Kadi Ahmad Burhan al-Din (8 January 1345, Kayseri – 1398, Sivas) poet, scholar, and statesman. He was
vizier
A vizier (; ; ) is a high-ranking political advisor or Minister (government), minister in the Near East. The Abbasids, Abbasid caliphs gave the title ''wazir'' to a minister formerly called ''katib'' (secretary), who was at first merely a help ...
to the
Eretnid rulers of
Anatolia
Anatolia (), also known as Asia Minor, is a peninsula in West Asia that makes up the majority of the land area of Turkey. It is the westernmost protrusion of Asia and is geographically bounded by the Mediterranean Sea to the south, the Aegean ...
. In 1381, he took over
Eretnid lands and claimed the title of sultan for himself. He is most often referred to by the title
Qadi
A qadi (; ) is the magistrate or judge of a Sharia court, who also exercises extrajudicial functions such as mediation, guardianship over orphans and minors, and supervision and auditing of public works.
History
The term '' was in use from ...
, a name for
Islamic judges, which was his first occupation.
To maintain the independence of his principality, he fought against the
Ottomans,
Mamluk
Mamluk or Mamaluk (; (singular), , ''mamālīk'' (plural); translated as "one who is owned", meaning "slave") were non-Arab, ethnically diverse (mostly Turkic, Caucasian, Eastern and Southeastern European) enslaved mercenaries, slave-so ...
s,
Karamanids
The Karamanids ( or ), also known as the Emirate of Karaman and Beylik of Karaman (), was a Turkish people, Turkish Anatolian beyliks, Anatolian beylik (principality) of Salur tribe origin, descended from Oghuz Turks, centered in South-Centra ...
, and
Aq Qoyunlu
The Aq Qoyunlu or the White Sheep Turkomans (, ; ) was a culturally Persianate society, Persianate,Kaushik Roy, ''Military Transition in Early Modern Asia, 1400–1750'', (Bloomsbury, 2014), 38; "Post-Mongol Persia and Iraq were ruled by two trib ...
for 18 years. He composed poetry in a Turkic language close to modern
Azerbaijani Turkic. In addition to his poems in Turkic, he also wrote in
Persian and
Arabic
Arabic (, , or , ) is a Central Semitic languages, Central Semitic language of the Afroasiatic languages, Afroasiatic language family spoken primarily in the Arab world. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) assigns lang ...
and conducted studies on Islamic law. His divan is regarded as the first divan written in the Turkic language. He is considered one of the founders of modern Azerbaijani and Turkish literature, playing a significant role in the development of poetry in the Azerbaijani Turkic language.
On May 7, 2019, by Decision No. 211 of the Cabinet of Ministers of the
Republic of Azerbaijan
Azerbaijan, officially the Republic of Azerbaijan, is a transcontinental and landlocked country at the boundary of West Asia and Eastern Europe. It is a part of the South Caucasus region and is bounded by the Caspian Sea to the east, Russi ...
, Qadi Burhan al-Din was included in the list of authors whose works are declared state property in the Republic of Azerbaijan.
Early life and education
The first ancestor of Burhan al-Din who migrated to
Anatolia
Anatolia (), also known as Asia Minor, is a peninsula in West Asia that makes up the majority of the land area of Turkey. It is the westernmost protrusion of Asia and is geographically bounded by the Mediterranean Sea to the south, the Aegean ...
was a
Khwarezmian named Muhammad Rasul Sevinc. He belonged to the Salur tribe of the Oghuz Turks.
Aziz al-Astarabadi records Burhan al-Din's lineage as follows: Shams al-Din Muhammad, son of Suleyman Siraj al-Din, son of Husam al-Din, son of Jalal al-Din Habib, son of Muhammad, son of Rasul, son of Sevinc. Burhan al-Din's great-grandfather was born around the 1290s in the
Kastamonu
Kastamonu, formerly Kastamone/Castamone () and Kastamon/Castamon (), is a city in northern Turkey. It is the seat of Kastamonu Province and Kastamonu District. region. He gained recognition from the qadi of
Kayseri
Kayseri () is a large List of cities in Turkey, city in Central Anatolia, Turkey, and the capital of Kayseri Province, Kayseri province. Historically known as Caesarea (Mazaca), Caesarea, it has been the historical capital of Cappadocia since anc ...
, who arranged his marriage to his daughter, which subsequently earned him an official position. According to Aziz al-Astarabadi, many of his descendants also served as qadis. Thus, Burhan al-Din's family upheld the position of qadi for generations. A. Krymsky described Burhan al-Din as "the son, grandson, great-grandson, and great-great-grandson of a qadi." Additionally, Burhan al-Din’s great-grandfather married a woman from the Seljuk dynasty, and his son Suleyman Siraj al-Din became a highly respected figure. As a result, Suleyman married the daughter of the last Sultan of the Seljuks of Konya. His son, Shams al-Din Muhammad, adhered to family tradition and served as a qadi in Kayseri.
Ibn Arabshah, while writing about the rulers of the Eretnids, also mentioned Burhan al-Din's father, noting that he was one of the viziers of the
Eretnid ruler and described him as the most powerful among them.
Burhan al-Din was born on the 3rd of Ramadan, corresponding to January 8, 1345. His mother came from a noble family and was related to
Sultan Ghiyath al-Din Kaykhusraw of the
Seljuk Seljuk (, ''Selcuk'') or Saljuq (, ''Saljūq'') may refer to:
* Seljuk Empire (1051–1153), a medieval empire in the Middle East and central Asia
* Seljuk dynasty (c. 950–1307), the ruling dynasty of the Seljuk Empire and subsequent polities
* S ...
s. Burhan al-Din’s maternal grandfather, Abdullah Chalabi, was a vizier and the son of the prominent Seljuk bureaucrat Jalal al-Din Mahmud Mustawfi. According to Abdullah ibn Ali Kashani, the author of "Tarikh-e Olcaytu", Burhan al-Din’s mother was also the sister of the
Eretnid ruler. She died when Burhan al-Din was only one and a half years old. As a result, he was raised and educated under the guidance of his father. In his youth, Burhan al-Din mastered
Persian and
Arabic
Arabic (, , or , ) is a Central Semitic languages, Central Semitic language of the Afroasiatic languages, Afroasiatic language family spoken primarily in the Arab world. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) assigns lang ...
, as well as disciplines such as
Islamic law
Sharia, Sharī'ah, Shari'a, or Shariah () is a body of religious law that forms a part of the Islamic tradition based on scriptures of Islam, particularly the Qur'an and hadith. In Islamic terminology ''sharīʿah'' refers to immutable, intan ...
, logic, horsemanship, swordsmanship, and archery.
In 1356, Burhan al-Din accompanied his father to
Damascus
Damascus ( , ; ) is the capital and List of largest cities in the Levant region by population, largest city of Syria. It is the oldest capital in the world and, according to some, the fourth Holiest sites in Islam, holiest city in Islam. Kno ...
for educational purposes. Two years later, they traveled to Cairo. Historians believe this journey may have been prompted by political reasons, possibly due to his father's exile or forced departure from Kayseri. In
Cairo
Cairo ( ; , ) is the Capital city, capital and largest city of Egypt and the Cairo Governorate, being home to more than 10 million people. It is also part of the List of urban agglomerations in Africa, largest urban agglomeration in Africa, L ...
, Burhan al-Din studied jurisprudence, hadith, and
Quranic exegesis
Tafsir ( ; ) refers to an exegesis, or commentary, of the Quran. An author of a ''tafsir'' is a ' (; plural: ). A Quranic ''tafsir'' attempts to provide elucidation, explanation, interpretation, context or commentary for clear understanding ...
. Later, in 1362, he returned to Damascus to study poetry under Qutb al-Din al-Razi for a year and a half. After the death of Qutb al-Din in 1364, Burhan al-Din's father also died shortly thereafter. Following the deaths of his father and teacher, Burhan al-Din returned to his hometown.
