Buddhism Buddhism, also known as Buddhadharma and Dharmavinaya, is an Indian religion and List of philosophies, philosophical tradition based on Pre-sectarian Buddhism, teachings attributed to the Buddha, a wandering teacher who lived in the 6th or ...

, (, ) literally means ''place of work''. Its original meaning was someone's occupation (farming, trading, cattle-tending, etc.) but this meaning has developed into several distinct but related usages all having to do with

Buddhist meditation Buddhist meditation is the practice of meditation in Buddhism. The closest words for meditation in the classical languages of Buddhism are ''bhavana, bhāvanā'' ("mental development") and ''Dhyāna in Buddhism, jhāna/dhyāna'' (a state of me ...

Etymology and meanings

Its most basic meaning is as a word for meditation, with meditation being the main occupation of

Buddhist monks A ''bhikkhu'' (, ) is an ordained male in Buddhist monasticism. Male, and female monastics (''bhikkhunī''), are members of the Sangha (Buddhist community). The lives of all Buddhist monastics are governed by a set of rules called the prātimo ...

. In Burma, senior meditation practitioners are known as "kammatthanacariyas" (meditation masters). The

Thai Forest Tradition The Kammaṭṭhāna Forest Tradition of Thailand (from meaning Kammaṭṭhāna, "place of work"), commonly known in the West as the Thai Forest Tradition, is a Parampara, lineage of Theravada Buddhist monasticism. The Thai Forest Traditi ...

names itself ''Kammaṭṭhāna Forest tradition'' in reference to their practice of meditating in the forests. In the

Pali literature Pali literature is concerned mainly with Theravada Buddhism, of which Pali (IAST: pāl̤i) is the traditional language. The earliest and most important Pali literature constitutes the Pāli Canon, the authoritative scriptures of Theravada school ...

, prior to the post-canonical Pali commentaries, the term ' comes up in only a handful of discourses and then in the context of "work" or "trade."

Buddhaghosa Buddhaghosa was a 5th-century Sinhalese Theravādin Buddhist commentator, translator, and philosopher. He worked in the great monastery (''mahāvihāra'') at Anurādhapura, Sri Lanka and saw himself as being part of the Vibhajyavāda schoo ...

uses ''kammatthana'' to refer to each of his forty meditation objects listed in the third chapter of the ''

Visuddhimagga The ''Visuddhimagga'' (Pali; English: ''The Path of Purification''; ), is the 'great treatise' on Buddhism, Buddhist practice and Theravāda Abhidhamma written by Buddhaghosa approximately in the 5th century in Sri Lanka. It is a manual condens ...

'', which are partially derived from the

Pāli Canon The Pāḷi Canon is the standard collection of scriptures in the Theravada Buddhism, Buddhist tradition, as preserved in the Pāli language. It is the most complete extant Early Buddhist texts, early Buddhist canon. It derives mainly from t ...

. In this sense ''kammatthana'' can be understood as "occupations" in the sense of "things to occupy the mind", or as "workplaces" in the sense of "places to focus the mind on during the work of meditation". Throughout his translation of the ''Visuddhimagga'', Ñāṇamoli translates this term simply as "meditation subject".

Buddhaghosa's forty meditation subjects

Kasiṇas as kammaṭṭhāna

''Kasina'' (, ) refers to a class of basic visual objects of

meditation Meditation is a practice in which an individual uses a technique to train attention and awareness and detach from reflexive, "discursive thinking", achieving a mentally clear and emotionally calm and stable state, while not judging the meditat ...

used in

Theravada Buddhism ''Theravāda'' (; 'School of the Elders'; ) is Buddhism's oldest existing school. The school's adherents, termed ''Theravādins'' ( anglicized from Pali ''theravādī''), have preserved their version of the Buddha's teaching or '' Dhamma'' in ...

