Kaidu, the leader of the Mongol
House of Ögedei, fought a war against
Kublai Khan and his successor
Temür from 1268 to 1301. Kaidu was the de facto khan of the
Chagatai Khanate, while Kublai was the founder of the
Yuan dynasty
The Yuan dynasty ( ; zh, c=元朝, p=Yuáncháo), officially the Great Yuan (; Mongolian language, Mongolian: , , literally 'Great Yuan State'), was a Mongol-led imperial dynasty of China and a successor state to the Mongol Empire after Div ...
. The Kaidu–Kublai war followed the
Toluid Civil War (1260–1264) and resulted in the permanent
division of the Mongol Empire. By the time of Kublai's death in 1294, the
Mongol Empire
The Mongol Empire was the List of largest empires, largest contiguous empire in human history, history. Originating in present-day Mongolia in East Asia, the Mongol Empire at its height stretched from the Sea of Japan to parts of Eastern Euro ...
had fractured into four separate polities: the
Golden Horde
The Golden Horde, self-designated as ''Ulug Ulus'' ( in Turkic) was originally a Mongols, Mongol and later Turkicized khanate established in the 13th century and originating as the northwestern sector of the Mongol Empire. With the division of ...
khanate in the northwest, the Chagatai Khanate in the middle, the
Ilkhanate
The Ilkhanate or Il-khanate was a Mongol khanate founded in the southwestern territories of the Mongol Empire. It was ruled by the Il-Khans or Ilkhanids (), and known to the Mongols as ''Hülegü Ulus'' (). The Ilkhanid realm was officially known ...
in the southwest, and the Yuan dynasty in the east based in modern-day
Beijing
Beijing, Chinese postal romanization, previously romanized as Peking, is the capital city of China. With more than 22 million residents, it is the world's List of national capitals by population, most populous national capital city as well as ...
.
Although Temür later made peace with the three western khanates in 1304 after Kaidu's death, the four successor states of the Mongol Empire continued their own separate development and fell at different times.
History
Chagatai–Ilkhanid war
After the
Toluid Civil War, Kublai Khan summoned Kaidu at his court, but Kaidu avoided appearing at his court, and his enmity was a constant obstacle to Kublai's ambitions to control the whole
Mongol Empire
The Mongol Empire was the List of largest empires, largest contiguous empire in human history, history. Originating in present-day Mongolia in East Asia, the Mongol Empire at its height stretched from the Sea of Japan to parts of Eastern Euro ...
.
Baraq was dispatched to
Central Asia
Central Asia is a region of Asia consisting of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. The countries as a group are also colloquially referred to as the "-stans" as all have names ending with the Persian language, Pers ...
to take the throne of
Chagatai Khanate in 1266, and almost immediately, he repudiated the authority of Kublai as
Great Khan. Kaidu and Baraq fought for a while, and Kaidu gained control of the region around
Bukhara
Bukhara ( ) is the List of cities in Uzbekistan, seventh-largest city in Uzbekistan by population, with 280,187 residents . It is the capital of Bukhara Region.
People have inhabited the region around Bukhara for at least five millennia, and t ...
. Kaidu convinced Baraq to attack the
Persia
Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (IRI) and also known as Persia, is a country in West Asia. It borders Iraq to the west, Turkey, Azerbaijan, and Armenia to the northwest, the Caspian Sea to the north, Turkmenistan to the nort ...
-based
Ilkhanate
The Ilkhanate or Il-khanate was a Mongol khanate founded in the southwestern territories of the Mongol Empire. It was ruled by the Il-Khans or Ilkhanids (), and known to the Mongols as ''Hülegü Ulus'' (). The Ilkhanid realm was officially known ...
