southern China that evacuated the entire population from the seacoast to counter a resistance movement started by

Ming The Ming dynasty, officially the Great Ming, was an imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming was the last imperial dynasty of China ruled by the Han people, t ...

loyalists under the leadership of Taiwan-based Ming general

Zheng Chenggong Zheng Chenggong (; 27 August 1624 – 23 June 1662), born Zheng Sen () and better known internationally by his honorific title Koxinga (, from Taiwanese: ''kok sèⁿ iâ''), was a Southern Ming general who resisted the Qing conquest of China ...

, also titled

Koxinga Zheng Chenggong (; 27 August 1624 – 23 June 1662), born Zheng Sen () and better known internationally by his honorific title Koxinga (, from Taiwanese: ''kok sèⁿ iâ''), was a Southern Ming general who resisted the Qing conquest of Chin ...

. In 1669, the Kangxi Emperor had Oboi arrested with the help of his grandmother

, who had raised him. and began taking personal control of the empire. He listed three issues of concern: flood control of the

Yellow River The Yellow River, also known as Huanghe, is the second-longest river in China and the List of rivers by length, sixth-longest river system on Earth, with an estimated length of and a Drainage basin, watershed of . Beginning in the Bayan H ...

; repair of the Grand Canal; the

in south China. The Grand Empress Dowager influenced him greatly and he took care of her himself in the months leading up to her death in 1688. Kangxi's relatives from the Han Chinese Banner Tong 佟 clan of

Fushun Fushun ( zh, s=, t=, p=Fǔshùn, historically Fuxi ()) is a prefecture level city in Liaoning province, China, about east of Shenyang, with a total area of , of which is the city proper. Situated on the Hun River ("muddy river"), it is one o ...

Liaoning ) , image_skyline = , image_alt = , image_caption = Clockwise: Mukden Palace in Shenyang, Xinghai Square in Dalian, Dalian coast, Yalu River at Dandong , image_map = Liaoning in China (+all claims hatched).svg , ...

falsely claimed to be related to the Jurchen Manchu

Tunggiya Tunggiya (Manchu: , Chinese: 佟佳) is the name of a Manchu clan. Notable figures Males *Yangzhen (養真/养真; d. 1621), grandfather of Empress Xiaokangzhang **Tulai (圖賴/图赖; 1606–1658), a first rank military official (都統/都� ...

佟佳 clan of

Jilin ) , image_skyline = Changbaishan Tianchi from western rim.jpg , image_alt = , image_caption = View of Heaven Lake , image_map = Jilin in China (+all claims hatched).svg , mapsize = 275px , map_al ...

, using this false claim to get themselves transferred to a Manchu banner in the reign of Kangxi emperor.

Military achievements

Army

The main army of the Qing Empire, the

Eight Banners The Eight Banners (in Manchu language, Manchu: ''jakūn gūsa'', , ) were administrative and military divisions under the Later Jin (1616–1636), Later Jin and Qing dynasty, Qing dynasties of China into which all Manchu people, Manchu househol ...

Army, was in decline under the Kangxi Emperor. It was smaller than it had been at its peak under

Hong Taiji Hong Taiji (28 November 1592 – 21 September 1643), also rendered as Huang Taiji and sometimes referred to as Abahai in Western literature, also known by his temple name as the Emperor Taizong of Qing, was the second khan of the Later Jin ...

and in the early reign of the

; however, it was larger than in the

Yongzheng The Yongzheng Emperor (13 December 1678 – 8 October 1735), also known by his temple name Emperor Shizong of Qing, personal name Yinzhen, was the fourth emperor of the Qing dynasty, and the third Qing emperor to rule over China proper. The ...

and

emperors' reigns. In addition, the

Green Standard Army The Green Standard Army (; ) was the name of a category of military units under the control of Qing dynasty in China. It was made up mostly of ethnic Han soldiers and operated concurrently with the Manchu-Mongol- Han Eight Banner armies. In are ...

was still powerful with generals such as Tuhai, Fei Yanggu, Zhang Yong, Zhou Peigong,

Shi Lang Shi Lang (1621–1696), Marquis Jinghai, also known as Secoe or Sego, was a Chinese admiral who served under the Ming dynasty, Ming and Qing dynasty, Qing dynasties in the 17th century. He was the commander-in-chief of the Qing fleets which dest ...

, Mu Zhan, Shun Shike and Wang Jingbao. The main reason for this decline was a change in system between the Kangxi and Qianlong emperors' reigns. The Kangxi Emperor continued using the traditional military system implemented by his predecessors, which was more efficient and stricter. According to the system, a commander who returned from a battle alone (with all his men dead) would be put to death, and likewise for a foot soldier. This was meant to motivate both commanders and soldiers alike to fight valiantly in war because there was no benefit for the sole survivor in a battle. By the Qianlong Emperor's reign, military commanders had become lax and the training of the army was deemed less important as compared to during the previous emperors' reigns.

Revolt of the Three Feudatories

After the Qing takeover of China in 1644, large parts of the south and west were given as

fiefs A fief (; ) was a central element in medieval contracts based on feudal law. It consisted of a form of property holding or other rights granted by an overlord to a vassal, who held it in fealty or "in fee" in return for a form of feudal allegi ...

to three Ming generals who aided the Qing; in 1673 the three feudatories were controlled by

Wu Sangui Wu Sangui (; 8 June 1612 – 2 October 1678), courtesy name Changbai () or Changbo (), was a Chinese military leader who played a key role in the fall of the Ming dynasty and the founding of the Qing dynasty. In Chinese folklore, Wu Sangui is r ...

Geng Jingzhong Geng Jingzhong (; died 1682) was a powerful military commander of the early Qing dynasty. He inherited the title of "King/Prince of Jingnan" (靖南王) from his father Geng Jimao, who had inherited it from Jingzhong's grandfather Geng Zhongming ...

, and

Shang Zhixin Shang Zhixin (; 1636 – 1680) was a warlord of the early Qing Dynasty, known for his role in the Revolt of the Three Feudatories. He was Prince of Pingnan (平南王, "Prince who Pacifies the South"), inheriting his position from his father Sha ...

. Going against the advice of most of his advisors, Kangxi attempted to force the feudal princes to give up their lands and retire to Manchuria, sparking a rebellion that lasted eight years. For years afterwards Kangxi ruminated on his mistakes and blamed himself in part for the loss of life during the revolt. Wu Sangui's forces overran most of southwest China and he tried to ally himself with local generals such as

Wang Fuchen Wang Fuchen (; d. 1681) was a participant in the Revolt of the Three Feudatories during the Qing dynasty against the Kangxi Emperor. Wang was born in Datong, Shanxi Province, he was born to a poor family and grew up to be a bandit. His original s ...

. The Kangxi Emperor employed generals including Zhou Peigong and Tuhai to suppress the rebellion, and also granted clemency to common people caught up in the war. He intended to personally lead the armies to crush the rebels but his subjects advised him against it. The Kangxi Emperor used mainly Han Chinese

soldiers to crush the rebels while the Manchu Banners took a backseat. The revolt ended with victory for Qing forces in 1681.

Taiwan

In 1683, the naval forces of the Ming loyalists on

Taiwan Taiwan, officially the Republic of China (ROC), is a country in East Asia. The main geography of Taiwan, island of Taiwan, also known as ''Formosa'', lies between the East China Sea, East and South China Seas in the northwestern Pacific Ocea ...

—organized under the Zheng dynasty as the

—were defeated off Penghu by 300-odd ships under the Qing admiral

's grandson

Zheng Keshuang Zheng Keshuang, Prince of Yanping (; 13 August 1670 – 22 September 1707), courtesy name Shihong, art name Huitang, was the third and last ruler of the Kingdom of Tungning in Taiwan in the 17th century. He was the second son of Zheng Jing and ...

surrendered Tungning a few days later and Taiwan became part of the Qing Empire. Zheng Keshuang moved to Beijing, joined the Qing nobility as the "Duke Haicheng" (), and was inducted into the

as a member of the Han

Plain Red Banner The Plain Red Banner () was one of the Eight Banners (lower five banners) of Manchu military and society organization during the Later Jin and Qing dynasties of China. Famous members included: * Daišan * Wenxiang * Heshen, from the Niohuru c ...

. His soldiers—including the rattan-shield troops (, ''tengpaiying'')—were similarly entered into the Eight Banners, notably serving against Russian Cossacks at Albazin. A score of Ming princes had joined the Zheng dynasty on Taiwan, including Prince

Zhu Shugui Zhu Shugui (1617 – 21 July 1683), courtesy name Tianqiu (天球) and art name Yiyuanzi (一元子), the Prince of Ningjing (寧靖王), was a royal member of the Ming and the last of the pretenders to the throne of Southern Ming after the ...

of Ningjing and Prince Honghuan ( 朱弘桓), the son of

Zhu Yihai Zhu Yihai (; 1618–1662), courtesy name Juchuan (巨川), art name Hengshan (恆山) and Changshizi (常石子), was a regent of the Southern Ming dynasty from 1645 to 1653. Early life Zhu Yihai was born in 1618, during the 46th year of the r ...