After his return to
Kayseri
Kayseri () is a large List of cities in Turkey, city in Central Anatolia, Turkey, and the capital of Kayseri Province, Kayseri province. Historically known as Caesarea (Mazaca), Caesarea, it has been the historical capital of Cappadocia since anc ...
in 1364, the Eretnid ruler Muhammad Bey appointed him as qadi and arranged his marriage to his daughter. In 1365, Muhammad Bey died under unclear circumstances. Some speculate he was killed during a campaign to suppress rebellions in
Amasya
Amasya () is a city in northern Turkey, in the Black Sea Region. It was called Amaseia or Amasia in antiquity."Amasya" in ''Encyclopædia Britannica, The New Encyclopædia Britannica''. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 15th edn., 1992, Vol ...
(led by Haji Shadgeldi), Milas (led by Haji Amir Ibrahim), or
Karahisar (led by
Kılıç Arslan). Others suggest he may have been assassinated due to political conflicts. Burhan al-Din's role in these events remains unknown. The renowned
Scottish
Scottish usually refers to something of, from, or related to Scotland, including:
*Scottish Gaelic, a Celtic Goidelic language of the Indo-European language family native to Scotland
*Scottish English
*Scottish national identity, the Scottish ide ...
orientalist E. Gibb, citing Ibn Hajar, notes that Burhan al-Din married the ruler's daughter, but their relationship eventually soured, leading Burhan al-Din to kill his father-in-law and seize power.
At the time of Muhammad Bey’s death, his son Alaeddin Ali was only 13 years old and thus incapable of governing effectively. Taking advantage of the ensuing instability, the Karamanids captured Niğde and Aksaray. In 1375, Alaeddin Bey of the Karamanids seized
Kayseri
Kayseri () is a large List of cities in Turkey, city in Central Anatolia, Turkey, and the capital of Kayseri Province, Kayseri province. Historically known as Caesarea (Mazaca), Caesarea, it has been the historical capital of Cappadocia since anc ...
, forcing Alaeddin Ali to flee to
Sivas
Sivas is a city in central Turkey. It is the seat of Sivas Province and Sivas District.[İl Beledi ...]
. In 1378, Burhan al-Din reclaimed Kayseri and expelled Alaeddin Karamanid. Consequently, Alaeddin Ali appointed Burhan al-Din as his vizier. However, Burhan al-Din’s aspirations for power created tensions between them. Burhan al-Din ultimately emerged victorious in this struggle, consolidating both military and political control. His authority was solidified when he was granted the title of beylerbeyi or malik al-umara, titles previously used during the Seljuk era.
During his tenure as vizier, Burhan al-Din implemented measures to stabilize the region. A conflict arose between Burhan al-Din and Emir Haji Shadgeldi over the control of Amasya, which the latter had seized from Alaeddin Eretnid. In 1380, Alaeddin Ali succumbed to the plague in Kazabad. At the time of his death, his son was only seven years old. Although a public assembly urged Burhan al-Din to govern the state as regent, he declined. Consequently, the regency was entrusted to Kılıç Arslan, who was from the Seljuk dynasty and had married Alaeddin Ali’s widow. However, this decision caused widespread discontent, as many believed Burhan al-Din was better suited for leadership. Alarmed by Burhan al-Din’s growing influence, Kılıç Arslan plotted to eliminate him. However, Burhan al-Din acted first, killing Kılıç Arslan on February 19, 1381. Following this event, the public assembly once again supported Burhan al-Din, and he assumed the regency. Later that year, Burhan al-Din defeated his main rival, Haji Shadgeldi of
Amasya
Amasya () is a city in northern Turkey, in the Black Sea Region. It was called Amaseia or Amasia in antiquity."Amasya" in ''Encyclopædia Britannica, The New Encyclopædia Britannica''. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 15th edn., 1992, Vol ...
, and declared his sovereignty in
Sivas
Sivas is a city in central Turkey. It is the seat of Sivas Province and Sivas District.[İl Beledi ...]
. After delivering a khutbah in his name, he sent envoys to rulers across
Anatolia
Anatolia (), also known as Asia Minor, is a peninsula in West Asia that makes up the majority of the land area of Turkey. It is the westernmost protrusion of Asia and is geographically bounded by the Mediterranean Sea to the south, the Aegean ...
,
Syria
Syria, officially the Syrian Arab Republic, is a country in West Asia located in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Levant. It borders the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Turkey to Syria–Turkey border, the north, Iraq to Iraq–Syria border, t ...
, and
Iraq
Iraq, officially the Republic of Iraq, is a country in West Asia. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to Iraq–Saudi Arabia border, the south, Turkey to Iraq–Turkey border, the north, Iran to Iran–Iraq border, the east, the Persian Gulf and ...
to announce his ascension to power.
Sources
Aziz ibn Ardashir Astrabadi (also known as Abdulaziz Baghdadi) served as the court poet of Qadi Burhan al-Din and authored the work Bazm wa Razm. In this work, he provided information about Burhan al-Din, his patron. This work was utilized by the renowned 15th-century Arab historian
Ibn Hajar (1372–1448).
Ibn Hajar's work, in turn, was referenced by the 16th-century Ottoman historian Daskopruzade. The famous orientalist E.J.W. Gibb, in his work, benefited from the materials that Daskopruzade had derived from Ibn Hajar.
Another source providing information about Burhan al-Din's life is the work of Ibn Arabshah (1392–1450), a scholar from Damascus.
Ibn Arabshah, who spent many years in captivity under
Timur
Timur, also known as Tamerlane (1320s17/18 February 1405), was a Turco-Mongol conqueror who founded the Timurid Empire in and around modern-day Afghanistan, Iran, and Central Asia, becoming the first ruler of the Timurid dynasty. An undefeat ...
, later wrote his own biography. Krimski notes that, curiously, Gibb did not use or was unaware of
Ibn Arabshah's work, which contains considerable information about Burhan al-Din. Additionally, Ibn Arabshah was familiar with the work of Aziz ibn Ardashir, noting that it was preserved in
Karaman
Karaman is a city in south central Turkey, located in Central Anatolia, north of the Taurus Mountains, about south of Konya. It is the seat of Karaman Province and Karaman District.[Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire (), also called the Turkish Empire, was an empire, imperial realm that controlled much of Southeast Europe, West Asia, and North Africa from the 14th to early 20th centuries; it also controlled parts of southeastern Centr ...]
can be found in the memoirs of
Johannes Schiltberger, who was captured by the Ottomans at the
Battle of Nicopolis
The Battle of Nicopolis took place on 25 September 1396 and resulted in the rout of an allied Crusader army (assisted by the Venetian navy) at the hands of an Ottoman force, raising the siege of the Danubian fortress of Nicopolis and le ...
(1396). Schiltberger participated in the Ottoman campaign that annexed Sivas and provides details about these events.
The correspondence between Kadi Burhan al-Din and rulers of neighboring states, as well as between those rulers themselves, also serves as a valuable source of information about his life and activities.
Historical Context
In the early 14th century, the
Anatolian Seljuks, centered in
Konya
Konya is a major city in central Turkey, on the southwestern edge of the Central Anatolian Plateau, and is the capital of Konya Province. During antiquity and into Seljuk times it was known as Iconium. In 19th-century accounts of the city in En ...
, fell under the pressure of the Ilkhanate. Following their collapse, various beyliks emerged in their place. In 1335, Eretna Bey, one of the Ilkhanid governors in
Anatolia
Anatolia (), also known as Asia Minor, is a peninsula in West Asia that makes up the majority of the land area of Turkey. It is the westernmost protrusion of Asia and is geographically bounded by the Mediterranean Sea to the south, the Aegean ...