. The objects are described in the

Pali Canon The Pāḷi Canon is the standard collection of scriptures in the Theravada Buddhism, Buddhist tradition, as preserved in the Pāli language. It is the most complete extant Early Buddhist texts, early Buddhist canon. It derives mainly from t ...

and summarized in the famous ''

'' meditation treatise as ''kammaṭṭhāna'' on which to focus the mind whenever attention drifts. ''Kasina'' meditation is one of the most common types of samatha-vipassana, intended to settle the mind of the practitioner and create a foundation for further practices of meditation. The ''Visuddhimagga'' concerns kasina meditation.Bhikkhu Thanissaro
''Concentration and Discernment''
According to American scholar-monk

Ṭhānissaro Bhikkhu Ṭhānissaro Bhikkhu (also known as Ajahn Geoff; born December 28, 1949) is an American Bhikkhu, Buddhist monk and author. Belonging to the Thai Forest Tradition, he studied for ten years under the forest master Fuang Jotiko, Ajahn Fuang Jotiko ...

, "the text then tries to fit all other meditation methods into the mold of kasina practice, so that they too give rise to countersigns, but even by its own admission, breath meditation does not fit well into the mold." He argues that by emphasizing kasina meditation, the ''Visuddhimagga'' departs from the focus on ''

jhāna In the oldest texts of Buddhism, ''dhyāna'' () or ''jhāna'' () is a component of the training of the mind ('' bhavana''), commonly translated as meditation, to withdraw the mind from the automatic responses to sense-impressions and "burn up" ...

'' in the Pali Canon. Thanissaro Bhikkhu states this indicates that what "jhana means in the commentaries is something quite different from what it means in the Canon." Although practice with kasiṇas is associated with the Theravāda tradition, it appears to have been more widely known among various Buddhist schools in India at one time.

Asanga Asaṅga (Sanskrit: असंग, , ; Romaji: ''Mujaku'') (fl. 4th century C.E.) was one of the most important spiritual figures of Mahayana Buddhism and the founder of the Yogachara school.Engle, Artemus (translator), Asanga, ''The Bodhisattva P ...

makes reference to kasiṇas in the ''Samāhitabhūmi'' section of his '' Yogācārabhūmi-Śāstra''. Uppalavannā, one of the Buddha's chief female disciples, famously attained arahantship using a fire (''tejo'') kasina as her object of meditation. Of the forty objects meditated upon as kammaṭṭhāna, the first ten are kasina described as 'things one can behold directly'. These are described in the ''Visuddhimagga'', and also mentioned in the Pali

Tipitaka There are several Buddhist canons, which refers to the various scriptural collections of Buddhist texts, Buddhist sacred scriptures or the various Buddhist Scriptural canon, scriptural canons.

. They are: # earth (; Pali: ''paṭhavī kasina'', Sanskrit: ''pṛthivī kṛtsna'') # water (; ''āpo kasiṇa'', ''ap kṛtsna'') # fire (; ''tejo kasiṇa'', ''tejas kṛtsna'') # air/wind (; ''vāyo kasiṇa'', ''vāyu kṛtsna'') # blue (; ''nīla kasiṇa'', ''nīla kṛtsna'') # yellow ; ''pīta kasiṇa'', ''pīta kṛtsna'') # red (; ''lohita kasiṇa'', ''lohita kṛtsna'') # white (; ''odāta kasiṇa'', ''avadāta kṛtsna'') # enclosed space, hole, aperture (; ''ākāsa kasiṇa'', ''ākāśa kṛtsna'') # consciousness (; ''viññāṇa kasiṇa'', ''vijñāna kṛtsna'') in the Pali suttas and some other texts; the bright light (of the

luminous mind Luminous mind ( Skt: or , Pali: ; Tib: ; Ch: ; Jpn: ) is a Buddhist term that appears only rarely in the Pali Canon, but is common in the Mahayana sūtras and central to the Buddhist tantras. It is variously translated as "brightly shining ...

) (; ''āloka kasiṇa'') according to later sources such as

's ''

''. The kasinas are typically described as a coloured disk, with the particular colour, properties, dimensions and medium often specified according to the type of kasina. The earth kasina, for instance, is a disk in a red-brown color formed by spreading earth or clay (or another medium producing similar color and texture) on a screen of canvas or another backing material.