. The Qing sent most of the 17 Ming princes still living on Taiwan back to mainland China, where they spent the rest of their lives. The Prince of Ningjing and his five concubines, however, committed suicide rather than submit to capture. Their palace was used as Shi Lang's headquarters in 1683, but he memorialized the emperor to convert it into a Mazu temple as a propaganda measure in quieting remaining resistance on Taiwan. The emperor approved its dedication as the

Grand Matsu Temple The Grand Matsu Temple (),. & also known as the Datianhou or ,. is a Taiwanese temple to the goddess Mazu, who is the Goddess of Sea and Patron Deity of fishermen, sailors and any occupations related to the sea. The temple is located in West Cen ...

the next year and, honoring the goddess

Mazu Mazu or Matsu is a sea goddess in Chinese folk religion, Chinese Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism. She is also known by several other names and titles. Mazu is the deified form of Lin Moniang (), a shamaness from Fujian who is said to ...

for her supposed assistance during the Qing invasion, promoted her to "Empress of Heaven" ( ''Tianhou'') from her previous status as a "heavenly consort" ( ''Tianfei'')... Belief in Mazu remains so widespread on Taiwan that her annual celebrations can gather hundreds of thousands of people; she is sometimes even syncretized with

Guanyin Guanyin () is a common Chinese name of the bodhisattva associated with Karuṇā, compassion known as Avalokiteśvara (). Guanyin is short for Guanshiyin, which means " he One WhoPerceives the Sounds of the World". Originally regarded as m ...

and the

Virgin Mary Mary was a first-century Jewish woman of Nazareth, the wife of Saint Joseph, Joseph and the mother of Jesus. She is an important figure of Christianity, venerated under titles of Mary, mother of Jesus, various titles such as Perpetual virginity ...

. The end of the rebel stronghold and capture of the Ming princes allowed the Kangxi Emperor to relax the

Sea Ban The Haijin () or sea ban were a series of related policies in China restricting private maritime trading during much of the Ming dynasty and early Qing dynasty. The sea ban was an anomaly in Chinese history as such restrictions were unknown durin ...

and permit resettlement of the

Fujian Fujian is a provinces of China, province in East China, southeastern China. Fujian is bordered by Zhejiang to the north, Jiangxi to the west, Guangdong to the south, and the Taiwan Strait to the east. Its capital is Fuzhou and its largest prefe ...

and

Guangdong ) means "wide" or "vast", and has been associated with the region since the creation of Guang Prefecture in AD 226. The name "''Guang''" ultimately came from Guangxin ( zh, labels=no, first=t, t= , s=广信), an outpost established in Han dynasty ...

coasts. The financial and other incentives to new settlers particularly drew the

Hakka The Hakka (), sometimes also referred to as Hakka-speaking Chinese, or Hakka Chinese, or Hakkas, are a southern Han Chinese subgroup whose principal settlements and ancestral homes are dispersed widely across the provinces of southern China ...

, who would have continuous low-level conflict with the returning

Punti people ''Punti'' ( zh, t=本地, j=bun2 dei6, l=locals) is a Cantonese endonym referring to the native Cantonese people of Guangdong and Guangxi. In Hong Kong, ''Punti'' designates Weitou dialect-speaking locals in contrast to non-Weitou speakers ...

for the next few centuries.

Russia

In the 1650s, the Qing Empire engaged the

Tsardom of Russia The Tsardom of Russia, also known as the Tsardom of Moscow, was the centralized Russian state from the assumption of the title of tsar by Ivan the Terrible, Ivan IV in 1547 until the foundation of the Russian Empire by Peter the Great in 1721. ...

in a series of border conflicts along the

Amur River The Amur River () or Heilong River ( zh, s=黑龙江) is a perennial river in Northeast Asia, forming the natural border between the Russian Far East and Northeast China (historically the Outer and Inner Manchuria). The Amur ''proper'' is ...

region, which concluded with the Qing gaining control of the area after the Siege of Albazin. The Russians invaded the northern frontier again in the 1680s. A series of battles and negotiations culminated in the

Treaty of Nerchinsk The Treaty of Nerchinsk of 1689 was the first treaty between the Tsardom of Russia and the Qing dynasty of China after the defeat of Russia by Qing China at the Siege of Albazin in 1686. The Russians gave up the area north of the Amur River as ...

of 1689, by which a border was agreed between Russia and China.

Mongolia

The Inner Mongolian Chahar leader

Ligdan Khan Khutugtu Khan (; ), born Ligdan (; ), (1588–1634) was a khagan of the Northern Yuan dynasty, reigning from 1604 to 1634. During his reign, he vigorously attempted to reunify the divided Mongol Empire, achieving moderate levels of success. Howev ...

, a descendant of Genghis Khan, opposed and fought against the Qing until he died of

in 1634. Thereafter, the Inner Mongols under his son

Ejei Khan Erke Khongghor (; ), alternatively known as Ejei (; ; "Ejei" means "lord" in the Mongolian language), (?–1641) was the last khagan of the Northern Yuan dynasty, ruling briefly from 1634 to 1635. He was the son of Ligdan Khan. The Northern Yuan ...

surrendered to the Qing and he was given the title of Prince (Qin Wang, 親王). The Inner Mongolian nobility now became closely tied to the Qing royal family and intermarried with them extensively. Ejei Khan died in 1661 and was succeeded by his brother Abunai. After Abunai showed disaffection with Manchu Qing rule, he was placed under house arrest in 1669 in

Shenyang Shenyang,; ; Mandarin pronunciation: ; formerly known as Fengtian formerly known by its Manchu language, Manchu name Mukden, is a sub-provincial city in China and the list of capitals in China#Province capitals, provincial capital of Liaonin ...

and the Kangxi Emperor gave his title to his son Borni. Abunai bided his time then, with his brother Lubuzung, revolted against the Qing in 1675 during the

, with 3,000 Chahar Mongol followers joining in on the revolt. The revolt was put down within two months, the Qing defeating the rebels in battle on 20 April 1675, killing Abunai and all his followers. Their title was abolished, all Chahar Mongol royal males were executed even if they were born to Manchu Qing princesses, and all Chahar Mongol royal females were sold into slavery except the Manchu Qing princesses. The Chahar Mongols were then put under the direct control of the Qing Emperor unlike the other Inner Mongol leagues which maintained their autonomy. The Emperor at the Kherlen river

The Outer

Khalkha Mongols The Khalkha (; ) have been the largest subgroup of the Mongols in modern Mongolia since the 15th century. The Khalkha, together with Chahars, Ordos Mongols, Ordos and Tumed, were directly ruled by Borjigin khans until the 20th century. In cont ...

had preserved their independence, and only paid tribute to the Qing Empire. However, a conflict between the houses of Jasagtu Khan and Tösheetü Khan led to a dispute between the Khalkha and the

Dzungars The Dzungar people (also written as Zunghar or Junggar; from the Mongolian words , meaning 'left hand') are the many Mongol Oirat tribes who formed and maintained the Dzungar Khanate in the 17th and 18th centuries. Historically, they were on ...

over the influence of

Tibetan Buddhism Tibetan Buddhism is a form of Buddhism practiced in Tibet, Bhutan and Mongolia. It also has a sizable number of adherents in the areas surrounding the Himalayas, including the Indian regions of Ladakh, Gorkhaland Territorial Administration, D ...

. In 1688, the Dzungar chief,

Galdan Boshugtu Khan Galdan Boshugtu Khan (1644 – 3 May 1697) was a Choros- Oirat khan of the Dzungar Khanate. As fourth son of Erdeni Batur, founder of the Dzungar Khanate, Galdan was a descendant of Esen Taishi, the powerful Oirat Khan of the Northern Yuan dyn ...

, attacked the Khalkha from the west and invaded their territory. The Khalkha royal families and the first

Jebtsundamba Khutuktu The Jebtsundamba Khutuktu; ; "Venerable Excellent incarnate lama" or Khalkha Jetsün Dampa Rinpoche is a title given to the spiritual head of the Gelug lineage of Tibetan Buddhism in Mongolia. They also hold the title of ''Bogd Gegeen'', making ...

crossed the

Gobi Desert The Gobi Desert (, , ; ) is a large, cold desert and grassland region in North China and southern Mongolia. It is the sixth-largest desert in the world. The name of the desert comes from the Mongolian word ''gobi'', used to refer to all of th ...

and sought help from the Qing Empire in return for submission to Qing authority. In 1690, the Dzungars and Qing forces clashed at the

Battle of Ulan Butung The Battle of Ulan Butung () was fought on 3 September 1690 between the forces of the Qing dynasty and those of the Dzungar Khanate. When attacked by the superior Qing army, the Dzungars formed a camel wall to defend their camp and defeated Qing ...