, which was an ally of Kublai Khan's
Yuan dynasty
The Yuan dynasty ( ; zh, c=元朝, p=Yuáncháo), officially the Great Yuan (; Mongolian language, Mongolian: , , literally 'Great Yuan State'), was a Mongol-led imperial dynasty of China and a successor state to the Mongol Empire after Div ...
based in China. A peace treaty was made among
Mengu-Timur, khan of the
Golden Horde
The Golden Horde, self-designated as ''Ulug Ulus'' ( in Turkic) was originally a Mongols, Mongol and later Turkicized khanate established in the 13th century and originating as the northwestern sector of the Mongol Empire. With the division of ...
, Kaidu, and Baraq against the Yuan dynasty and the Ilkhanate around 1267. However, Baraq suffered a heavy defeat at
Herat
Herāt (; Dari/Pashto: هرات) is an oasis city and the third-largest city in Afghanistan. In 2020, it had an estimated population of 574,276, and serves as the capital of Herat Province, situated south of the Paropamisus Mountains (''Se ...
on July 22, 1270, against Ilkhan
Abagha. Baraq died en route to meet Kaidu who had been waiting for his weakness. The Chagatayid princes, including
Mubarak Shah, submitted to Kaidu and proclaimed him as their overlord. The sons of Baraq rebelled against Kaidu but they were defeated. Many of the Chagatayid princes fled to the Ilkhanate. Kaidu's early attempt to rule the Chagatayids faced serious resistance. The Mongol princes such as
Negübei, whom he appointed khan of the House of Chagatai, revolted several times. Stable control came when
Duwa was made khan who became his number two in 1282. The Golden Horde based in
Sarai on the Lower Volga also became an ally of Kaidu.
Kaidu's invasion of the Yuan dynasty
In 1275, Kaidu invaded
Ürümqi
Ürümqi, , is the capital of the Xinjiang, Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in Northwestern China. With a census population of 4 million in 2020, Ürümqi is the second-largest city in China's northwestern interior after Xi'an, also the ...
and demanded its submission, but the Buddhist
Idiqut (then a Yuan vassal) resisted. Kublai sent a relief force to expel him. Kublai's son Nomukhan and generals occupied
Almaliq in 1266–1276, to prevent Kaidu's invasion. In 1277, a group of Genghisid princes under Möngke's son
Shiregi rebelled, kidnapping Kublai's two sons and his general
Antong. The rebels handed Antong to Kaidu and the princes to Mengu-Timur. The army sent by Kublai Khan drove Shiregi's forces west of the
Altai Mountains
The Altai Mountains (), also spelled Altay Mountains, are a mountain range in Central Asia, Central and East Asia, where Russia, China, Mongolia, and Kazakhstan converge, and where the rivers Irtysh and Ob River, Ob have their headwaters. The ...
and strengthened Yuan garrisons in
Mongolia
Mongolia is a landlocked country in East Asia, bordered by Russia to the north and China to the south and southeast. It covers an area of , with a population of 3.5 million, making it the world's List of countries and dependencies by po ...
and Xinjiang. However, Kaidu captured Almaliq.
Kublai attempted to subject Kaidu to an economic siege by entrenching his forces in the Tarim basin and over the Uyghurs, cutting him off from these resources. In 1276, he stationed a garrison in
Khotan and reinforced it several times between 1278 and 1283. In 1278 he stationed a garrison at Beshbalik, which from 1280 was under the Chinese general Qi Gongzhi. From 1281 to 1286 the garrison was reinforced, and the Chagatai prince Ajiqi was also sent to join the garrison.
[ In 1281, 22 postal stations were set up between Beshbalik and Shanxi province, and more were set up to link Khotan and Cherchen in 1286. Military agricultural colonies ( tuntian were set up in Beshbalik in 1283 and 1286, and more set up between Khotan and Cherchen in 1287 in response to a famine in the Tarim basin. In 1278 a Qara Qocho regional supervision bureau was established, which later become a Pacification bureau, and in 1281, a Beshbalik protectorate was established. Through these, Yuan law and currency was imposed on the region.][ However, these measures were unsuccessful as the entire region was repeatedly raided by Kaidu and his allies. From 1288/89 the Yuan was forced to start withdrawing from Kashgar, Khotan and Beshbalik back to the interior of ]China proper
China proper, also called Inner China, are terms used primarily in the West in reference to the traditional "core" regions of China centered in the southeast. The term was first used by Westerners during the Manchu people, Manchu-led Qing dyn ...