, declared his independence. However, he temporarily accepted vassalage to the
Mamluk Sultan. The initial capital of the Eretnid Beylik was
Erzincan
Erzincan (; ), historically Yerznka (), is the capital of Erzincan Province in eastern Turkey. Nearby cities include Erzurum, Sivas, Tunceli, Bingöl, Elazığ, Malatya, Gümüşhane, Bayburt, and Giresun. The city is majority Turkish Sunni w ...
, later moving to
Kayseri
Kayseri () is a large List of cities in Turkey, city in Central Anatolia, Turkey, and the capital of Kayseri Province, Kayseri province. Historically known as Caesarea (Mazaca), Caesarea, it has been the historical capital of Cappadocia since anc ...
. During this period, the newly formed beyliks frequently engaged in conflicts with one another over territorial disputes. The Eretnid Beylik was governed by
Eretna Bey's descendants until 1381, when Qadi Burhan al-Din declared himself an independent ruler.
Rise to power
Although he was favored by the sultan, Burhan al-Din secretly participated in the rebellion of the local magnates which led to Ghiyath al-Din's killing in 1365. Burhan al-Din's popularity spread as he was serving as the of Kayseri, bolstering his political strength. He built strong personal relations, especially with local nomadic tribes. By 1376, he had become a military commander with significant power in a realm that was facing political turmoil. The previous year,
Karamanids
The Karamanids ( or ), also known as the Emirate of Karaman and Beylik of Karaman (), was a Turkish people, Turkish Anatolian beyliks, Anatolian beylik (principality) of Salur tribe origin, descended from Oghuz Turks, centered in South-Centra ...
captured Kayseri in a surprise attack with the help of the Mongol tribes of Samargar and Chaykazan, prompting
Ala al-Din Ali to flee to Sivas. Burhan al-Din tried to fend off the Karamanids with the hopes that he could claim Kayseri for himself. He wasn't successful, getting arrested when Ali uncovered his true intentions. The
Emir
Emir (; ' (), also Romanization of Arabic, transliterated as amir, is a word of Arabic language, Arabic origin that can refer to a male monarch, aristocratic, aristocrat, holder of high-ranking military or political office, or other person po ...
of
Sivas
Sivas is a city in central Turkey. It is the seat of Sivas Province and Sivas District.[İl Beledi ...]
, Hajji Ibrahim, who allied with the leader of Samargar, Khidr Beg, rescued Burhan al-Din and imprisoned Ali instead. Ali was eventually liberated by Burhan al-Din in 1378. In June of that year, Burhan al-Din was made
vizier
A vizier (; ; ) is a high-ranking political advisor or Minister (government), minister in the Near East. The Abbasids, Abbasid caliphs gave the title ''wazir'' to a minister formerly called ''katib'' (secretary), who was at first merely a help ...
by Eretnid emirs in order to prevent a possible revolt of peasants disgruntled by Ali's incompetence.
Reign
Referring to Sa'd al-Din Efendi, Gibb mentions that Burhan al-Din captured Sivas and Kayseri and ruled for 20–30 years. However, this is an exaggeration. Based on information from sources, it becomes evident that Burhan al-Din ruled for either 17 or 18 years. His years of rule were marked by continuous conflicts with rebellious local rulers as well as struggles against powerful states such as the Ottomans, Mamluks, and Aq Qoyunlus.
In 1381, after murdering the (deputy) of the ruler of Eretna, he formally proclaimed himself the ruler, initially using the title
atabeg
Atabeg, Atabek, or Atabey is a hereditary title of nobility of Turkic language, Turkic origin, indicating a governor of a nation or province who was subordinate to a monarch and charged with raising the crown prince. The first instance of the ti ...
and later
sultan
Sultan (; ', ) is a position with several historical meanings. Originally, it was an Arabic abstract noun meaning "strength", "authority", "rulership", derived from the verbal noun ', meaning "authority" or "power". Later, it came to be use ...
. He issued his own coins and had the
khuṭba delivered in his name. He was continuously involved in skirmishes with neighboring states. He gained many enemies with his rise to power, including the
Mamluk Sultanate
The Mamluk Sultanate (), also known as Mamluk Egypt or the Mamluk Empire, was a state that ruled Egypt, the Levant and the Hejaz from the mid-13th to early 16th centuries, with Cairo as its capital. It was ruled by a military caste of mamluks ...
,
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire (), also called the Turkish Empire, was an empire, imperial realm that controlled much of Southeast Europe, West Asia, and North Africa from the 14th to early 20th centuries; it also controlled parts of southeastern Centr ...
,
Aq Qoyunlu
The Aq Qoyunlu or the White Sheep Turkomans (, ; ) was a culturally Persianate society, Persianate,Kaushik Roy, ''Military Transition in Early Modern Asia, 1400–1750'', (Bloomsbury, 2014), 38; "Post-Mongol Persia and Iraq were ruled by two trib ...
,
Qara Qoyunlu,
Karamanids
The Karamanids ( or ), also known as the Emirate of Karaman and Beylik of Karaman (), was a Turkish people, Turkish Anatolian beyliks, Anatolian beylik (principality) of Salur tribe origin, descended from Oghuz Turks, centered in South-Centra ...
, and local emirs, such as those of
Amasya
Amasya () is a city in northern Turkey, in the Black Sea Region. It was called Amaseia or Amasia in antiquity."Amasya" in ''Encyclopædia Britannica, The New Encyclopædia Britannica''. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 15th edn., 1992, Vol ...
and
Erzincan
Erzincan (; ), historically Yerznka (), is the capital of Erzincan Province in eastern Turkey. Nearby cities include Erzurum, Sivas, Tunceli, Bingöl, Elazığ, Malatya, Gümüşhane, Bayburt, and Giresun. The city is majority Turkish Sunni w ...
, one of whom,
Mutahharten, was a worthy rival. To reduce the number of his opponents, Burhan al-Din pardoned many of whom he had defeated. He followed no set principle but only the benefit of his political existence in forging relations with neighboring powers. The sultanate Burhan al-Din usurped had a large
Turkmen and
Mongol
Mongols are an East Asian ethnic group native to Mongolia, China (Inner Mongolia and other 11 autonomous territories), as well as the republics of Buryatia and Kalmykia in Russia. The Mongols are the principal member of the large family of M ...
population but also consisted of many of the older, established urban centers of the Seljuk and
Ilkhanid
The Ilkhanate or Il-khanate was a Mongol khanate founded in the southwestern territories of the Mongol Empire. It was ruled by the Il-Khans or Ilkhanids (), and known to the Mongols as ''Hülegü Ulus'' (). The Ilkhanid realm was officially known ...
Anatolia. His sultanate resembled these states more than the Turcoman
beyliks.
In 1383, Burhan al-Din survived an assassination attempt by some local
bey
Bey, also spelled as Baig, Bayg, Beigh, Beig, Bek, Baeg, Begh, or Beg, is a Turkic title for a chieftain, and a royal, aristocratic title traditionally applied to people with special lineages to the leaders or rulers of variously sized areas in ...
s in Sivas. To avenge his father, Haji Shadgeldi, he received support from his father-in-law, Candaroglu Kötürüm Bayezid, and defeated Burhan al-Din, who had taken action against him (785/1383–84). Subsequently, by collaborating with the
Beylik of Dulkadir and forming regular military units, he brought the
Turcomans in the region stretching from
Sivas
Sivas is a city in central Turkey. It is the seat of Sivas Province and Sivas District.[İl Beledi ...]
to the
Mediterranean
The Mediterranean Sea ( ) is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by the Mediterranean basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the east by the Levant in West Asia, on the north by Anatolia in West Asia and Southern ...
under his control. After eliminating the threats posed by the Turcomans and Mongols, he married off his sister to the lord of Tokat Fortress, and with their support, launched a campaign against
Amasya
Amasya () is a city in northern Turkey, in the Black Sea Region. It was called Amaseia or Amasia in antiquity."Amasya" in ''Encyclopædia Britannica, The New Encyclopædia Britannica''. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 15th edn., 1992, Vol ...
