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Juliusz Słowacki (; ; ; 4 September 1809 – 3 April 1849) was a Polish
Romantic poet Romantic poetry is the poetry of the Romantic era, an artistic, literary, musical and intellectual movement that originated in Europe towards the end of the 18th century. It involved a reaction against prevailing Neoclassical ideas of the 18th c ...
. He is considered one of the " Three Bards" of
Polish literature Polish literature is the literary tradition of Poland. Most Polish literature has been written in the Polish language, though other languages used in Poland over the centuries have also contributed to Polish literary traditions, including Latin, ...
— a major figure in the Polish Romantic period, and the father of modern Polish drama. His works often feature elements of Slavic pagan traditions, Polish history,
mysticism Mysticism is popularly known as becoming one with God or the Absolute (philosophy), Absolute, but may refer to any kind of Religious ecstasy, ecstasy or altered state of consciousness which is given a religious or Spirituality, spiritual meani ...
and
orientalism In art history, literature, and cultural studies, Orientalism is the imitation or depiction of aspects of the Eastern world (or "Orient") by writers, designers, and artists from the Western world. Orientalist painting, particularly of the Middle ...
. His style includes the employment of
neologism In linguistics, a neologism (; also known as a coinage) is any newly formed word, term, or phrase that has achieved popular or institutional recognition and is becoming accepted into mainstream language. Most definitively, a word can be considered ...
s and
irony Irony, in its broadest sense, is the juxtaposition of what, on the surface, appears to be the case with what is actually or expected to be the case. Originally a rhetorical device and literary technique, in modernity, modern times irony has a ...
. His primary genre was the drama, but he also wrote
lyric poetry Modern lyric poetry is a formal type of poetry which expresses personal emotions or feelings, typically spoken in the first person. The term for both modern lyric poetry and modern song lyrics derives from a form of Ancient Greek literature, t ...
. His most popular works include the dramas '' Kordian'' and '' Balladyna'' and the poems '' Beniowski'', '' Testament mój'' and '' Anhelli''. Słowacki spent his youth in the " Stolen Lands", in Kremenets (; now in
Ukraine Ukraine is a country in Eastern Europe. It is the List of European countries by area, second-largest country in Europe after Russia, which Russia–Ukraine border, borders it to the east and northeast. Ukraine also borders Belarus to the nor ...
) and
Vilnius Vilnius ( , ) is the capital of and List of cities in Lithuania#Cities, largest city in Lithuania and the List of cities in the Baltic states by population, most-populous city in the Baltic states. The city's estimated January 2025 population w ...
,
Lithuania Lithuania, officially the Republic of Lithuania, is a country in the Baltic region of Europe. It is one of three Baltic states and lies on the eastern shore of the Baltic Sea, bordered by Latvia to the north, Belarus to the east and south, P ...
(Polish:
Wilno Vilnius ( , ) is the capital of and List of cities in Lithuania#Cities, largest city in Lithuania and the List of cities in the Baltic states by population, most-populous city in the Baltic states. The city's estimated January 2025 population w ...
). He briefly worked for the government of the
Kingdom of Poland The Kingdom of Poland (; Latin: ''Regnum Poloniae'') was a monarchy in Central Europe during the Middle Ages, medieval period from 1025 until 1385. Background The West Slavs, West Slavic tribe of Polans (western), Polans who lived in what i ...
. During the November 1830 Uprising, he was a courier for the Polish revolutionary government. When the uprising ended in defeat, he found himself abroad and thereafter, like many compatriots, lived the life of an émigré. He settled briefly in Paris, France, and later in Geneva, Switzerland. He also traveled through Italy, Greece and the Middle East. Eventually he returned to Paris, where he spent the last decade of his life. He briefly returned to Poland when another uprising broke out during the Spring of Nations (1848).