Inner Mongolia Inner Mongolia, officially the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, is an Autonomous regions of China, autonomous region of China. Its border includes two-thirds of the length of China's China–Mongolia border, border with the country of Mongolia. ...

, in which the Qing eventually emerged as the victor. In 1696 and 1697 the Kangxi Emperor personally led campaigns against the Dzungars in the early Dzungar–Qing War. The western section of the Qing army defeated Galdan's forces at the

Battle of Jao Modo The Battle of Jao Modo (; ) also known as the Battle of Zuunmod (literally "Battle of the Hundred Trees"), was fought on June 12, 1696, on the banks of the upper Terelj river east of the modern-day Mongolian capital Ulaanbaatar. A Dzungar-Mon ...

and Galdan died in the following year.

Manchu Hoifan and Ula rebellion against the Qing

In 1700, some 20,000 Qiqihar Xibe were resettled in Guisui, modern

, and 36,000 Songyuan Xibe were resettled in

. The relocation of the Xibe from Qiqihar is believed by Liliya M. Gorelova to be linked to the Qing's annihilation of the Manchu clan Hoifan (Hoifa) in 1697 and the Manchu tribe Ula in 1703 after they rebelled against the Qing; both Hoifan and Ula were wiped out.

Tibet

In 1701, the Kangxi Emperor ordered the reconquest of

Kangding Kangding ( zh, c=康定), also known as Dartsedo (), is a county-level city and the seat of Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture in Sichuan province of Southwest China. Kangding is on the bank of the Dadu River and has been considered the his ...

and other border towns in western

Sichuan Sichuan is a province in Southwestern China, occupying the Sichuan Basin and Tibetan Plateau—between the Jinsha River to the west, the Daba Mountains to the north, and the Yunnan–Guizhou Plateau to the south. Its capital city is Cheng ...

that had been taken by the Tibetans. The Manchu forces stormed Dartsedo and secured the border with Tibet and the lucrative tea-horse trade. The Tibetan ''desi'' (regent)

Sangye Gyatso Kalon Sangye Gyatso (1653–1705) was the sixth regent of the 5th Dalai Lama (1617–1682), in the Ganden Phodrang government. He founded the Chagpori College of Medicine in 1694, a Traditional Tibetan medicine school for monks which grew in 1916 ...

concealed the death of the

5th Dalai Lama The 5th Dalai Lama, Ngawang Lobsang Gyatso (; ; 1617–1682) was recognized as the 5th Dalai Lama, and he became the first Dalai Lama to hold both Tibet's political and spiritual leadership roles. He is often referred to simply as the Great Fif ...

in 1682, and only informed the emperor in 1697. He moreover kept relations with Dzungar enemies of the Qing. All this evoked the great displeasure of the Kangxi Emperor. Eventually Sangye Gyatso was toppled and killed by the

Khoshut The Khoshut (Mongolian language, Mongolian: Хошууд,, qoşūd, ; literally "bannermen," from Middle Mongol language, Middle Mongolian ''qosighu'' "flag, banner") are one of the four major tribes of the Oirats, Oirat people. They established ...

ruler

Lha-bzang Khan Lha-bzang Khan ( Mongolian: ''Lazang Khaan''; ; alternatively, Lhazang or Lapsangn or Lajang; d.1717) was the ruler of the Khoshut (also spelled Qoshot, Qośot, or Qosot) tribe of the Oirats. He was the son of Tenzin Dalai Khan (1668–1701) and ...

in 1705. As a reward for ridding him of his old enemy the

Dalai Lama The Dalai Lama (, ; ) is the head of the Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism. The term is part of the full title "Holiness Knowing Everything Vajradhara Dalai Lama" (圣识一切瓦齐尔达喇达赖喇嘛) given by Altan Khan, the first Shu ...

, the Kangxi Emperor appointed Lha-bzang Khan Regent of Tibet (). The

Dzungar Khanate The Dzungar Khanate ( Mongolian: ), also known as the Zunghar Khanate or Junggar Khanate, was an Inner Asian khanate of Oirat Mongol origin. At its greatest extent, it covered an area from southern Siberia in the north to present-day Kyrgyz ...

, a confederation of Oirat tribes based in parts of what is now

Xinjiang Xinjiang,; , SASM/GNC romanization, SASM/GNC: Chinese postal romanization, previously romanized as Sinkiang, officially the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region (XUAR), is an Autonomous regions of China, autonomous region of the China, People' ...

, continued to threaten the Qing Empire and invaded

Tibet Tibet (; ''Böd''; ), or Greater Tibet, is a region in the western part of East Asia, covering much of the Tibetan Plateau and spanning about . It is the homeland of the Tibetan people. Also resident on the plateau are other ethnic groups s ...

in 1717. They took control of

Lhasa Lhasa, officially the Chengguan District of Lhasa City, is the inner urban district of Lhasa (city), Lhasa City, Tibet Autonomous Region, Southwestern China. Lhasa is the second most populous urban area on the Tibetan Plateau after Xining ...

with a 6,000 strong army and killed Lha-bzang Khan. The Dzungars held on to the city for three years and at the

Battle of the Salween River The Battle of the Salween River () was fought in September 1718 close to the Nagqu (i.e., Salween River) in Tibet, between an expedition of the Qing dynasty to Lhasa and a Dzungar Khanate force that blocked its path. After Tsering Dhondup co ...

defeated a Qing army sent to the region in 1718. The Qing did not take control of Lhasa until 1720, when the Kangxi Emperor sent a larger expedition force there to defeat the Dzungars.

Muslims

The Kangxi Emperor incited anti-Muslim sentiment among the Mongols of

Qinghai Qinghai is an inland Provinces of China, province in Northwestern China. It is the largest provinces of China, province of China (excluding autonomous regions) by area and has the third smallest population. Its capital and largest city is Xin ...

(Kokonor) in order to gain support against the Dzungar Oirat Mongol leader Galdan. Kangxi claimed that Chinese Muslims inside China such as Turkic Muslims in Qinghai were plotting with Galdan, who he falsely claimed converted to Islam. Kangxi falsely claimed that Galdan had spurned and turned his back on Buddhism and the Dalai Lama and that he was plotting to install a Muslim as ruler of China after invading it in a conspiracy with Chinese Muslims. Kangxi also distrusted Muslims of Turfan and Hami.

Chinese nobility

The Kangxi Emperor granted the title of Wujing Boshi ( 五經博士; ''Wǔjīng Bóshì'') to the descendants of

Shao Yong Shao Yong (; 1011–1077), courtesy name Yaofu (堯夫), named Shào Kāngjié (邵康節) was a Chinese cosmologist, historian, philosopher, and poet who greatly influenced the development of Neo-Confucianism across China during the Song dynas ...

Zhu Xi Zhu Xi ( zh, c=朱熹; ; October 18, 1130April 23, 1200), formerly romanized Chu Hsi, was a Chinese philosopher, historian, politician, poet, and calligrapher of the Southern Song dynasty. As a leading figure in the development of Neo-Confuci ...

, Zhuansun Shi, Ran family (

Ran Qiu Ran Qiu (born 522BC), also known by his courtesy name Ziyou and as Ran You, was a leading disciple of Confucius. Among Confucius's disciples, he was the foremost in terms of ability and accomplishment in statesmanship. As a military commander o ...

, Ran Geng,

Ran Yong Ran Yong (; born 522 BC), also known by his courtesy name Zhonggong (), was one of the prominent disciples of Confucius. Confucius thought highly of his excellent moral conduct, and considered him fit to be the ruler of a state. After completin ...

), Bu Shang,

Yan Yan (disciple of Confucius) Yan Yan (b. 506BC), also known by his courtesy name Ziyou and as Yan You or Yanzi, was a prominent disciple of Confucius, considered by Confucius to be his most distinguished disciple in the study of the classics. A native of the state of Wu, ...

, and the

Duke of Zhou Dan, Duke Wen of Zhou, commonly known as the Duke of Zhou, was a member of the royal family of the early Zhou dynasty who played a major role in consolidating the kingdom established by his elder brother King Wu. He was renowned for acting as ...

's offspring.

Economic achievements

The contents of the national treasury during the Kangxi Emperor's reign were: :1668 (7th year of Kangxi): 14,930,000

tael Tael ( ),"Tael" entry
at the

) advice on how to make the economy more efficient.

Cultural achievements

During his reign, the Kangxi Emperor ordered the compilation of a dictionary of

Chinese character Chinese characters are logographs used to write the Chinese languages and others from regions historically influenced by Chinese culture. Of the four independently invented writing systems accepted by scholars, they represent the only on ...

s, which became known as the

. This was seen as an attempt by the emperor to gain support from the

Han Chinese The Han Chinese, alternatively the Han people, are an East Asian people, East Asian ethnic group native to Greater China. With a global population of over 1.4 billion, the Han Chinese are the list of contemporary ethnic groups, world's la ...

scholar-bureaucrats The scholar-officials, also known as literati, scholar-gentlemen or scholar-bureaucrats (), were government officials and prestigious scholars in Chinese society, forming a distinct social class. Scholar-officials were politicians and governmen ...