, defeating its rulers consecutively (1384).
Candaroglu Kötürüm Bayezid, aware of a potential Ottoman campaign led by Sultan Murad I against them, sent a message to Burhan al-Din, expressing his desire for an alliance. However, when his insincerity was realized, he not only lost the support of Burhan al-Din, a strong ally, but also his throne (1384). Around the same time, the governor of
Tokat
Tokat is a city of Turkey in the mid-Black Sea region of Anatolia. It is the seat of Tokat Province and Tokat District. Fortress came to
Sivas
Sivas is a city in central Turkey. It is the seat of Sivas Province and Sivas District.[İl Beledi ...]
to pledge allegiance to Burhan al-Din. In 1387, while Burhan al-Din was in Kösedağ, he learned that the people of Sivas had revolted. He dispatched one of his commanders, who successfully suppressed the uprising.
Burhan al-Din skillfully exploited the conflicting claims of the local rulers in his vicinity, supporting one against the other. He also strengthened his army by recruiting men from the nomadic Turkcoman and Mongol tribes. He successfully restored the former borders of his beylik but faced conflicts with the Mamluks after capturing
Malatya
Malatya (; ; Syriac language, Syriac ܡܠܝܛܝܢܐ Malīṭīná; ; Ancient Greek: Μελιτηνή) is a city in the Eastern Anatolia region of Turkey and the capital of Malatya Province. The city has been a human settlement for thousands of y ...
, as it was traditionally considered within the Mamluk sphere of influence. According to Ibn Hajar, in response to the capture of
Malatya
Malatya (; ; Syriac language, Syriac ܡܠܝܛܝܢܐ Malīṭīná; ; Ancient Greek: Μελιτηνή) is a city in the Eastern Anatolia region of Turkey and the capital of Malatya Province. The city has been a human settlement for thousands of y ...
, a large Mamluk army was dispatched against him. Acting in alliance with some
Anatolia
Anatolia (), also known as Asia Minor, is a peninsula in West Asia that makes up the majority of the land area of Turkey. It is the westernmost protrusion of Asia and is geographically bounded by the Mediterranean Sea to the south, the Aegean ...
n rulers, the Mamluk army laid siege to Sivas for several months in 1388 but failed to defeat Burhan al-Din. Subsequently,
Sultan Barquq of the Mamluks was forced to sign a peace treaty with him.
In 1389, Ottoman
Sultan Murad I was killed in the Battle of Kosovo. His successor,
Bayezid I
Bayezid I (; ), also known as Bayezid the Thunderbolt (; ; – 8 March 1403), was the sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1389 to 1402. He adopted the title of ''Sultan-i Rûm'', ''Rûm'' being the Arabic name for the Eastern Roman Empire. In 139 ...
, immediately headed to Bursa, as the vassal rulers in Anatolia had risen in rebellion. The coalition against the Ottomans included the beyliks of
Karaman
Karaman is a city in south central Turkey, located in Central Anatolia, north of the Taurus Mountains, about south of Konya. It is the seat of Karaman Province and Karaman District.[Aydın
Aydın ( ''EYE-din''; ; formerly named ''Güzelhisar; Greek: Τράλλεις)'' is a city in and the seat of Aydın Province in Turkey's Aegean Region. The city is located at the heart of the lower valley of Büyük Menderes River (ancient ...]
,
Saruhan,
Menteşe,
Germiyan, and Hamid. The coalition leaders were Karamanoglu Alaeddin and Burhan al-Din. Alaeddin occupied Beyşehir and advanced as far as Eskişehir, Germiyanoglu Yakub II reclaimed his territories, while Burhan al-Din captured
Kırşehir
Kırşehir, historically known as Mocissus or Mokissos () and Justinianopolis () in ancient times, is a city in Turkey. It is the seat of Kırşehir Province and Kırşehir District.[Byzantine Emperor
The foundation of Constantinople in 330 AD marks the conventional start of the Eastern Roman Empire, which Fall of Constantinople, fell to the Ottoman Empire in 1453 AD. Only the emperors who were recognized as legitimate rulers and exercised s ...]
Manuel II, as an Ottoman vassal, was preparing to join a naval expedition against Sinop. This campaign resulted in the annexation of most Candarid territories, except
Sinop. Süleyman Bey was killed. Later, despite Burhan al-Din's objections and threats, Bayezid occupied Osmancık. However, Burhan al-Din eventually launched an attack against Bayezid near Çorumlu, forcing him to retreat. Burhan al-Din advanced as far as Ankara and Sivrihisar. Ahmed, the emir of Amasya, besieged by Burhan al-Din’s forces, sought Ottoman assistance and handed over his fortress to the Ottomans (1392). This incident is also mentioned in the memoirs of the captive soldier Schiltberger, who was in Bayezid’s service.
In 1391/92, the
Battle of Kırkdilim took place. Burhan al-Din’s court poet, Aziz ibn Ardashir, claims that Burhan al-Din emerged victorious in this battle. However, letters from
Manuel II Paleologus, who participated in the campaign as Bayezid’s vassal, suggest otherwise. The local rulers recognized Bayezid as their overlord, but as the army retreated, they were attacked by Burhan al-Din’s forces.
Burhan al-Dīn was defeated by the Mamluks in 1387 but soon allied with them against the
Aq Qoyunlu
The Aq Qoyunlu or the White Sheep Turkomans (, ; ) was a culturally Persianate society, Persianate,Kaushik Roy, ''Military Transition in Early Modern Asia, 1400–1750'', (Bloomsbury, 2014), 38; "Post-Mongol Persia and Iraq were ruled by two trib ...
, only to later ally with the latter against rebellions of the beys of
Amasya
Amasya () is a city in northern Turkey, in the Black Sea Region. It was called Amaseia or Amasia in antiquity."Amasya" in ''Encyclopædia Britannica, The New Encyclopædia Britannica''. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 15th edn., 1992, Vol ...
and
Erzincan
Erzincan (; ), historically Yerznka (), is the capital of Erzincan Province in eastern Turkey. Nearby cities include Erzurum, Sivas, Tunceli, Bingöl, Elazığ, Malatya, Gümüşhane, Bayburt, and Giresun. The city is majority Turkish Sunni w ...
.
In 1393, the rulers of the
Tacettinids, Tashanids, and
Bafra
Bafra is a municipality and Districts of Turkey, district of Samsun Province, Turkey. Covering about 1,500 km2, and with over 140,000 inhabitants it is a settlement located from the Black Sea, in the fertile Kızılırmak Delta. The Bafra Pl ...
pledged allegiance to Burhan al-Din. That same year, Mongol rulers in Anatolia encouraged him to attack the
Ottomans
Ottoman may refer to:
* Osman I, historically known in English as "Ottoman I", founder of the Ottoman Empire
* Osman II, historically known in English as "Ottoman II"
* Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire (), also called the Turkish Empir ...
, but his advisors rejected this proposal. Concerned about Ottoman dominance over the
Yeşilırmak basin, Burhan al-Din took measures to counter this and encouraged the Ottomans to move southward. By 1393, Burhan al-Din’s state had become the strongest rival to the
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire (), also called the Turkish Empire, was an empire, imperial realm that controlled much of Southeast Europe, West Asia, and North Africa from the 14th to early 20th centuries; it also controlled parts of southeastern Centr ...
in
Anatolia
Anatolia (), also known as Asia Minor, is a peninsula in West Asia that makes up the majority of the land area of Turkey. It is the westernmost protrusion of Asia and is geographically bounded by the Mediterranean Sea to the south, the Aegean ...
. Consequently, the Anatolian emirates divided into two factions: one supporting Burhan al-Din and the other supporting the Ottomans. That same year, Bayezid launched several campaigns against him, capturing some fortresses and cities. In 1394, Burhan al-Din campaigned against the Karamanids. During this time, the Anatolian rulers received a letter from Timur, who had captured Tikrit in 1394, demanding their submission.