''Paṭikkūla-manasikāra''

The next ten are impure (''asubha'') objects of repulsion (''paṭikkūla''), specifically 'cemetery contemplations' (''sīvathikā-manasikāra'') on ten stages of human decomposition which aim to cultivate mindfulness of body (''kāyagatāsati''). They are: # a swollen corpse # a discolored, bluish, corpse # a festering corpse # a fissured corpse # a gnawed corpse # a dismembered corpse # a hacked and scattered corpse # a bleeding corpse # a worm-eaten corpse # a skeleton

''Anussati''

The next ten are recollections (''

anussati (Pāli; ; ; ) means "recollection," "contemplation," "remembrance," "meditation", and " mindfulness". It refers to specific Buddhist meditational or devotional practices, such as recollecting the sublime qualities of the Buddha, which lead to ...

''): # First three recollections are of the virtues of the

Three Jewels In Buddhism, refuge or taking refuge refers to a religious practice which often includes a prayer or recitation performed at the beginning of the day or of a practice session. Its object is typically the Three Jewels (also known as the Triple ...

: ##

Buddha Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha (),* * * was a wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism. According to Buddhist legends, he was ...

Dhamma Dharma (; , ) is a key concept in various Indian religions. The term ''dharma'' does not have a single, clear translation and conveys a multifaceted idea. Etymologically, it comes from the Sanskrit ''dhr-'', meaning ''to hold'' or ''to support' ...

Sangha Sangha or saṃgha () is a term meaning "association", "assembly", "company" or "community". In a political context, it was historically used to denote a governing assembly in a republic or a kingdom, and for a long time, it has been used b ...

# Next three are recollections of the virtues of: ## morality (''

sīla Buddhist ethics are traditionally based on the enlightened perspective of the Buddha. In Buddhism, ethics or morality are understood by the term ''śīla'' () or ''sīla'' (Pāli). ''Śīla'' is one of three sections of the Noble Eightfold Path ...

'') ## generosity/relinquishment (''cāga'') ## the skillful qualities of Devas (''devatā'') # The additional four recollections of: ## the body (''kāya'') ## death (see

Upajjhatthana Sutta The Upajjhatthana Sutta ("Subjects for Contemplation"), also known as the Abhiṇhapaccavekkhitabbaṭhānasutta in the Chaṭṭha Saṅgāyana Tipiṭaka, is a Buddhist discourse (Pali: ''sutta''; Skt.: ''sutra'') famous for its inclusion of ...

) ## the breath ('' pāṇa'') or breathing ('' ānāpāna'') ## peace (see ''

Nibbana Nirvana, in the Indian religions (Jainism, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Sikhism), is the concept of an individual's passions being extinguished as the ultimate state of salvation, release, or liberation from suffering ('' duḥkha'') and from the ...

'')

''Brahma-vihārā''

Four are 'divine abidings', which are the virtues of the "

Brahma Brahma (, ) is a Hindu god, referred to as "the Creator" within the Trimurti, the triple deity, trinity of Para Brahman, supreme divinity that includes Vishnu and Shiva.Jan Gonda (1969)The Hindu Trinity, Anthropos, Bd 63/64, H 1/2, pp. 212– ...

realm" (Pāli: ''Brahmaloka''): # unconditional kindness and goodwill ('' mettā'') # compassion ('' karuna'') # sympathetic joy over another's success (''

mudita ''Muditā'' (Pāli and Sanskrit Sanskrit (; stem form ; nominal singular , ,) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in northwest South Asia after its pred ...

'') # evenmindedness, equanimity ('' upekkha'')

''Āyatana''

Four are formless states (four '' arūpa-āyatana''): # infinite space (Pāḷi ''ākāsānañcāyatana'', Skt. ''ākāśānantyāyatana'') # infinite consciousness (Pāḷi ''viññāṇañcāyatana'', Skt. ''vijñānānantyāyatana'') # infinite nothingness (Pāḷi ''ākiñcaññāyatana'', Skt. ''ākiṃcanyāyatana'') # neither perception nor non-perception (Pāḷi ''nevasaññānāsaññāyatana'', Skt. ''naivasaṃjñānāsaṃjñāyatana'')

Others

Of the remaining five, one is of perception of disgust of food (''aharepatikulasanna'') and the last four are the 'four great elements' ('' catudhatuvavatthana''): earth (''pathavi''), water (''apo''), fire (''tejo''), air (''vayo'').