, as many of them initially refused to serve him and remained loyal to the

Ming dynasty The Ming dynasty, officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming was the last imperial dynasty of ...

. However, by persuading the scholars to work on the dictionary without asking them to formally serve the Qing imperial court, the Kangxi Emperor led them to gradually taking on greater responsibilities until they were assuming the duties of state officials. In 1700, on the Kangxi Emperor's order, the compilation of a vast encyclopedia known as the

(completed during the reign of his successor

), and a compilation of

Tang poetry Tang poetry () refers to poetry written in or around the time of or in the characteristic style of China's Tang dynasty, (June 18, 618 – June 4, 907, including the 690–705 reign of Wu Zetian) and/or follows a certain style, often considered a ...

, the

. The Kangxi Emperor also was interested in Western technology and wanted to import them to China. This was done through

Jesuit missionaries The Society of Jesus (; abbreviation: S.J. or SJ), also known as the Jesuit Order or the Jesuits ( ; ), is a religious order of clerics regular of pontifical right for men in the Catholic Church headquartered in Rome. It was founded in 1540 ...

, such as

Ferdinand Verbiest Ferdinand Verbiest, (9 October 1623 – 28 January 1688) was a Flemish Jesuit missionary in China during the Qing dynasty. He was born in Pittem near Tielt in the County of Flanders (now part of Belgium). He is known as Nan Huairen () in Chine ...

, whom the Kangxi Emperor frequently summoned for meetings, or

Karel Slavíček Karel Slavíček (; 12 December 1678 – 24 September 1735) was a Jesuits, Jesuit missionary and scientist, the first Czechs, Czech sinologist and author of the first precise map of Beijing. Biography Early life and studies in the Czech lands ...

, who made the first precise map of

on the emperor's order. From 1711 to 1723,

Matteo Ripa Matteo Ripa (29 March 1682, Eboli – 29 March 1746, Naples) was an Italian priest who was sent as a missionary to China by Propaganda Fide, and between 1711 and 1723 worked as a painter and copper-engraver at the Manchu court of the Kangxi Emp ...

, an

Italian Italian(s) may refer to: * Anything of, from, or related to the people of Italy over the centuries ** Italians, a Romance ethnic group related to or simply a citizen of the Italian Republic or Italian Kingdom ** Italian language, a Romance languag ...

priest sent to China by the

Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples The Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples (CEP; ) was a congregation (Roman Curia), congregation of the Roman Curia of the Catholic Church in Rome, responsible for Catholic missions, missionary work and related activities. It is also kn ...

, worked as a painter and copper-engraver at the Qing court. In 1723, he returned to

Naples Naples ( ; ; ) is the Regions of Italy, regional capital of Campania and the third-largest city of Italy, after Rome and Milan, with a population of 908,082 within the city's administrative limits as of 2025, while its Metropolitan City of N ...

from China with four young Chinese Christians, in order to groom them to become priests and send them back to China as missionaries. This marked the beginning of the Collegio dei Cinesi, sanctioned by

Pope Clement XII Pope Clement XII (; ; 7 April 16526 February 1740), born Lorenzo Corsini, was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 12 July 1730 to his death in February 1740. Clement presided over the growth of a surplus in the papal ...

to help the evangelization of

Christianity Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion, which states that Jesus in Christianity, Jesus is the Son of God (Christianity), Son of God and Resurrection of Jesus, rose from the dead after his Crucifixion of Jesus, crucifixion, whose ...

in China. This Chinese Institute was the first school of

Sinology Sinology, also referred to as China studies, is a subfield of area studies or East Asian studies involved in social sciences and humanities research on China. It is an academic discipline that focuses on the study of the Chinese civilization p ...

Europe Europe is a continent located entirely in the Northern Hemisphere and mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere. It is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, the Mediterranean Sea to the south, and Asia to the east ...

, which would later develop to become the Istituto Orientale and the present day

Naples Eastern University Naples ( ; ; ) is the regional capital of Campania and the third-largest city of Italy, after Rome and Milan, with a population of 908,082 within the city's administrative limits as of 2025, while its province-level municipality is the thir ...

. The Kangxi Emperor was also the first Chinese emperor to play a western musical instrument.

Thomas Pereira Tomás Pereira (5 November 1646 – 1708) was a Portuguese Jesuit missionary who served at the court of the Kangxi Emperor in Beijing for thirty‑six years. Renowned as a musician, clockmaker and interpreter, he played a pivotal role in the ...

taught him how to play the harpsichord, and he employed

as court musician. Slavíček was playing

Spinet A spinet is a smaller type of harpsichord or other keyboard instrument, such as a piano or organ. Harpsichords When the term ''spinet'' is used to designate a harpsichord, typically what is meant is the ''bentside spinet'', described in this ...

; later the emperor would play on it himself. China's famed blue and white porcelain probably reached its zenith during the Kangxi Emperor's reign.

Christianity

Jesuit astronomers with Kangxi Emperor 1690-1705 Beauvais

In the early decades of the Kangxi Emperor's reign,

Jesuit The Society of Jesus (; abbreviation: S.J. or SJ), also known as the Jesuit Order or the Jesuits ( ; ), is a religious order (Catholic), religious order of clerics regular of pontifical right for men in the Catholic Church headquartered in Rom ...

s played a large role in the imperial court. With their knowledge of

astronomy Astronomy is a natural science that studies celestial objects and the phenomena that occur in the cosmos. It uses mathematics, physics, and chemistry in order to explain their origin and their overall evolution. Objects of interest includ ...

, they ran the imperial observatory.

Jean-François Gerbillon Jean-François Gerbillon (4 June 1654, Verdun, France – 27 March 1707, Peking, China) was a French Catholic missionary who worked in China. Biography Gerbillon entered the Society of Jesus on 5 October 1670, and after completing the usual cou ...

and

served as translators for the negotiations of the

. The Kangxi Emperor was grateful to the Jesuits for their contributions, the many languages they could interpret, and the innovations they offered his military in gun manufacturingMantienne, p. 180 and

artillery Artillery consists of ranged weapons that launch Ammunition, munitions far beyond the range and power of infantry firearms. Early artillery development focused on the ability to breach defensive walls and fortifications during sieges, and l ...

, the latter of which enabled the Qing Empire to conquer the

.''Les Missions Etrangeres'', p. 83 The Kangxi Emperor was also fond of the Jesuits' respectful and unobtrusive manner; they spoke the

Chinese language Chinese ( or ) is a group of languages spoken natively by the ethnic Han Chinese majority and List of ethnic groups in China, many minority ethnic groups in China, as well as by various communities of the Chinese diaspora. Approximately 1.39& ...

well, and wore the silk robes of the elite.Manteigne, p. 178 In 1692, when Pereira requested tolerance for

, the Kangxi Emperor was willing to oblige, and issued the Edict of Toleration, which recognized

, barred attacks on their churches, and legalized their missions and the practice of Christianity by the

Chinese people The Chinese people, or simply Chinese, are people or ethnic groups identified with Greater China, China, usually through ethnicity, nationality, citizenship, or other affiliation. Chinese people are known as Zhongguoren () or as Huaren () by ...

. However, controversy arose over whether Chinese Christians could still take part in traditional

Confucian Confucianism, also known as Ruism or Ru classicism, is a system of thought and behavior originating in ancient China, and is variously described as a tradition, philosophy, religion, theory of government, or way of life. Founded by Confucius ...

ceremonies and

ancestor worship The veneration of the dead, including one's ancestors, is based on love and respect for the deceased. In some cultures, it is related to beliefs that the dead have a continued existence, and may possess the ability to influence the fortune of t ...

, with the Jesuits arguing for tolerance and the Dominicans taking a hard-line against foreign "

idolatry Idolatry is the worship of an idol as though it were a deity. In Abrahamic religions (namely Judaism, Samaritanism, Christianity, Islam, and the Baháʼí Faith) idolatry connotes the worship of something or someone other than the Abrahamic ...

". The Dominican position won the support of

Pope Clement XI Pope Clement XI (; ; ; 23 July 1649 – 19 March 1721), born Giovanni Francesco Albani, was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 23 November 1700 to his death in March 1721. Clement XI was a patron of the arts an ...

, who in 1705 sent Charles-Thomas Maillard de Tournon as his representative to the Kangxi Emperor, to communicate the ban on Chinese rites. Through de Tournon, the Pope insisted on sending his own representative to Beijing to oversee Jesuit missionaries in China. Kangxi refused, wanting to keep missionary activities in China under his final oversight, managed by one of the Jesuits who had been living in Beijing for years. On 19 March 1715, Pope Clement XI issued the

papal bull A papal bull is a type of public decree, letters patent, or charter issued by the pope of the Catholic Church. It is named after the leaden Seal (emblem), seal (''bulla (seal), bulla'') traditionally appended to authenticate it. History Papal ...