Burhan al-Din executed the envoys who came to him with this letter. Sources indicate that he beheaded some of Timur’s envoys, hung their heads around the necks of the survivors, and sent them back to their lands. When Burhan al-Din rejected Timur's letter, he sent a copy of it to the Mamluk
Sultan Barquq and
Bayezid I
Bayezid I (; ), also known as Bayezid the Thunderbolt (; ; – 8 March 1403), was the sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1389 to 1402. He adopted the title of ''Sultan-i Rûm'', ''Rûm'' being the Arabic name for the Eastern Roman Empire. In 139 ...
. Thus, the alliance between him and the Mamluk Sultan also included the Ottoman Sultan and the
Golden Horde
The Golden Horde, self-designated as ''Ulug Ulus'' ( in Turkic) was originally a Mongols, Mongol and later Turkicized khanate established in the 13th century and originating as the northwestern sector of the Mongol Empire. With the division of ...
Khan,
Tokhtamysh. To disrupt this alliance, Timur set out and entered Anatolia in early 1394, reaching Erzurum. However, he suddenly decided to turn back from Erzurum. When the threat of Timur subsided for a while, Qadi Burhan al-Din launched a campaign against Ahmad Bey, the Emir of Amasya, who had attacked his lands, and devastated the region. Timur was aware of Qadi Burhan al-Din's activities against him. Taking advantage of this, Alaeddin Bey of the
Karamanids
The Karamanids ( or ), also known as the Emirate of Karaman and Beylik of Karaman (), was a Turkish people, Turkish Anatolian beyliks, Anatolian beylik (principality) of Salur tribe origin, descended from Oghuz Turks, centered in South-Centra ...
declared his allegiance to Timur and became his ally. Thus, Burhan al-Din, the ruler of
Sivas
Sivas is a city in central Turkey. It is the seat of Sivas Province and Sivas District.[İl Beledi ...]
, found himself caught between two enemies. Consequently, in 1397, he sought assistance from his former adversary, the Mamluk Sultan, offering to become a Mamluk vassal in return. At the same time, he needed support to counter the advancing Aq Qoyunlu ruler, Kara Yuluk Osman Bey. Timur was aware of Qadi Burhan al-Din's activities against him. Timur, in a letter to Bayezid, also mentioned Burhan al-Din’s alliance with the Mamluk Sultan, his former enemy. In his letter to Bayezid I, Timur also mentioned Burhan al-Din and his alliance with his former enemy, the Mamluk Sultan:
The wretched son of the judge of Sivas devises devilish schemes and seeks to cooperate with the Circassian youth.
However, it is evident from one of Qadi Burhan al-Din's poems that he did not care for these threats and was not afraid of Timur:
When Sham and Rum submit to us,
We are iron for the enemy, mildly for our friends.
Brave men tread our paths;
For friends, we are a blessing; for foes, a doom.
With the help of Barquq, Burhan al-Din was able to overcome his enemies. Later, Burhan al-Din formed an alliance with Qara Yuluk Osman Bey of the Aq Qoyunlu and conducted campaigns against rebellious emirs in Amasya and Erzincan.
However, it is apparent from his poems that Burhan al-Din did not hold Tokhtamysh Khan in high regard, but due to their common enemy, Timur, he entered into an alliance with him:
Whatever God has decreed from the beginning shall happen;
The eye sees only what it is destined to see.
In both worlds, we have sought refuge in God.
What is Tokhtamysh, or even Aksak Timur?
Death
In 1398, Burhan al-Din was killed in the Karabel region during a battle with Qara Yuluk Osman. The Ottoman historian Saadeddin Efendi mentions that this event occurred in the Harput Mountains, where Burhan al-Din had taken refuge from
Sultan Bayezid I. Although Burhan al-Din's son, Zeynal, ruled the principality between 1398 and 1399, the Ottomans soon captured Sivas.
Schiltberger and Ibn Arabshah describe the events surrounding Burhan al-Din's death. According to them, a conflict arose between
Qara Yoluq Osman and Burhan al-Din due to Osman's failure to fulfill agreed nomadic migration conditions. Qara Yuluk Osman launched a sudden attack on Burhan al-Din's camp, forcing him to flee. However, Burhan al-Din was captured before he could escape. Osman besieged
Sivas
Sivas is a city in central Turkey. It is the seat of Sivas Province and Sivas District.[İl Beledi ...]
, demanding its surrender from Burhan al-Din's son. When the request was denied, Osman executed Burhan al-Din.
Despite Burhan al-Din’s appeals for clemency and his offer to hand over
Kayseri
Kayseri () is a large List of cities in Turkey, city in Central Anatolia, Turkey, and the capital of Kayseri Province, Kayseri province. Historically known as Caesarea (Mazaca), Caesarea, it has been the historical capital of Cappadocia since anc ...
, he was executed. His body was dismembered into four parts, with each part displayed on poles, and his head placed on a spear outside the city.
Burhan al-Din's son sought help from
Bayezid I
Bayezid I (; ), also known as Bayezid the Thunderbolt (; ; – 8 March 1403), was the sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1389 to 1402. He adopted the title of ''Sultan-i Rûm'', ''Rûm'' being the Arabic name for the Eastern Roman Empire. In 139 ...
, who dispatched his eldest son with an army of 40,000 troops. Consequently, the territories of the Burhan al-Din state came under Bayezid’s control. Schiltberger, who participated in this campaign, writes, “I too took part in this expedition.” According to Schiltberger and Ibn Arabshah, Burhan al-Din was executed in the Islamic month of Dhu al-Qa‘dah, corresponding to July–August 1398. However, other sources suggest alternative dates. After analyzing the historical records, F. K. Brun concluded that 1398 is the most accurate date. While the exact burial site remains uncertain, it is believed that Burhan al-Din was interred in the location known as the Tomb of Qazi Burhan al-Din in Sivas. His gravestones are preserved in the
Gök Madrasa. According to the
Encyclopaedia of Islam
The ''Encyclopaedia of Islam'' (''EI'') is a reference work that facilitates the Islamic studies, academic study of Islam. It is published by Brill Publishers, Brill and provides information on various aspects of Islam and the Muslim world, Isl ...
, the tomb in Sivas, still standing today, does not bear an inscription indicating the date of his death.
Poetry
He was an outstanding poet, who wrote in Turkish and
Persian. He played significant role in the development of the
Azerbaijani poetry.
[https://www.princeton.edu/~turkish/aatt/azeri.htm, American Association of Teachers of Turkic Languages] His ''
diwan'' comprises 1,500 ''
ghazal
''Ghazal'' is a form of amatory poem or ode, originating in Arabic poetry that often deals with topics of spiritual and romantic love. It may be understood as a poetic expression of both the pain of loss, or separation from the beloved, and t ...
s'', 119 ''
tuyughs'', and a few
distich
In poetry, a couplet ( ) or distich ( ) is a pair of successive Line (poetry), lines that rhyme and have the same Metre (poetry), metre. A couplet may be formal (closed) or run-on (open). In a formal (closed) couplet, each of the two lines is en ...
s. According to
Jan Rypka, he was "a poet of profane love; mystical notes are sounded more rarely in his work". Despite his ability, he was relatively unknown, and his work had little influence on later Azerbaijani or Ottoman poetry. According to the Turkish scholar
Mehmet Fuat Köprülü
Mehmet Fuat Köprülü (December 5, 1890 – June 28, 1966), also known as Köprülüzade Mehmed Fuad, was a highly influential Turkish sociologist, Turkologist, scholar, Minister of Foreign Affairs and Deputy Prime Minister of the Rep ...
, Burhan al-Din's works "have all the peculiarities of the
Azerbaijani dialect." Turkish historian and linguist states that, despite being written in Anatolia, the works by Burhan al-Din fall within the realm of the Azerbaijani language due to their linguistic peculiarities.