.
Nevertheless, rulers of the Golden Horde withdrew their support from Kaidu after the death of Mengu-Timur; three leaders, Noqai, Todemongke and Konichi, of the Golden Horde made peace with Kublai in 1284. Both Noqai and Todemongke made peace with the Ilkhan Ahmad Teguder as well. To attract military support from the Jochids, Kaidu sponsored his own candidate Kobek for the throne of the Left wing of the Golden Horde from early 1290s. Supported by Kaidu's army, the Golden Horde's troops clashed with Kobek several times.
Return of Yuan
In 1293 Tutugh, a Kipchak commander of Kublai Khan occupied the Baarin tumen, who were allies of Kaidu, on the Ob River. Kublai Khan died in the next year and was succeeded by Temür Khan (Emperor Chengzong). From 1298 on Duwa increased his raids on the Yuan. He launched a surprise attack against the Yuan garrison under Temür's uncle Kokechu in Mongolia
Mongolia is a landlocked country in East Asia, bordered by Russia to the north and China to the south and southeast. It covers an area of , with a population of 3.5 million, making it the world's List of countries and dependencies by po ...
and captured Temür's grandson-in-law, George of the Ongud when he and his commanders were drunk. However, Duwa was defeated by the Yuan army under Ananda in Gansu
Gansu is a provinces of China, province in Northwestern China. Its capital and largest city is Lanzhou, in the southeastern part of the province. The seventh-largest administrative district by area at , Gansu lies between the Tibetan Plateau, Ti ...
and his son-in law and several relations were captured. Although, Duwa and the Yuan generals agreed to exchange their prisoners, Duwa and Kaidu executed George in revenge and cheated the Yuan officials. To reorganize the Yuan defence system in Mongolia, Temür appointed Darmabala's son Khayishan to replace Kokechu. The Yuan army defeated Kaidu south of the Altai Mountains
The Altai Mountains (), also spelled Altay Mountains, are a mountain range in Central Asia, Central and East Asia, where Russia, China, Mongolia, and Kazakhstan converge, and where the rivers Irtysh and Ob River, Ob have their headwaters. The ...
. However, in 1300, Kaidu defeated Khayishan's force. Then Kaidu and Duwa mobilized a large army to attack Karakorum
Karakorum (Khalkha Mongolian: Хархорум, ''Kharkhorum''; Mongolian script:, ''Qaraqorum'') was the capital city, capital of the Mongol Empire between 1235 and 1260 and of the Northern Yuan, Northern Yuan dynasty in the late 14th and 1 ...
the next year. The Yuan army suffered heavy losses while both sides could not make any decisive victory in September. Duwa was wounded in the battle and Kaidu died soon thereafter.
Until this time Kaidu had waged almost continuous warfare for more than 30 years against Kublai and his successor Temür, though he eventually died in 1301 after the battle near Karakorum. The Kaidu–Kublai war had effectively deepened the fragmentation of the Mongol Empire, although a peace later came in 1304 which established the nominal suzerainty of the Yuan Emperors (or Khagans) over the western khanates.
See also
* Toluid Civil War
* Division of the Mongol Empire
* Esen Buqa–Ayurbarwada war
* Yuan dynasty in Inner Asia
References
{{DEFAULTSORT:Kaidu-Kublai war
13th-century conflicts
Conflicts in 1301
1268 in Asia
Wars involving the Yuan dynasty
Wars involving the Ilkhanate
Wars involving the Golden Horde
Wars involving the Chagatai Khanate
Kublai Khan
13th century in the Mongol Empire
Wars of succession involving the states and peoples of Asia