''Ex illa die'', which officially condemned Chinese rites. In response, the Kangxi Emperor officially forbade Christian missions in China, as they were "causing trouble".

Succession disputes

A prolonged struggle between various princes emerged during the Kangxi Emperor's reign over who should inherit the throne – the Nine Lords' War (). In 1674 the Kangxi Emperor's first spouse,

, died while giving birth to his second surviving son

Yinreng Yunreng (6 June 1674 – 27 January 1725), born Yinreng, was a Manchu prince of the Qing dynasty. He was the second among the Kangxi Emperor's sons to survive into adulthood and was designated as Crown Prince for two terms between 1675 and ...

, who at the age of two was named

crown prince A crown prince or hereditary prince is the heir apparent to the throne in a royal or imperial monarchy. The female form of the title, crown princess, is held by a woman who is heir apparent or is married to the heir apparent. ''Crown prince ...

– a

custom, to ensure stability during a time of chaos in the south. Although the Kangxi Emperor left the education of several of his sons to others, he personally oversaw the upbringing of Yinreng, grooming him to be a perfect successor. Yinreng was tutored by the

mandarin Mandarin or The Mandarin may refer to: Language * Mandarin Chinese, branch of Chinese originally spoken in northern parts of the country ** Standard Chinese or Modern Standard Mandarin, the official language of China ** Taiwanese Mandarin, Stand ...

Wang Shan, who remained devoted to him, and spent the later years of his life trying to persuade the Kangxi Emperor to restore Yinreng as the crown prince. Yinreng proved to be unworthy of the succession despite his father showing favoritism towards him. He was said to have beaten and killed his subordinates, and was alleged to have had sexual relations with one of his father's concubines, which was deemed

incest Incest ( ) is sexual intercourse, sex between kinship, close relatives, for example a brother, sister, or parent. This typically includes sexual activity between people in consanguinity (blood relations), and sometimes those related by lineag ...

and a capital offence. Yinreng also purchased young children from

Jiangsu Jiangsu is a coastal Provinces of the People's Republic of China, province in East China. It is one of the leading provinces in finance, education, technology, and tourism, with its capital in Nanjing. Jiangsu is the List of Chinese administra ...

to satisfy his

pedophilia Pedophilia ( alternatively spelled paedophilia) is a psychiatric disorder in which an adult or older adolescent experiences a primary or exclusive sexual attraction to prepubescent children. Although girls typically begin the process of pube ...

c pleasure. In addition, Yinreng's supporters, led by

Songgotu Songgotu (Manchu: ; ; 1636 – 1703) was a minister during the reign of the Kangxi Emperor of the Qing dynasty. He was an uncle of the emperor's primary spouse, Empress Xiaochengren of the Hešeri clan, who died during childbirth. He was al ...

, gradually formed a "Crown Prince Party" (太子黨), that aimed to help Yinreng get the throne as soon as possible, even if it meant using unlawful methods. Over the years, the Kangxi Emperor kept constant watch over Yinreng and became aware of his son's many flaws, while their relationship gradually deteriorated. In 1707, the emperor decided that he could no longer tolerate Yinreng's behavior, which he partially mentioned in the imperial edict as "never obeying ancestors' virtues, never obliged to my order, only doing inhumanity and devilry, only showing maliciousness and lust", and decided to strip Yinreng of his position as crown prince. The Kangxi Emperor placed his oldest surviving son, Yinzhi, in charge of overseeing Yinreng's

house arrest House arrest (also called home confinement, or nowadays electronic monitoring) is a legal measure where a person is required to remain at their residence under supervision, typically as an alternative to imprisonment. The person is confined b ...

. Yinzhi, an unfavored Shu son, knowing he had no chance of being selected, recommended the eighth prince, Yinsi, and requested his father to order Yinreng's execution. The Kangxi Emperor was enraged and stripped Yinzhi of his titles. The emperor then commanded his subjects to cease debating the succession issue, but despite this and attempts to reduce rumours and speculation as to who the new crown prince might be, the imperial court's daily activities were disrupted. Yinzhi's actions caused the Kangxi Emperor to suspect that Yinreng might have been framed, so he restored Yinreng as crown prince in 1709, with the support of the 4th and 13th princes, and on the excuse that Yinreng had previously acted under the influence of mental illness. MingXiaoling ZLTS01 rotated

In 1712, during the Kangxi Emperor's last inspection tour of the south, Yinreng, who was put in charge of state affairs during his father's absence, tried to vie for power again with his supporters. He allowed an attempt at forcing the Kangxi Emperor to abdicate when his father returned to

. However, the emperor received news of the planned coup d'etat, and was so angry that he deposed Yinreng and placed him under house arrest again. After the incident, the emperor announced that he would not appoint any of his sons as crown prince for the remainder of his reign. He stated that he would place his Imperial Valedictory Will inside a box in the

Palace of Heavenly Purity A palace is a large residence, often serving as a royal residence or the home for a head of state or another high-ranking dignitary, such as a bishop or archbishop. The word is derived from the Latin name palātium, for Palatine Hill in Rome whi ...

, which would only be opened after his death. Seeing that Yinreng was completely disavowed, Yinsi and some other princes turned to support the 14th prince, Yinti, while the 13th prince supported Yinzhen. They formed the so-called "Eighth Lord Party" () and "Fourth Lord Party" ().

Death and succession

Following the deposition of the crown prince, the Kangxi Emperor implemented groundbreaking changes in the political landscape. The 13th prince,

Yinxiang Yinxiang may refer to: *Yinxiang, Prince Yi (胤祥; 1686 — 1730), a prince of the Qing dynasty * ''Yinxiang'' (magazine), a 1971–1998 Taiwanese film journal *Yinxiang Group The Yinxiang Group (银翔) is an industrial company based in Chong ...

, was placed under

as well for cooperating with

. The eighth prince

Yinsi Yunsi (29 March 1680 – 5 October 1726), born as Yinsi, was a Manchu prince of the Qing dynasty in China. The eighth son of the Kangxi Emperor, Yunsi was a pivotal figure in the power struggle over the succession to his father's throne. Y ...

was stripped of all his titles and only had them restored years later. The 14th prince Yinti, whom many considered to be the most likely candidate to succeed the Kangxi Emperor, was sent on a military campaign during the political conflict. Yinsi, along with the ninth and tenth princes,

Yintang Yuntang (17 October 1683 – 22 September 1726), born Yintang, was a Manchu people, Manchu prince of the Qing dynasty. He was the ninth son of the Kangxi Emperor and an ally of his eighth brother Yunsi, who was the main rival to their fourth br ...

and Yin'e, pledged their support to Yinti. In the evening of 20 December 1722, just before his death, the Kangxi Emperor called seven of his sons to assemble at his bedside. They were the third, fourth, eighth, ninth, tenth, sixteenth and seventeenth princes. After the Kangxi Emperor died,

Longkodo Longkodo (; died 1728) was a Manchu court official who lived in the Qing dynasty. He was from the Tunggiya clan, which was under the Bordered Yellow Banner. His period of fame lasted from the late Kangxi era to the early Yongzheng era, perhaps ...

announced that the emperor had selected the fourth prince, Yinzhen, as the new emperor. Yinzhen ascended to the throne and became known as the

. The Kangxi Emperor was entombed at the Eastern Tombs in

Zunhua Zunhua () is a county-level city in the northeast of Hebei province, China, bordering Tianjin to the west. It is under the administration of the prefecture-level city of Tangshan. Historic sites include the Eastern Qing Tombs (Qing Dongling). Ad ...

Hebei Hebei is a Provinces of China, province in North China. It is China's List of Chinese administrative divisions by population, sixth-most populous province, with a population of over 75 million people. Shijiazhuang is the capital city. It bor ...

. The Kangxi Emperor was initially conferred the posthumous name "Emperor Hetian Hongyun Wenwu Ruizhe Gongjian Kuanyu Xiaojing Chengxin Gongde Dacheng Ren" () shortly after his death. This appellation was later extended to "Emperor Hetian Hongyun Wenwu Ruizhe Gongjian Kuanyu Xiaojing Chengxin Zhonghe Gongde Dacheng Ren" () in the first year of the reign of the

Qianlong Emperor The Qianlong Emperor (25 September 17117 February 1799), also known by his temple name Emperor Gaozong of Qing, personal name Hongli, was the fifth Emperor of China, emperor of the Qing dynasty and the fourth Qing emperor to rule over China pr ...