Meditation subjects and the four ''jhāna''s

According to Gunaratana, following Buddhaghosa, due to the simplicity of subject matter, all four ''jhanas'' can be induced through ''

ānāpānasati (Pali; Sanskrit: '), meaning "mindfulness of breathing" ( means mindfulness; refers to inhalation and exhalation), is the act of paying attention to the breath. It is the quintessential form of Buddhist meditation, attributed to Gautama Budd ...

'' (mindfulness of breathing) and the ten '' kasinas''.Gunaratana (1988)
According to Gunaratana, the following meditation subjects only lead to "access concentration" (''upacara samadhi''), due to their complexity: the recollection of the Buddha, dharma, sangha, morality, liberality, wholesome attributes of Devas, death, and peace; the perception of disgust of food; and the analysis of the four elements. Absorption in the first ''jhana'' can be realized by mindfulness on the ten kinds of foulness and mindfulness of the body. However, these meditations cannot go beyond the first jhana due to their involving applied thought ('' vitaka''), which is absent from the higher jhanas. Absorption in the first three ''jhanas'' can be realized by contemplating the first three ''brahma-viharas''. However, these meditations cannot aid in attaining the fourth jhana due to the pleasant feelings associated with them. Conversely, once the fourth jhana is induced, the fourth ''brahma-vihara'' (equanimity) arises.

Meditation subjects and temperaments

Each kammatthana can be suggested, especially by a spiritual friend ('' ''), to a certain individual student at some specific point, by assessing what would be best for that student's temperament and the present state of his or her mind. All of the aforementioned meditation subjects can suppress the

Five Hindrances In the Buddhist tradition, the five hindrances (; Pali: ') are identified as mental factors that hinder progress in meditation and in daily life. In the Theravada tradition, these factors are identified specifically as obstacles to the jhānas ...

, thus allowing one to fruitfully pursue

wisdom Wisdom, also known as sapience, is the ability to apply knowledge, experience, and good judgment to navigate life’s complexities. It is often associated with insight, discernment, and ethics in decision-making. Throughout history, wisdom ha ...

. In addition, anyone can productively apply specific meditation subjects as

antidote An antidote is a substance that can counteract a form of poisoning. The term ultimately derives from the Greek term φάρμακον ἀντίδοτον ''(pharmakon antidoton)'', "(medicine) given as a remedy". An older term in English which is ...

s, such as meditating on foulness to counteract lust or on the breath to abandon discursive thought. The Pali commentaries further provide guidelines for suggesting meditation subjects based on one's general temperament: * Greedy: the ten foulness meditations; or, body contemplation. * Hating: the four ''brahma-viharas''; or, the four color ''kasinas''. * Deluded: mindfulness of breath. * Faithful: the first six recollections. * Intelligent: recollection of marana or Nibbana; the perception of disgust of food; or, the analysis of the four elements. * Speculative: mindfulness of breath. The six non-color ''kasinas'' and the four formless states are suitable for all temperaments.

Supernormal abilities

The ''

'' is one of the extremely rare texts within the enormous literature of

to give explicit details about how spiritual masters are thought to actually manifest supernormal abilities. Abilities such as flying through the air, walking through solid obstructions, diving into the ground, walking on water and so forth are performed by changing one element, such as earth, into another element, such as air. The individual must master ''kasina'' meditation before this is possible. Dipa Ma, who trained via the ''Visuddhimagga'', was said to demonstrate these abilities.

Notes

References

External links

In search of a teacher
by Dr. Tin Htut

by Sayadaw U Uttamasara

a guide by Ven. K. Nyanananda
The Forty Meditation Objects: Who Should Use Which?
by Karen Andrews
Dharmathai Kammathana Blog
Chinawangso Bhikkhu

by Thitapu Bhikkhu, includes instructions for use and construction of the ''kasiṇa'' object. Via Archive.org.

by Sotapanna Jhanananda (Jeffrey S. Brooks), describes the context for ''kasiṇa'' objects in the pursuit of

and discusses the color of an "earth" ''kasiṇa''.
"Kasiṇa(2),"
PTS Pali-English Dictionary entry, includes

references and related terms. {{DEFAULTSORT:Kammatthana Buddhist meditation Buddhist philosophical concepts Pali words and phrases