Numerous studies have been conducted on the life, activities, personality, and state governance of Qazi Burhaneddin, as well as on the research and publication of his literary legacy. Particularly noteworthy is the work "Bazm ve Razm" by Aziz ibn Ardashir Astarabadi, who served as Burhan al-Din’s historian from 1394 onward. Valuable information about Qadi Burhan al-Din is also found in Ibn Ardashir’s Ajaib al-Maqdur, as well as in sources related to the Anatolian Seljuks, the Beyliks, the
Timurid period, and the Aq Qoyunlu, alongside accounts from Arabic and Ottoman histories. Nevertheless, medieval sources primarily focus on Burhan al-Din’s political, diplomatic, and military activities, his campaigns, the structure of his state, and his relations with other states and tribes. His poetic endeavors, however, were placed in the background. In fact, his artistic achievements were of little significance to medieval authors. This is naturally linked to the perception of Burhan al-Din as a statesman and ruler, as his works were more closely associated with history rather than literary studies. Chroniclers and historians such as Taşköprüzade in Shaqaiq al-Numaniyya, Khoja Sadeddin in Taj al-Tavarikh, and Katib Chelebi in Kashf al-Zunun discuss Burhan al-Din solely as a poet.
Research
The study of Burhan al-Din as an artist and the analysis of his literary legacy mainly belong to recent periods. His introduction to Russian, European, and English-speaking audiences owes much to scholars such as P. Melioranski, A. Krymsky, H. Gibb, L. Levonian, F. Goadsell, and A. Bombaci. In 1895, P. Melioranski published an article titled "Excerpts from the Divan of Burhan al-Din of Sivas" in the journal ''Vostochnyye Zametki''. In this article, he translated 12 tuyuqs and 20 rubais into Russian and provided valuable insights into the poet’s life and work. The renowned British Orientalist H. Gibb introduced European readers to Qazi Burhaneddin’s life and creative work for the first time in his 1900 publication A History of Ottoman Literature. Similarly, F. Goadsell, director of a language school in
America
The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...
, wrote an article about the Azerbaijani poet, analyzing his tuyuqs and highlighting the poet’s skill in this genre. Şehabeddin, in his introduction to Goadsell’s work, examined Burhan al-Din’s life, era, and creative journey, arriving at new conclusions.
The study of Burhan al-Din’s literary legacy in Turkish literary scholarship began in the 20th century. Scholars such as Ş. Süleyman, M. F. Köprülü, Y. Kabaklı, N. S. Banarlı, A. Alpaslan, S. Nüzhet, and M. Ergin emphasized his unique position in the history of Turkic literature, characterizing him as a ruler-poet who wrote on worldly themes with an optimistic spirit. M. F. Köprülü, in an article published in ''Dergah Mecmuası'', praised Burhan al-Din for writing ghazals on secular themes rather than religious ones. In the preface to the 1924 publication Divan-i Fuzuli, Köprülü analyzed the stylistic and thematic features of Burhan al-Din’s poetry, stating:
Despite the primitiveness and vibrancy of its form and language, there is a sincere and vivid uniqueness in his works. His poems reflect the transience of the world and the unity of the beloved and the lover, showing some influence of Persian mystics. At the same time, his verses contain heartfelt national concepts derived from everyday life, and beneath these crude lines lies the spirit of a courageous warrior.
According to Köprülü, the emotions and thoughts of ordinary people are vividly expressed in Burhan al-Din’s
ghazal
''Ghazal'' is a form of amatory poem or ode, originating in Arabic poetry that often deals with topics of spiritual and romantic love. It may be understood as a poetic expression of both the pain of loss, or separation from the beloved, and t ...
s. In the preface to his 1926 book "Turkish Poetry from Its Origins to the Tenth Hijri Century", Köprülü described Burhan al-Din as a creator of worldly and realistic poetry.
The Turkish scholar Y. Yücel authored a fundamental work titled "Qazi Burhaneddin Ahmed and His State", focusing primarily on his socio-political and military activities as a ruler, with only passing references to his poetic endeavors. Based on historical sources, this monograph holds significant scholarly value. Turkish scholar Vasfi Mahir Kocatürk portrayed Burhan al-Din as a mentor to master poets like Nasimi and
Nava’i. He demonstrated, using literary examples, that
Nasimi wrote naziras and responses to Burhan al-Din’s poems, learning from the artistic beauty of his works. Kocatürk concluded that Nasimi’s poetic language is an evolved version of Burhan al-Din’s poetic style. Literary critic Y. Kabaklı described Burhaneddin as a “commander-poet who expressed heroism, love, and mysticism with fiery enthusiasm,” presenting his creative legacy as a new manifestation of national poetic traditions in the literature of Turkic peoples.
In
Azerbaijani literature, the exploration and promotion of Burhan al-Din’s artistic heritage began with M. F. Köprülü and were later continued by I. Hikmət. Although Köprülü briefly discussed the poet in "Studies in Azerbaijani Literature", I. Hikmət authored a comprehensive essay on him, analyzing Burhan al-Din’s life, creative work, themes, and linguistic features of his poetry. The poet’s unique role in the development of the Tuyuq genre in Azerbaijani literature was especially highlighted.
Burhan al-Din’s poetic works have been published in various compilations across different countries. His divan was first published in facsimile form by the Turkish Language Association in Istanbul in 1943, and in 1980, Turkish scholar M. Ergin published the complete divan. In Baku, selections from his poetry and his divan have been published multiple times, with A. Safarli as the compiler of these editions. In addition to these copies, a manuscript consisting of 19 lines and 65 leaves (the end is missing) kept in the Süleymaniye Manuscript Library, Carullah Efendi collection, has the author's name written as Hamiduddin Sivasi on the inner cover and is included in the catalog as such. When compared with the two existing copies, it was determined that this work is another writing of "Terci ut-tövzih".
Works
Burhan al-Din authored works on
Islamic law
Sharia, Sharī'ah, Shari'a, or Shariah () is a body of religious law that forms a part of the Islamic tradition based on scriptures of Islam, particularly the Qur'an and hadith. In Islamic terminology ''sharīʿah'' refers to immutable, intan ...
and poetry, among which his most renowned piece is Tarjih al-Tawzih ("The Reiteration of Clarifications"), written in Arabic. This book, addressing the principles of jurisprudence, serves as an annotation to a larger work titled Talmih. Remarkably, the work was written without referencing any other books, relying solely on logical reasoning, and it stands out as a significant intellectual contribution authored by a ruler.
One copy of this manuscript is preserved in the
Ragıp Paşa Library under catalog number 831, with notes indicating it was completed in 800 AH/1398 AD. Another copy, consisting of 169 folios with 19 lines per page, is located in the Millet Feyzullah Efendi collection under catalog number 585.
Burhan al-Din also authored a Sufi treatise titled "Elixir of Happiness in the Mysteries of Worship" (İksir əs-Səadət fi Əsrar əl-İbadət), which he referred to in Arabic as "Sa'adat al-iksir fi asrar al-ibadah" ("The Elixir of Happiness in the Mysteries of Worship"). During the years 1395–1396, which he spent in Sivas, Burhan al-Din engaged in addressing state and public affairs arising from ongoing military campaigns. In his remaining time, he completed this treatise. The work has not been published. The only known Arabic manuscript is preserved at the
Ayasofya section of the Süleymaniye Library under inventory number 1658. This manuscript consists of 176 folios, each containing nine lines. The text, written in the
naskh script, is fully vowelized. Marginal and upper-page notes occasionally provide additional explanations or grammatical clarifications to aid comprehension. The first folio includes the title of the work, the author's full name—al-Imam al-'Alim al-Allama al-Hibr al-Muhaqqiq Burhan al-Din al-Hakim al-Sivasi—and invocations for blessings. Additional notes on this folio indicate that the manuscript was endowed by Ottoman Sultan Mahmud Khan and is part of the Haramayn Sharifayn endowments. Another commentary on the treatise in Ottoman Turkish is housed in the Şazeli Tekke section of the
Süleymaniye Library. The commentary, written as a manuscript, can be found between folios 53 and 94 under inventory number 52. Each page of this commentary contains 17 lines.