. A legend concerning the Kangxi Emperor's will states that he chose Yinti as his heir, but Yinzhen forged the will in his own favour. It has, however, long been refuted by serious historians. Yinzhen, later the

, has attracted many rumours, and some novel-like private books claim he did not die of illness but was assassinated by a swordswoman, Lü Siniang (), the granddaughter of

Lü Liuliang Lü Liuliang (; 1629–3 October 1683) was a Han Chinese poet and author from Tongxiang, Zhejiang province. He was born under the Ming dynasty but died under the Manchu Qing dynasty. Career In 1647 one of his nephews was executed for anti-Q ...

, though this is never treated seriously by scholars.

Personality and achievements

The Kangxi Emperor was a great consolidator of the

. The transition from the

to the Qing was a cataclysm whose central event was the fall of the capital

to the peasant rebels led by

Li Zicheng Li Zicheng (22 September 1606 – 1645), born Li Hongji, also known by his nickname, the Thunder King, was a Chinese Late Ming peasant rebellions, peasant rebel leader who helped overthrow the Ming dynasty in April 1644 and ruled over northe ...

, then to the

Manchu The Manchus (; ) are a Tungusic peoples, Tungusic East Asian people, East Asian ethnic group native to Manchuria in Northeast Asia. They are an officially recognized Ethnic minorities in China, ethnic minority in China and the people from wh ...

s in 1644, and the installation of the five-year-old

on their throne. By 1661, when the Shunzhi Emperor died and was succeeded by the Kangxi Emperor, the Qing conquest of China proper was almost complete. Leading Manchus were already using Chinese institutions and mastering

ideology, while maintaining Manchu culture among themselves. The Kangxi Emperor completed the conquest, suppressed all significant military threats and revived the central government system inherited from the Ming with important modifications. The Kangxi Emperor was a workaholic, rising early and retiring late, reading and responding to numerous

memorials A memorial is an object or place which serves as a focus for the memory or the commemoration of something, usually an influential, deceased person or a historical, Tragedy (event), tragic event. Popular forms of memorials include landmark objec ...

every day, conferring with his councilors and giving audiences – and this was in normal times; in wartime, he might be reading memorials from the warfront until after midnight or even, as with the Dzungar conflict, away on campaign in person. The French Jesuit and mathematician

Louis Le Comte Louis le Comte (1655–1728), also Louis-Daniel Lecomte, was a French Jesuit and mathematician who participated in the 1687 French Jesuit mission to China under Jean de Fontaney. He arrived in China on 7 February 1688. He returned to France in 1 ...

painted a portrait of the emperor he met around 1688: "The emperor seemed to me to be above average height, fatter than the ordinary people who pride themselves in Europe on being well built, but a little less than a Chinese would like to appear. His face is full and marked by smallpox. He has a broad forehead, a nose and small eyes in the Chinese manner, a beautiful mouth and a very pleasant lower face. Finally, although there is nothing very grand about his appearance, he looks good and there is something in his manners and in all his actions that smacks of the master and sets him apart". The Kangxi Emperor devised a system of communication that circumvented the

, who had a tendency to usurp the power of the emperor. This Palace Memorial System involved the transfer of secret messages between him and trusted officials in the provinces, where the messages were contained in locked boxes that only he and the official had access to. This started as a system for receiving uncensored extreme-weather reports, which the emperor regarded as divine comments on his rule. However, it soon evolved into a general-purpose secret "news channel." Out of this emerged a Grand Council, which dealt with extraordinary, especially military, events. The council was chaired by the emperor and manned by his more elevated

and Manchu household staff. From this council, the

civil servants were excluded – they were left only with routine administration. The Kangxi Emperor managed to woo the Confucian intelligentsia into co-operating with the Qing government, despite their deep reservations about Manchu rule and loyalty to the Ming. He appealed to this very sense of Confucian values, for instance, by issuing the

Sacred Edict In 1670, when the Kangxi Emperor of China's Qing dynasty was sixteen years old, he issued the Sacred Edict (), consisting of sixteen maxims, each seven characters long, to instruct the average citizen in the basic principles of Confucian orthodo ...

in 1670. He encouraged Confucian learning and made sure that the civil service examinations were held every three years even during times of stress. When some scholars, out of loyalty to the Ming, refused to take the exams, he hit upon the expedient of a special exam to be taken by nomination. He personally sponsored the writing of the Ming Official History, the

, a phrase-dictionary, a vast encyclopedia and an even vaster compilation of

Chinese literature The history of Chinese literature extends thousands of years, and begins with the earliest recorded inscriptions, court archives, building to the major works of philosophy and history written during the Axial Age. The Han dynasty, Han (202 ...

. To promote his image as a "sage ruler," he appointed Manchu and Chinese tutors with whom he studied the Confucian classics and worked intensively on Chinese calligraphy. In the one military campaign in which he actively participated, against the Dzungar Mongols, the Kangxi Emperor showed himself an effective military commander. According to Finer, the emperor's own written reflections allow one to experience "how intimate and caring was his communion with the rank-and-file, how discriminating and yet masterful his relationship with his generals". As a result of the scaling down of hostilities as peace returned to China after the Manchu conquest, and also as a result of the ensuing rapid increase of population, land cultivation and therefore tax revenues based on agriculture, the Kangxi Emperor was able first to make tax remissions, then in 1712 to freeze the

land tax A land value tax (LVT) is a levy on the value of land without regard to buildings, personal property and other improvements upon it. Some economists favor LVT, arguing it does not cause economic inefficiency, and helps reduce economic inequali ...

and

corvée Corvée () is a form of unpaid forced labour that is intermittent in nature, lasting for limited periods of time, typically only a certain number of days' work each year. Statute labour is a corvée imposed by a state (polity), state for the ...

altogether, without embarrassing the state treasury (although the dynasty eventually suffered from this fiscal policy, as this preserved tax rates in perpetuity, preventing later emperors from adjusting the fiscal system and hindering attempts at modernisation).

Family

Empress

(孝誠仁皇后) of the

Hešeri clan Hešeri (; Manchu: ''Hešeri''), is a clan of Manchu nobility with Jianzhou Jurchens roots, originally hailing from the area which is now the modern Chinese provinces of Jilin and Liaoning. It was once one of the most important and powerful nobl ...

(赫舍里氏; 3 February 1654 – 6 June 1674) ** Chenghu (承祜; 4 January 1670 – 3 March 1672), second son **

Yunreng Yunreng (6 June 1674 – 27 January 1725), born Yinreng, was a Manchu prince of the Qing dynasty. He was the second among the Kangxi Emperor's sons to survive into adulthood and was designated as Crown Prince for two terms between 1675 and ...

(允礽), Prince Limi of the First Rank (理密親王; 6 June 1674 – 27 January 1725), seventh (second) son *

Empress Xiaozhaoren Empress Xiaozhaoren (1653 – 18 March 1678), of the Manchu Bordered Yellow Banner Niohuru clan, was the second wife of the Kangxi Emperor. She was empress of China during the Qing dynasty from 1677 until her death in 1678. Her father was the ...

(孝昭仁皇后) of the Niohuru clan (鈕祜祿氏; 1653 – 18 March 1678) *

Empress Xiaoyiren Empress Xiaoyiren (died 24 August 1689), of the Manchu Bordered Yellow Banner Tunggiya clan, was a posthumous name bestowed to the wife and third empress consort of Xuanye, the Kangxi Emperor. She was empress consort of Qing in 1689. Life Fam ...

(孝懿仁皇后) of the Tunggiya clan (佟佳氏; ? – 24 August 1689) ** ''Eighth daughter'' (13 July 1683 – 6 August 1683) ** ''Miscarriage'' (August 1689) *

Empress Xiaogongren Empress Xiaogongren (28 April 1660 – 25 June 1723), of the Manchu Plain Yellow Banner Uya clan, was a posthumous name bestowed to the consort of Xuanye, the Kangxi Emperor and mother of Yinzhen, the Yongzheng Emperor. She was honoured as Em ...

(孝恭仁皇后) of the Uya clan (烏雅氏; 28 April 1660 – 25 June 1723) ** Yinzhen (胤禛), the

(雍正帝; 13 December 1678 – 8 October 1735), 11th (fourth) son ** Yinzuo (胤祚; 5 March 1680 – 15 June 1685), 14th (sixth) son ** ''Seventh daughter'' (5 July 1682 – September 1682) ** Princess Wenxian of the First Rank (固倫溫憲公主; 10 November 1683 – August/September 1702), ninth daughter *** Married Shun'anyan (舜安顏; ? – 1724) of the Manchu Tunggiya clan in October/November 1700 ** ''12th daughter'' (14 June 1686 – February/March 1697) ** Yunti (允禵), Prince Xunqin of the Second Rank (恂勤郡王; 10 February 1688 – 16 February 1755), 23rd (14th) son

Imperial Noble Consort

Imperial Noble Consort Quehui Dowager Imperial Noble Consort Quehui (1668 – 24 April 1743), of the Manchu Bordered Yellow Banner Tunggiya clan, was a consort of the Kangxi Emperor. She was 14 years his junior. Life Family background Imperial Noble Consort Quehui's persona ...