Life


Youth

Słowacki was born on 4 September 1809 at Kremenets (in Polish, ''Krzemieniec''),
Volhynia Volhynia or Volynia ( ; see #Names and etymology, below) is a historic region in Central and Eastern Europe, between southeastern Poland, southwestern Belarus, and northwestern Ukraine. The borders of the region are not clearly defined, but in ...
, formerly part of the
Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, also referred to as Poland–Lithuania or the First Polish Republic (), was a federation, federative real union between the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland, Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania ...
but then in the
Russian Empire The Russian Empire was an empire that spanned most of northern Eurasia from its establishment in November 1721 until the proclamation of the Russian Republic in September 1917. At its height in the late 19th century, it covered about , roughl ...
and now in
Ukraine Ukraine is a country in Eastern Europe. It is the List of European countries by area, second-largest country in Europe after Russia, which Russia–Ukraine border, borders it to the east and northeast. Ukraine also borders Belarus to the nor ...
. His father, , a Polish nobleman of the
Leliwa coat of arms Leliwa is a Polish coat of arms. It was used by several hundred szlachta families during the existence of the Kingdom of Poland and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, and remains in use today by many of the descendants of these families. The ...
, taught
rhetoric Rhetoric is the art of persuasion. It is one of the three ancient arts of discourse ( trivium) along with grammar and logic/ dialectic. As an academic discipline within the humanities, rhetoric aims to study the techniques that speakers or w ...
, poetry,
Polish language Polish (, , or simply , ) is a West Slavic languages, West Slavic language of the Lechitic languages, Lechitic subgroup, within the Indo-European languages, Indo-European language family, and is written in the Latin script. It is primarily spo ...
, and the
history of literature The history of literature is the historical development of writings in prose or poetry that attempt to provide entertainment or education to the reader, as well as the development of the literary techniques used in the communication of these pie ...
at the Krzemieniec Lyceum in Kremenets; from 1811 he held the chair (''katedra'') of rhetoric and poetry at Vilnius Imperial University. He died in 1814, leaving Juliusz to be raised solely by his mother, (née Januszewska). In 1818 she married a professor of medicine, . She ran a literary salon where young Juliusz was exposed to diverse influences. It was there in 1822 that the 13-year-old met Adam Mickiewicz, the first of the Three Bards of
Polish literature Polish literature is the literary tradition of Poland. Most Polish literature has been written in the Polish language, though other languages used in Poland over the centuries have also contributed to Polish literary traditions, including Latin, ...
. Two years later, in 1824, Mickiewicz was arrested and exiled by the Russian authorities for his involvement in a secret patriotic Polish student society, the Philomaths; Słowacki likely met with him on Mickiewicz's final day in Wilno. Słowacki was educated at the Krzemieniec Lyceum, and at a Vilnius Imperial University preparatory '' gymnasium'' in Wilno. From 1825 to 1828 he studied law at Vilnius Imperial University. His earliest surviving poems date to that period, though he presumably wrote some earlier, none of which have survived. In 1829 he moved to
Warsaw Warsaw, officially the Capital City of Warsaw, is the capital and List of cities and towns in Poland, largest city of Poland. The metropolis stands on the Vistula, River Vistula in east-central Poland. Its population is officially estimated at ...
, where he found a job in
Congress Poland Congress Poland or Congress Kingdom of Poland, formally known as the Kingdom of Poland, was a polity created in 1815 by the Congress of Vienna as a semi-autonomous Polish state, a successor to Napoleon's Duchy of Warsaw. It was established w ...
's . In early 1830 he debuted his literary career with the novel ', published in the periodical '' Melitele''. That year, the
November Uprising The November Uprising (1830–31) (), also known as the Polish–Russian War 1830–31 or the Cadet Revolution, was an armed rebellion in Russian Partition, the heartland of Partitions of Poland, partitioned Poland against the Russian Empire. ...
began, and Słowacki published several poems with patriotic and religious overtones. His ', first published in '' Polak Sumienny'' (''The Conscientious Pole'') on 4 December 1830, and other works such as ' (''Oda do Wolności''), won acclaim and were quickly reprinted several times. In January 1831 he joined the diplomatic staff of the revolutionary Polish National Government, led by Prince
Adam Jerzy Czartoryski Adam Jerzy Czartoryski (14 January 1770 – 15 July 1861), also known as Adam George Czartoryski, was a Polish szlachta, nobleman, statesman, diplomat and author who served as Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Russian SFSR, Chairman of ...