Following the opening Bismillah, praise, and salutations, Burhan al-Din notes in the treatise's introduction that the writing of the work was inspired by the path of kashf (spiritual unveiling) followed by saints. He also emphasizes that the work adheres to the scholarly standards (ulama-i rusum) of his time. He asserts that he relied exclusively on the Qur’an and the Sunnah, distinguishing between essential truths and extraneous meanings in his discourse.
The treatise comprises three introductory sections. The first discusses ''wujud (''existence), the second focuses on the "order of creation," and the third addresses the "wisdom of creation."
After these introductions, Burhan al-Din elaborates on the seven attributes of humans and identifies seven obligatory forms of worship: faith (iman), prayer (salat), fasting (sawm), pilgrimage (hajj), almsgiving (zakat), jihad, and sacrifice (qurban). He explains the higher purposes of these acts of worship and other religious observances, such as festivals, while delving into their external wisdom. He also draws connections between these practices and the manifestations of the Asma al-Husna (Beautiful Names of Allah).
Burhan al-Din's poetic Divan is preserved among
Ottoman manuscripts in the
British Museum
The British Museum is a Museum, public museum dedicated to human history, art and culture located in the Bloomsbury area of London. Its permanent collection of eight million works is the largest in the world. It documents the story of human cu ...
. The only surviving copy of this work, produced during his lifetime, is adorned with miniatures. Dated to 1393, the Divan comprises over 20,000 verses and is divided into two unequal parts: the first contains 1,500 ghazals, while the second includes 20 rubaiyat and 119 tuyuqs—short mystical poems. According to Gibb, Burhan al-Din was the only poet among Western Turks to utilize the ancient poetic form tuyuq, which consists of four lines with the rhyme scheme a-a-b-a.
The sole surviving copy of the Divan was brought to
London
London is the Capital city, capital and List of urban areas in the United Kingdom, largest city of both England and the United Kingdom, with a population of in . London metropolitan area, Its wider metropolitan area is the largest in Wester ...
as part of the collection of Thomas Fiott Hughes, an employee of the British Embassy in
Istanbul
Istanbul is the List of largest cities and towns in Turkey, largest city in Turkey, constituting the country's economic, cultural, and historical heart. With Demographics of Istanbul, a population over , it is home to 18% of the Demographics ...
. It is currently housed in the British Museum (Or. nr. 4126). The manuscript, copied in 796 AH (1393–94) by Khalil ibn Ahmad, one of Burhan al-Din's calligraphers, is vowelized and written in a beautiful Seljuk naskh script. The text features gilded headers and framed pages. The Divan comprises ghazals (pp. 1–581), rubaiyat (pp. 582–585), and tuyuqs (pp. 586–608), containing over 1,300 ghazals, 20 rubaiyat, and 115 tuyuqs. The Divan is not arranged in classical order; rather, the poems appear in the sequence in which they were likely composed. Burhan al-Din did not use a pen name (takhallus) in his poetry.
The first scholarly study of the Divan was conducted in 1895 by Russian orientalist P. Melioranski, who translated 20 rubaiyat and 12 tuyuqs into
Russian
Russian(s) may refer to:
*Russians (), an ethnic group of the East Slavic peoples, primarily living in Russia and neighboring countries
*A citizen of Russia
*Russian language, the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages
*''The Russians'', a b ...
. F. F. Godsell later published four ghazals, along with all the rubaiyat and tuyuqs, in an article titled "Qazi Burhan al-Din: His Life and Work." A facsimile edition of the Divan was published with the support of the Turkish Language Association, and a critical edition was prepared by Mehmed Ergin (Istanbul, 1980). Ali Alparslan's Selections from Qazi Burhan al-Din's Divan includes a comprehensive analysis of the poet's work, along with 100 ghazals, seven rubaiyat, and 18 tuyuqs.
In 1988, Azerbaijani scholar Professor
Alyar Safarli prepared and published the Divan in
Baku
Baku (, ; ) is the Capital city, capital and List of cities in Azerbaijan, largest city of Azerbaijan, as well as the largest city on the Caspian Sea and in the Caucasus region. Baku is below sea level, which makes it the List of capital ci ...
. Subsequent editions included a brief biography of the poet written by Safarli.
Burhan al-Din's Divan exhibits unique characteristics that set it apart from later poetry collections. Unlike subsequent divans, which arranged ghazals alphabetically by the final letter of their rhyme, Burhan al-Din's work lacks such organization. Furthermore, his ghazals do not include a pen name or signature, which was customary in later periods. The prosody and thematic structure of his poems, although written in Turkish, bear the influence of Persian lyrical poetry traditions.
Languages
Sources provide varying accounts regarding the language of Burhan al-Din's works. Badr al-Din Ayni (1360–1451) states that Burhan al-Din's works were written in Arabic, Turkic, and Persian. Krymsky notes the same languages. Khadija Tören, in her article for the Encyclopedia of Islam, mentions that he wrote poems in Arabic, Persian, and Turkic. Claude Cahen offers a more distinct perspective on the matter.
Azerbaijani Turkish Version
Although most sources reiterate that Burhan al-Din wrote in Persian and Arabic, Russian sources present some variation. The main issue concerns which form of Turkic Burhan al-Din used. The Concise Literary Encyclopedia and the Great Russian Encyclopedia contain contradictions about the Turkic language of his works, particularly his divan. Turkish historian
Fuad Köprülü, one of the first researchers on Burhan al-Din's works, argues that the characteristics of his divan align with Azerbaijani Turkish. Azerbaijani-origin Turkish linguist
Ahmed Caferoğlu, in the
Encyclopedia of Islam
The ''Encyclopaedia of Islam'' (''EI'') is a reference work that facilitates the academic study of Islam. It is published by Brill and provides information on various aspects of Islam and the Islamic world. It is considered to be the standard ...
, highlights Burhan al-Din's and Nasimi's contributions to the development of Azerbaijani literature. Azerbaijani scholar Chingiz Huseynov, who wrote the article on Burhan al-Din in the Concise Literary Encyclopedia, states that Burhan al-Din wrote in Azerbaijani and Ottoman Turkish as well as Persian. Turkologist Beller-Hann posits that Burhan al-Din's works represent Middle Azerbaijani or an early stage of Iranian Turkish.
Safarli, in his publication of Burhan al-Din's divan, emphasizes that the language of the works is Azerbaijani Turkish and that Burhan al-Din was a pioneer of literature in this language.
Old Anatolian Turkish with Azerbaijani Dialect
In the 14th century, the Anatolian Turkish language had two dialect zones: the western zone, including Konya, Eskişehir, Kırşehir, Sivrihisar, Bolu, Kütahya, and Aydın, and the eastern zone, covering Kastamonu, Çankırı, Sinop, Erzurum, Kayseri, Erzincan, and Sivas. Over time, these zones formed the basis of Azerbaijani and Ottoman Turkish, respectively.
Linguist
Maharram Ergin, who published Burhan al-Din's divan, notes that Azerbaijani and Ottoman dialects had not yet distinctly formed during this period and that several centuries were still needed for this differentiation. He also observes that Burhan al-Din's divan displays features of the
Azerbaijani dialect.
Turkish historian Ertaylan, who conducted one of the first academic studies on literature in Azerbaijani Turkish, writes that Burhan al-Din 's most important work, the Divan, was written in Azerbaijani Turkish. Koprulu, in his History of Turkish Literature, asserts that the Azerbaijani dialect is clearly evident in Burhan al-Din's works. Tören claims that the language of Burhan al-Din's works is Old Anatolian Turkish, yet in another article for the Turkish-Islamic Encyclopedia, she states that Burhan al-Din's poetic language belongs to the Azerbaijani region of Old Anatolian Turkish. Banarlı shares similar views. Historian Ismail Uzuncharshili asserts that Burhan al-Din's works were written in the Azerbaijani dialect. The author of the Encyclopedia of Islam's article on Burhan al-Din, C. Rypka, includes him among poets who used the Azerbaijani dialect.