(愨惠皇貴妃) of the Tunggiya clan (佟佳氏; September/October 1668 – 24 April 1743) * Imperial Noble Consort Jingmin (敬敏皇貴妃) of the Janggiya clan (章佳氏; ? – 20 August 1699) ** Yinxiang (胤祥), Prince Yixian of the First Rank (怡賢親王; 16 November 1686 – 18 June 1730), 22nd (13th) son ** Princess Wenke of the Second Rank (和碩溫恪公主; 31 December 1687 – 27 July 1709), 13th daughter *** Married Cangjin (蒼津) of the Mongol Onnigud Borjigin clan in August/September 1706 ** Princess Dunke of the Second Rank (和碩敦恪公主; 3 February 1691 – 2 January 1710), 15th daughter *** Married Dorji (多爾濟; ? – 1720) of the Mongol

Khorchin The Khorchin (, ''Horchin''; ''Qorčin''; ) are a subgroup of the Mongols that speak the Khorchin dialect of Mongolian and predominantly live in northeastern Inner Mongolia of China. History The Ming dynasty gave Borjigin princes (descended ...

Borjigin clan in January/February 1709 and had issue (one daughter) * Imperial Noble Consort Dunyi (惇怡皇貴妃) of the Gūwalgiya clan (瓜爾佳氏; 3 December 1683 – 30 April 1768) ** ''18th daughter'' (17 November 1701 – November 1701)

Noble Consort

Noble Consort Wenxi Noble Consort Wenxi (? – 19 December 1694), of the Manchu Bordered Yellow Banner Niohuru clan, was a consort of the Kangxi Emperor. Life Noble Consort Wenxi's personal name was not recorded in history. Family background Noble Consort Wenxi ...

(溫僖貴妃) of the Niohuru clan (鈕祜祿氏; 14 February 1661 – 19 December 1694) **

Yun'e Yun'e (28 November 1683 – 18 October 1741), born Yin'e, was a Manchu prince of the Qing dynasty of China. He was a relatively unremarkable prince who was primarily known to be a crony of his older brother Yunsi. Life Born in the Aisin Gioro ...

(允䄉), Duke of the Second Rank (輔國公; 28 November 1683 – 18 October 1741), 18th (10th) son ** ''11th daughter'' (24 October 1685 – June/July 1686)

Consort

* Consort Hui (慧妃) of the

Borjigin clan (博爾濟吉特氏; ? – 30 May 1670) * Consort Hui (惠妃) of the Ula-Nara clan (葉赫那拉氏; ? – 1 May 1732) ** Chengqing (承慶; 21 March 1670 – 26 May 1671), third son ** Yunzhi (允禔), Prince of the Fourth Rank (貝子; 12 March 1672 – 7 January 1735), fifth (first) son * Consort Yi (宜妃) of the Gorolo clan (郭絡羅氏; 1660 – 2 October 1733), personal name was Nalanzhu (納蘭珠) **

Yunki Yunqi (, ; 5 January 1680 – 10 July 1732), born Yinqi and formally known as Prince Heng of the First Rank, was an imperial prince of the Manchu ruled Qing dynasty. He was the fifth son of the Kangxi Emperor who survived to adulthood. Life ...

(允祺), Prince Hengwen of the First Rank (恆溫親王; 5 January 1680 – 10 July 1732), 13th (fifth) son **

Yuntang Yuntang (17 October 1683 – 22 September 1726), born Yintang, was a Manchu prince of the Qing dynasty. He was the ninth son of the Kangxi Emperor and an ally of his eighth brother Yunsi, who was the main rival to their fourth brother Yinzhen ...

(允禟), Prince of the Fourth Rank (貝子; 17 October 1683 – 22 September 1726), 17th (ninth) son ** Yinzi (胤禌; 8 June 1685 – 22 August 1696), 20th (11th) son * Consort Rong (榮妃) of the Magiya clan (馬佳氏; ? – 26 April 1727) ** Chengrui (承瑞; 5 November 1667 – 10 July 1670), first son ** Saiyinchahun (賽音察渾; 24 January 1672 – 6 March 1674), fourth son ** Princess Rongxian of the First Rank (固倫榮憲公主; 20 June 1673 – 29 May 1728), third daughter *** Married Örgen (烏爾袞; ? – 1721) of the Mongol Barin Borjigin clan in June/July 1691 and had issue (a son) ** Changhua (長華; 11 May 1674 – ?), sixth son ** Changsheng (長生; 10 September 1675 – 27 April 1677), eighth son ** Yunzhi (允祉), Prince Chengyin of the Second Rank (誠隱郡王; 23 March 1677 – 10 July 1732), 10th (third) son * Consort Ping (平妃) of the

(赫舍里氏; ? – 18 July 1696) ** Yinji (胤禨; 23 February 1691 – 30 March 1691), 24th son * Consort Liang (良妃) of the Wei clan (衛氏; 1662 – 29 December 1711) **

Yunsi Yunsi (29 March 1680 – 5 October 1726), born as Yinsi, was a Manchu prince of the Qing dynasty in China. The eighth son of the Kangxi Emperor, Yunsi was a pivotal figure in the power struggle over the succession to his father's throne. Y ...

(允禩), Prince Lian of the First Rank (廉親王; 29 March 1681 – 5 October 1726), 16th (eighth) son * Consort Xuan (宣妃) of the

Borjigin clan (博爾濟吉特氏; ? – 12 September 1736), personal name Chenglian (成蓮) * Consort Cheng (成妃) of the Daigiya clan (戴佳氏; ? – 18 December 1740) **

Yunyou Yunyou (; 19 August 1680 – 18 May 1730) was an imperial prince of the Qing dynasty and the seventh son of the Kangxi Emperor. In 1709, Yunyou was granted the title "Prince Chun of the Second Rank" by his father. He was promoted to "Prince Chu ...

(允佑), Prince Chundu of the First Rank (淳度親王; 19 August 1680 – 18 May 1730), 15th (seventh) son * Consort Shunyimi (順懿密妃) of the Wang clan (王氏; ? – 19 November 1744) **

Yunxu Yunxu (允禑; 24 December 1693 – 8 March 1731) was Kangxi Emperor's 15th surviving son and the first holder of Prince Yu of the Second Rank peerage. Due to his young age, Yunxu was not embroiled in the succession brawl among his brothers. L ...

(允禑), Prince Yuke of the Second Rank (愉恪郡王; 24 December 1693 – 8 March 1731), 25th (15th) son **

Yunlu Yunlu (28 July 1695 – 20 March 1767), born Yinlu, was a Manchu prince of the Qing dynasty. He was born in the Aisin Gioro clan as the 16th son of the Kangxi Emperor. His mother was Consort Mi (密妃), a Han Chinese with the family name ...

(允祿), Prince Zhuangke of the First Rank (莊恪親王; 28 July 1695 – 20 March 1767), 26th (16th) son ** Yinxie (胤祄; 15 May 1701 – 17 October 1708), 28th (18th) son * Consort Chunyuqin (純裕勤妃) of the Chen clan (陳氏; ? – 12 January 1754) **

Yunli Yunli (24 March 1697 – 21 March 1738), born Yinli, formally known as Prince Guo, was a Manchu prince of the Qing dynasty. Life Yinli was born in the Aisin Gioro clan as the 17th son of the Kangxi Emperor. His mother was Consort Qin (勤 ...

(允禮), Prince Guoyi of the First Rank (果毅親王; 24 March 1697 – 21 March 1738), 27th (17th) son * Consort Ding (定妃) of the Wanlioha clan (萬琉哈氏; January/February 1661 – 24 May 1757) **

Yuntao Yuntao (; 18 January 1686 - 1 September 1763) was a Qing dynasty imperial prince and the 12th son of the Kangxi Emperor. Yuntao was rather a crony of the Yongzheng Emperor and his adoptive brother, which helped him persist in the succession war. ...

(允祹), Prince Lüyi of the First Rank (履懿親王; 18 January 1686 – 1 September 1763), 21st (12th) son

Concubine

* Concubine An (安嬪) of the Li clan (李氏) * Concubine Jing (敬嬪) of the Wanggiya clan (王佳氏) * Concubine Duan (端嬪) of the Dong clan (董氏; ? – 1702) ** ''Second daughter'' (17 April 1671 – March/April 1673) * Concubine Xi (僖嬪) of the

(赫舍里氏; ? – 31 October 1702) * Concubine Tong (通嬪) of the Ula-Nara clan (那拉氏; 1664 – 1 August 1744) ** Princess Chunque of the First Rank (固倫純慤公主; 20 March 1685 – 22 April 1710), 10th daughter *** Married Ts'ering (策棱; ? – 1750) of the Mongol

Khalkha The Khalkha (; ) have been the largest subgroup of the Mongols in modern Mongolia since the 15th century. The Khalkha, together with Chahars, Ordos Mongols, Ordos and Tumed, were directly ruled by Borjigin khans until the 20th century. In cont ...