. Initially he served as a
copyist A copyist is a person who makes duplications of the same thing. The modern use of the term is mainly confined to music copyists, who are employed by the music industry to produce neat copies from a composer or arranger's manuscript. However, the ...
. On 8 March 1831 he was sent on a courier mission to
Dresden Dresden (; ; Upper Saxon German, Upper Saxon: ''Dräsdn''; , ) is the capital city of the States of Germany, German state of Saxony and its second most populous city after Leipzig. It is the List of cities in Germany by population, 12th most p ...
(some sources say this was not an official mission but a private journey). Many others left Warsaw around that time, in the aftermath of the Battle of Olszynka Grochowska and in expectation of a Russian advance on Warsaw. In Dresden, Słowacki was well received by the local Polish émigré community, and even welcomed as "the bard of fighting Warsaw." In July 1831 he volunteered to deliver messages from the National Government to its representatives in London and Paris, where he heard about the fall of the Uprising. Details of his mission (what letters he was carrying, and to whom) are not known.


Emigration

Like many of his countrymen, Słowacki decided to stay in France as a political refugee. In 1832 he published his first collections of poems and his first two dramas (' and '). He also met Mickiewicz again; reportedly, Mickiewicz approached his younger colleague and shook his hand. However, Słowacki's poems, written in the 1820s, were unpopular among his Polish compatriots, as they failed to capture the sentiment of a people living under foreign occupation. Słowacki was also angered by Mickiewicz, who not only stole the limelight with his ' (''Books of the Polish nation and pilgrimage''), but his part three of '' Dziady'' (1832) cast Słowacki's stepfather, professor Bécu, in the role of a villain. In a letter to his mother Słowacki wrote that immediately after reading that work he was ready to challenge Mickiewicz for a
duel A duel is an arranged engagement in combat between two people with matched weapons. During the 17th and 18th centuries (and earlier), duels were mostly single combats fought with swords (the rapier and later the small sword), but beginning in ...
; that did not come to pass but from that moment on, Słowacki would see Mickiewicz as his main rival. Few days later, antagonized by worsening reception of his works among the Polish émigré community in Paris, including sharp criticism from Mickiewicz, Słowacki left on a trip to
Geneva Geneva ( , ; ) ; ; . is the List of cities in Switzerland, second-most populous city in Switzerland and the most populous in French-speaking Romandy. Situated in the southwest of the country, where the Rhône exits Lake Geneva, it is the ca ...
, Switzerland. The French authorities denied him the right to return to France as part of a larger program to rid the country of the potentially subversive Polish exiles who had settled there. From 1833 to 1836, he lived in Switzerland. The third volume of his poems, published in 1833 and containing works from the period of the Uprising, was far more nationalist in tone and won more recognition in his homeland. At the same time, he wrote several works featuring Romantic themes and beautiful scenery, such as ' (''In Switzerland''), '' Rozłączenie'' (''Separation''), '' Stokrótki'' (''Daisies'') and '' Chmury'' (''Clouds''). In 1834 he published '' Kordian'', a Romantic drama relating to the soul-searching of the Polish people in the aftermath of the failed insurrection; this work is considered one of his best creations. In 1836, Słowacki left Switzerland and embarked on a journey that started in Italy. In Rome he met and befriended Zygmunt Krasiński, the third of the Three Bards.Stanisław Makowski (1985), "Juliusz Słowacki", ''Literatura polska. Przewodnik encyklopedyczny'', t. 2, Warszawa, p. 376. Krasiński is considered the first serious literary critic of Słowacki's work. Słowacki would dedicate several of his works, including '' Balladyna'', to Krasiński and they would exchange a number of letters. From Rome, Słowacki went to
Naples Naples ( ; ; ) is the Regions of Italy, regional capital of Campania and the third-largest city of Italy, after Rome and Milan, with a population of 908,082 within the city's administrative limits as of 2025, while its Metropolitan City of N ...