Two Dialects
The first researcher of Burhan al-Din's poetry, Gibb, wrote:
His ghazals and rubai were written in a pure yet distinct western Turkish dialect. However, the tuyughs are rich in eastern Turkish words and grammatical forms not used elsewhere.
Turkish linguist H. Develi confirms that Burhan al-Din's Divan includes works written in both dialects of Old Anatolian Turkish. The western dialect was his native tongue, while he learned the eastern dialect during his time in
Cairo
Cairo ( ; , ) is the Capital city, capital and largest city of Egypt and the Cairo Governorate, being home to more than 10 million people. It is also part of the List of urban agglomerations in Africa, largest urban agglomeration in Africa, L ...
, where the official and literary language was Mamluk Kipchak. Develi states that this language could be termed "generally eastern Turkic." Eastern dialectal features primarily appear in the
tuyughs, where eastern and western Turkish elements coexist. According to Develi, Burhan al-Din occasionally used the musicality of the eastern dialect to enrich his style, though he was not fully proficient in it. Develi suggests that studying Nasimi and Fuzuli's texts is more appropriate for understanding the history of Azerbaijani language development than Burhan al-Din's.
Old Anatolian Turkish Version
Some authors argue that during Burhan al-Din's era, the "Anatolian Turks" had a unified language, and clear boundaries between the dialects of Old Anatolian Turkish were absent. Turkish linguist A. N. Kononov believed that although Burhan al-Din wrote in "Turkic related to Azerbaijani," there are no uniquely Azerbaijani characteristics in his divan's language because western Oghuz and Azerbaijani dialects had not yet diverged at that time.
Turkologist V. G. Guzev, in his monograph on Ottoman Turkish, also mentions that the Turks in Anatolia during this period shared a common language:
"The number of works in the language of Anatolian Turks increased significantly in the 14th and 15th centuries, including Burhan al-Din's Divan."
Guzev explains that the term "Old Ottoman," often used for this language, is a misnomer and that "Old Anatolian Turkish" is more accurate. The language had two dialect zones—western and eastern. Guzev notes that eastern works display features resembling
Azerbaijani Turkish. E. R. Tenishev, editor of the journal Soviet Turkology and the publication Comparative-Historical Grammar of Turkic Languages, classifies Burhan al-Din among poets who wrote in Seljuk (Old Anatolian Turkish, Old Ottoman) literary language. Turkish scholar Nuri Yüce, in his article on Ottoman Turkish, similarly argues that Burhan al-Din wrote in Old Ottoman (Old Anatolian) Turkish.
Significance, Personality, and Evaluation
Burhan al-Din was highly regarded by his contemporaries and historians of later periods.
Ibn Arabshah wrote about him:
This young man was highly talented, so devoted to learning that he even forsook sleep, and within a short time, mastered various sciences profoundly... He was a scholar, capable, noble, and a person who aspired to perfection, distinguished by precise and subtle expressions and words. Despite his great influence, he was close to the people and treated them kindly. He was very knowledgeable, a poet, sensitive, thoughtful, pleasant, determined, courageous, and valiant. He embodied the wisdom and virtue of the hereafter, fearlessly distributing it to thousands. He loved scholars, held assemblies with them, and was attentive to the welfare of the people.
The historian Stavrides described him as "one of the most remarkable figures of 14th-century Anatolia." Burhan al-Din, in addition to his position as a deputy, ruled for seventeen years. Sources portray him as a competent soldier, a courageous ruler, and a patron of scholars. After military campaigns, he took necessary measures to revive economic life, avoided imposing new taxes, and ensured the safety of roads. "Courage and bravery were intrinsic to his nature," wrote Ibn Hajar. However, he was not without flaws. Gibb characterized his personality as "ambitious and aggressive."
Daskopruzadeh and Sa'd al-Din described Burhan al-Din's work Tercîh as a highly esteemed text among the "ulema" of the time. Burhan al-Din was the first poet of Eastern Anatolia whose poetry has been preserved and can be definitively attributed to him. His Divan is the oldest collection of this kind. Burhan al-Din is recognized as a poet who made significant contributions to the development of Anatolian and
Azerbaijani Turkish poetry and is considered one of the brightest representatives of 14th-century Turkish and Azerbaijani literature. Burhan al-Din also holds an important place in Azerbaijan's cultural history and is regarded, alongside Nasimi, as a significant figure in the development of Azerbaijani literature. Together with
Nasimi, he is considered one of the founders of Azerbaijani aruz poetry. His Divan is of great importance for studying the historical lexicon, grammar, and dialectology of the southwestern group of Turkic languages, particularly Azerbaijani. The lexicon of the Divan shows no substantial differences from the modern Azerbaijani language, but it is notably distinct from the lexicon of other Turkic poets' divans.
According to Badr al-Din al-Ayni, Burhan al-Din composed "beautiful" poetry. Daskopruzadeh, apparently referencing Ibn Hajar, stated, "Mawlana Burhan al-Din was a master in composing poetry." Gibb described him as "a remarkable individual," noting that "even if not the first, he was among the earliest lyric poets of Western Turkey."
Despite being an eminent poet, some argue that Burhan al-Din did not achieve sufficient recognition and did not influence either Azerbaijani or Ottoman poetry. Joseph von Hammer-Purgstall, for instance, did not mention him in his work. However, historians such as Daskopruzadeh, Khoja Sa'd al-Din, and Katib Chelebi recorded that Qadi Burhan al-Din was a renowned poet. Nevertheless, Ottoman poets never referenced him, as he lived beyond the borders of the Ottoman Empire and was given little attention in Ottoman sources. Subsequently, P. Melioranski was the first to study Burhan al-Din’s Divan and published some of his poems in 1885 ("Fragments from the Divan of Ahmad Burhan al-Din of Sivas"). This was followed by E. Gibb in his work "The History of Ottoman Poetry" in 1909.
Family
Burhān al-Dīn is reputed to have had 4 children: Muḥammad (died 1390), Zayn al-‘Abidin, Fulāna, and Ḥabība Seljūq Khātūn (died 1446). Zayn al-‘Abidin reigned for a few weeks after his father's demise. Burhān al-Dīn's daughters married
Dulkadirid rulers. Fulāna married
Nasir al-Dīn Mehmed Beg, and Ḥabība Seljūq Khātūn married
Suleimān Beg:
* Spouse: The daughter of Eretnaoğlu Mehmed Bey. They married in 1364.
* Spouse: A woman from the ruling family of the Hacıemiroğulları. They married in 1386.
* Son: Alaeddin Ali (also known as Zeynal or Zeynalabidin). Ottoman historian Neşri records his death in 1442/1443.
* Son: Mehmed Çelebi. He died in Sivas in 1391 and was buried there.
* Son: Abbas. No additional information is available about him.
* Daughter: Habibe Seljuk Hatun. She died in 1446/1447 and was buried in Sivas. She was named after Burhan al-Din’s grandmother, who was a descendant of Sultan Kaykaus of the Anatolian Seljuks.
* Daughter: Though her name is unknown, it is recorded that she married Nasireddin Mehmed Bey of the
Dulkadir.
* Daughter: Rabia. No further details about her life are available.
Notes
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{{Authority control
1345 births
1398 deaths
14th-century monarchs in the Middle East
Azerbaijani-language poets
History of Sivas Province
History of Kayseri Province
Atabegs
Anatolian beyliks
Sharia judges
People from Kayseri
Hanafis
Maturidis
Qadis
14th-century poets from the Ottoman Empire
Salur tribe
14th-century Persian-language poets
Viziers of the Eretnids