Borjigin clan in June/July 1706 and had issue (one son) *

Concubine Xiang Concubine Xiang (襄嬪; died 14 August 1746), personal name Gao Zaiyi (高在儀), was an imperial concubine of Emperor Kangxi of the Manchu-ruled Qing dynasty. Life Family background Concubine Xiang's personal name was Zaiyi (在儀) and ...

(襄嬪) of the Gao clan (高氏; ? – 14 August 1746), personal name Zaiyi (在儀) ** Yinji (胤禝; 25 October 1702 – 28 March 1704), 29th (19th) son ** ''19th daughter'' (30 March 1703 – February/March 1705) ** Yunyi (允禕), Prince Jianjing of the Third Rank (簡靖貝勒; 1 September 1706 – 30 June 1755), 30th (20th) son * Concubine Jin (謹嬪) of the Sehetu clan (色赫圖氏; 2 August 1682 – 23 April 1739) **

Yunhu Aisin Gioro Yunhu (允祜; 10 January 1712 – 12 February 1744), born Yinhu, formally known as Prince of the Third Rank (貝勒), was an imperial prince of the Manchu ruled Qing Dynasty. He was the 32nd son of Kangxi Emperor and the 22nd who wo ...

(允祜), Prince Gongqin of the Third Rank (恭勤貝勒; 10 January 1712 – 12 February 1744), 32nd (22nd) son * Concubine Jing (靜嬪) of the Shi clan (石氏; 13 December 1689 – 10 July 1758) ** Yunci (允祁), Prince Cheng of the Third Rank (誠貝勒; 14 January 1714 – 31 August 1785), 33rd (23rd) son * Concubine Xi (熙嬪) of the Chen clan (陳氏; April/May 1690 – 1 February 1737) ** Yunxi (允禧), Prince Shenjing of the Second Rank (慎靖郡王; 27 February 1711 – 26 June 1758), 31st (21st) son * Concubine Mu (穆嬪) of the Chen clan (陳氏; ? – 1727) **

Yunbi Aisin Gioro Yunbi (允秘; 5 July 1716 – 3 December 1773), born Yinbi , formally known by his title as Prince Xian (諴), Prince Xian, was an imperial prince of the Qing Dynasty and the 24th surviving son of the Kangxi Emperor. Life Yinbi wa ...

(允秘), Prince Xianke of the First Rank (𫍯恪親王; 5 July 1716 – 3 December 1773), 34th (24th) son ** Yinyuan (胤禐; 2 March 1718), 35th son

Noble Lady

* Noble Lady Yi (伊貴人) of the Yi clan (易氏; ? – 1728) * Noble Lady Bu (布貴人) of the Joogiya clan (兆佳氏; ? – 21 February 1717) ** Princess Duanjing of the Second Rank (和碩端靜公主; 9 June 1674 – March/April 1710), fifth daughter *** Married Ga'erzang (噶爾臧; 1675–1722) of the Mongol

Kharchin The Kharchin ( Mongolian: , , ; zh, c=喀喇沁部), or Kharachin, is a subgroup of the Mongols residing mainly (and originally) in North-western Liaoning and Chifeng, Inner Mongolia. There are Khalkha-Kharchin Mongols in Dorno-Gobi Province ...

Ulanghan clan in November/December 1692, and had issue (one daughter) * Noble Lady (貴人) of the

Nara clan The National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) is an independent agency of the United States government within the executive branch, charged with the preservation and documentation of government and historical records. It is also task ...

(那拉氏) ** Wanfu (萬黼; 4 December 1675 – 11 March 1679), ninth son ** Yinzan (胤禶; 10 April 1679 – 30 April 1680), 12th son * Noble Lady (貴人) of the Gorolo clan (郭絡羅氏), personal name was Buyinzhu (布音珠) ** Princess Kejing of the First Rank (固倫恪靖公主; 4 July 1679 – March/April 1735), sixth daughter *** Married Dondob Dorji (敦多布多爾濟; ? – 1743) of the Mongol

Borjigin clan in December 1697/January 1698 and had issue (three sons) ** Yinju (胤䄔; 13 September 1683 – 17 July 1684), 19th son * Noble Lady (貴人) of the Yuan clan (袁氏; ? – 25 September 1719) ** Princess Quejing of the Second Rank (和碩愨靖公主; 16 January 1690 – 1736), 14th daughter *** Married Sun Chengyun (孫承運; ? – 1719) in 1706

Mistress

* Mistress (格格) of the Zhang clan (張氏) ** ''First daughter'' (23 December 1668 – November 1671) ** ''Fourth daughter'' (16 March 1674 – January/February 1679) * Mistress (格格) of the Wang clan (王氏) ** ''16th daughter'' (27 November 1695 – October/November 1707) * Mistress (格格) of the Liu clan (劉氏) ** ''17th daughter'' (12 January 1699 – December 1700 or January 1701) * Mistress (格格) of the Niohuru clan (鈕祜祿氏) ** ''20th daughter'' (20 November 1708 – January/February 1709)

In popular culture

Fiction

* ''The Great Kangxi Emperor'' (), a

historical novel Historical fiction is a literary genre in which a fictional plot takes place in the setting of particular real historical events. Although the term is commonly used as a synonym for historical fiction literature, it can also be applied to oth ...

Eryue He Ling Jiefang (; 3 November 1945 – 15 December 2018), better known by his pen name Eryue He (), was a Chinese historical fiction writer. He is best known for writing biographical novels of three Qing dynasty emperors (Kangxi Emperor, Kangxi, Yo ...

which romanticises the Kangxi Emperor's life. * ''

The Deer and the Cauldron ''The Deer and the Cauldron'', also known as ''The Duke of Mount Deer'', is a historical novel by Jin Yong. It is his last and longest novel, originally serialized in the Hong Kong newspaper ''Ming Pao'' from 24 October 1969 to 23 September 1972 ...

'', a

wuxia ( , literally "martial arts and chivalry") is a genre of Chinese literature, Chinese fiction concerning the adventures of martial artists in ancient China. Although is traditionally a form of historical fantasy literature, its popularity ha ...

novel by

Jin Yong Louis Cha Leung-yung (; 10 March 1924 – 30 October 2018), better known by his pen name Jin Yong (), was a Hong Kong wuxia novelist and co-founder of '' Ming Pao.'' Cha authored 15 novels between 1955 and 1972 and became one of the most pop ...

. In the novel, the Kangxi Emperor and the protagonist,

Wei Xiaobao The following is a list of characters from the novel '' The Deer and the Cauldron'' by Jin Yong. Some of these characters previously appeared in another novel '' Sword Stained with Royal Blood'', which is also written by Jin Yong. Some of these ch ...

, become close friends in their childhood. Wei Xiaobao helps the emperor consolidate his rule over the Qing Empire and plays an important role in how significant historical events of the Kangxi era unfold. * '' Seven Swords Descend from Mount Heaven'', a wuxia novel by

Liang Yusheng Chen Wentong (5 April 1924 – 22 January 2009), better known by his pen name Liang Yusheng, was a Chinese-born Australian novelist best known for being a pioneer of the "new school" of the wuxia genre in the 20th century. Along with Jin Yong ...

. In the novel, the Kangxi Emperor discovers that his father, the

, has become a monk in a monastery on

Mount Wutai Mount Wutai, also known by its Chinese name Wutaishan and as is a sacred Buddhist site at the headwaters of the Qingshui in Shanxi Province, China. Its central area is surrounded by a cluster of flat-topped peaks or mesas roughly correspondin ...

. He orders a close aide to kill his father in order to consolidate power, and later attempts to erase evidence of the murder.

Film and television

Video games

* '' Age of Empires III: The Asian Dynasties'': The Kangxi Emperor is featured as the Chinese leader in this

real-time strategy Real-time strategy (RTS) is a Video game genre, subgenre of strategy video games that does not progress incrementally in turn-based game, turns, but allow all players to play simultaneously, in "real time." By contrast, in Turn-based strategy, tur ...

game. * '' Call Me Emperor'': Kangxi is featured as a minister in this Strategy Click-RPG game.

Notes

References

Bibliography and further reading

* * . * Finer, S. E. (1997). ''The History of Government from the Earliest Times''. (three-volume set, hardback) * * * * . * . * * . * * Ch. 3, "Kangxi's Consolidation," in Jonathan D. Spence, ''

The Search for Modern China ''The Search for Modern China'' is a 1990 non-fiction book by Jonathan D. Spence, published by Century Hutchinson and W. W. Norton & Company. It covers the period 1600 to 1989. According to Spence, the goal was to explain how Modern China was ...

'' (New York: Norton; 3rd, 2013), pp. 48–71. * *

External links

* {{DEFAULTSORT:Kangxi Emperor 1654 births 1722 deaths 17th-century Chinese monarchs 18th-century Chinese monarchs Child monarchs from Asia Emperors of the Qing dynasty Shunzhi Emperor's sons