and later, to
Sorrento Sorrento ( , ; ; ) is a City status in Italy, city and overlooking the Gulf of Naples, Bay of Naples in Southern Italy. A popular tourist destination, Sorrento is located on the Sorrentine Peninsula at the southern terminus of a main branch o ...
. In August he left for
Greece Greece, officially the Hellenic Republic, is a country in Southeast Europe. Located on the southern tip of the Balkan peninsula, it shares land borders with Albania to the northwest, North Macedonia and Bulgaria to the north, and Turkey to th ...
(
Corfu Corfu ( , ) or Kerkyra (, ) is a Greece, Greek island in the Ionian Sea, of the Ionian Islands; including its Greek islands, small satellite islands, it forms the margin of Greece's northwestern frontier. The island is part of the Corfu (regio ...
, Argos, Athens,
Syros Syros ( ), also known as Siros or Syra, is a Greece, Greek island in the Cyclades, in the Aegean Sea. It is south-east of Athens. The area of the island is and at the 2021 census it had 21,124 inhabitants. The largest towns are Ermoupoli, Ano S ...
),
Egypt Egypt ( , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a country spanning the Northeast Africa, northeast corner of Africa and Western Asia, southwest corner of Asia via the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to northe ...
(
Alexandria Alexandria ( ; ) is the List of cities and towns in Egypt#Largest cities, second largest city in Egypt and the List of coastal settlements of the Mediterranean Sea, largest city on the Mediterranean coast. It lies at the western edge of the Nile ...
,
Cairo Cairo ( ; , ) is the Capital city, capital and largest city of Egypt and the Cairo Governorate, being home to more than 10 million people. It is also part of the List of urban agglomerations in Africa, largest urban agglomeration in Africa, L ...
, El Arish) and the Middle East, including the
Holy Land The term "Holy Land" is used to collectively denote areas of the Southern Levant that hold great significance in the Abrahamic religions, primarily because of their association with people and events featured in the Bible. It is traditionall ...
(
Jerusalem Jerusalem is a city in the Southern Levant, on a plateau in the Judaean Mountains between the Mediterranean Sea, Mediterranean and the Dead Sea. It is one of the List of oldest continuously inhabited cities, oldest cities in the world, and ...
,
Bethlehem Bethlehem is a city in the West Bank, Palestine, located about south of Jerusalem, and the capital of the Bethlehem Governorate. It had a population of people, as of . The city's economy is strongly linked to Tourism in the State of Palesti ...
,
Jericho Jericho ( ; , ) is a city in the West Bank, Palestine, and the capital of the Jericho Governorate. Jericho is located in the Jordan Valley, with the Jordan River to the east and Jerusalem to the west. It had a population of 20,907 in 2017. F ...
,
Nazareth Nazareth is the largest Cities in Israel, city in the Northern District (Israel), Northern District of Israel. In its population was . Known as "the Arab capital of Israel", Nazareth serves as a cultural, political, religious, economic and ...
) and neighboring territories (
Damascus Damascus ( , ; ) is the capital and List of largest cities in the Levant region by population, largest city of Syria. It is the oldest capital in the world and, according to some, the fourth Holiest sites in Islam, holiest city in Islam. Kno ...
,
Beirut Beirut ( ; ) is the Capital city, capital and largest city of Lebanon. , Greater Beirut has a population of 2.5 million, just under half of Lebanon's population, which makes it the List of largest cities in the Levant region by populatio ...
). It was a journey Słowacki described in his epic poem ' ("Travel to the Holy Land from Naples"); his other works of that period inclucded the poem ' (''The Father of the Plague-stricken''), ' (''Agamemnon's Grave''), '' Rozmowa z piramidami'' (''A talk with the pyramids''), '' Anhelli'' and '' Listy poetyckie z Egiptu'' (''Poetic Letters from Egypt''). In June 1837 he returned to Italy, settling briefly in
Florence Florence ( ; ) is the capital city of the Italy, Italian region of Tuscany. It is also the most populated city in Tuscany, with 362,353 inhabitants, and 989,460 in Metropolitan City of Florence, its metropolitan province as of 2025. Florence ...
, and moved back to Paris in December 1838. In 1840 Mickiewicz was elected to the position of professor of Slavic literature at
Collège de France The (), formerly known as the or as the ''Collège impérial'' founded in 1530 by François I, is a higher education and research establishment () in France. It is located in Paris near La Sorbonne. The has been considered to be France's most ...
; it was one of the events that cemented his position over Słowacki in the Polish émigré community. The rivalry between the two Bards for primacy would continue till the ends of lives. In 1841 Słowacki traveled briefly to
Frankfurt Frankfurt am Main () is the most populous city in the States of Germany, German state of Hesse. Its 773,068 inhabitants as of 2022 make it the List of cities in Germany by population, fifth-most populous city in Germany. Located in the forela ...
, but Paris would become his main home till his death. In 1840 and 1841 he wrote two notable dramas: ', the only of his dramas that was put on stage during his lifetime, and ', published posthumously, well received by critics. Over the next few years Słowacki wrote and published many works, including '' Testament mój'' (''My Last Will''), in which he described his faith that his works would endure after his death. Between 1841 and 1846, he published ''Beniowski'', considered by some his best lyrical poetry. Starting as a story of a historical figure, it developed into a discussion of the poet's own life and opinions. In 1842 he joined the religious-philosophical group, (Circle of God's Cause), led by Andrzej Towiański. This group included, among others, Mickiewicz. Towiański's influence is credited with a new, mystical current in Słowacki's works, seen in works such as the ''Beniowski'' and the drama ' (''Father Mark''). Słowacki left the Circle a year later, in 1843. In the summers of 1843 and 1844 Słowacki traveled to
Pornic Pornic (; ''Pornizh'' in Breton, ''Port-Nitz'' in Gallo language, Gallo) is a Communes of France, commune in the Loire-Atlantique Departments of France, department in western France. In 1973 the commune of Pornic absorbed the neighbouring munici ...
, a resort on the Atlantic coast in
Brittany Brittany ( ) is a peninsula, historical country and cultural area in the north-west of modern France, covering the western part of what was known as Armorica in Roman Gaul. It became an Kingdom of Brittany, independent kingdom and then a Duch ...
. It was there, in 1844, that he wrote ' (''Genesis from the Spirit''). This work introduced his philosophical system that would have a visible influence on his works in his last decade. Around 1839 Słowacki put his capital into the Parisian
stock market A stock market, equity market, or share market is the aggregation of buyers and sellers of stocks (also called shares), which represent ownership claims on businesses; these may include ''securities'' listed on a public stock exchange a ...
. He was a shrewd investor who earned enough from the investments to dedicate his life to his literary career; he was also able to pay the costs of having his books published.


Last years

In the late 1840s Słowacki attached himself to a group of like-minded young exiles, determined to return to Poland and win its independence. One of his friends was the pianist and composer
Frédéric Chopin Frédéric François Chopin (born Fryderyk Franciszek Chopin; 1 March 181017 October 1849) was a Polish composer and virtuoso pianist of the Romantic period who wrote primarily for Piano solo, solo piano. He has maintained worldwide renown ...
. Others included enthusiasts of his work, such as
Zygmunt Szczęsny Feliński Zygmunt Szczęsny Feliński (1 November 1822 in Voiutyn, now Ukraine – 17 September 1895 in Kraków) was a professor of the Saint Petersburg Roman Catholic Theological Academy, Archbishop of Warsaw in 1862-1883 (exiled by Tsar Alexander II to ...
, Józef Alojzy Reitzenheim and Józef Komierowski. Despite poor health, when he heard about the events of the Spring of Nations, Słowacki traveled with some friends to
Poznań Poznań ( ) is a city on the Warta, River Warta in west Poland, within the Greater Poland region. The city is an important cultural and business center and one of Poland's most populous regions with many regional customs such as Saint John's ...
, then under Prussian control, hoping to participate in the Wielkopolska Uprising of 1848. He addressed the National Committee (Komitet Narodowy) in Poznań on 27 April. "I tell you", he declared as the rebels faced military confrontation with the Prussian Army, "that the new age has dawned, the age of holy
anarchy Anarchy is a form of society without rulers. As a type of stateless society, it is commonly contrasted with states, which are centralized polities that claim a monopoly on violence over a permanent territory. Beyond a lack of government, it can ...
." But by 9 May, the revolt was crushed. Arrested by the Prussian police, Słowacki was sent back to Paris. On his way there, he passed through
Wrocław Wrocław is a city in southwestern Poland, and the capital of the Lower Silesian Voivodeship. It is the largest city and historical capital of the region of Silesia. It lies on the banks of the Oder River in the Silesian Lowlands of Central Eu ...
, where in mid-June he was reunited with his mother, whom he had not seen for almost twenty years. He returned to Paris in July 1848. His poem '' Pośród niesnasków Pan Bóg uderza...'' (''Among the discord God hits...''), published in late 1848, gained new fame a century later when it seemed to foretell the 1978 ascent of Karol Wojtyła to the throne of St. Peter as
Pope John Paul II Pope John Paul II (born Karol Józef Wojtyła; 18 May 19202 April 2005) was head of the Catholic Church and sovereign of the Vatican City State from 16 October 1978 until Death and funeral of Pope John Paul II, his death in 2005. In his you ...
. His final dramas (', '), attempted to explain
history of Poland The history of Poland spans over a thousand years, from Lechites, medieval tribes, Christianization of Poland, Christianization and Kingdom of Poland, monarchy; through Polish Golden Age, Poland's Golden Age, Polonization, expansionism and be ...
through Słowacki's genesic philosophy. In March 1849, Słowacki, his health failing, was visited three times by another Polish writer and poet,
Cyprian Norwid Cyprian Kamil Norwid (; – 23 May 1883) was a Polish poet, dramatist, painter, sculptor, and philosopher. He is now considered one of the four most important Polish Romanticism, Polish Romantic poets, though scholars still debate whether he is ...
, who later wrote about his visits in ' (''Black Flowers. White Flowers''). Up to his final days, Słowacki was writing poetry; a day before his death he dictated passages of his final work, ' (''King-Spirit''). This grandiose, visionary-symbolic poem, "summary of the entire Romantic culture", Słowacki's masterpiece, weaving together Poland's history and its contemporary political and literary thought, was never finished. Słowacki died in Paris on 3 April 1849 from
tuberculosis Tuberculosis (TB), also known colloquially as the "white death", or historically as consumption, is a contagious disease usually caused by ''Mycobacterium tuberculosis'' (MTB) bacteria. Tuberculosis generally affects the lungs, but it can al ...
, and on 5 April he was buried in the
Montmartre Cemetery The Cemetery of Montmartre () is a cemetery in the 18th arrondissement of Paris, France, that dates to the early 19th century. Officially known as the Cimetière du Nord, it is the third largest necropolis in Paris, after the Père Lachaise Cemet ...
in Paris. He never married. Only about 30 people attended his funeral. Krasiński, although estranged from Słowacki in the last few years, wrote of the funeral: Słowacki's tombstone at Montmartre was designed by his friend and executor of his
last will A will and testament is a legal document that expresses a person's (testator) wishes as to how their property ( estate) is to be distributed after their death and as to which person (executor) is to manage the property until its final distribut ...
, painter Charles Pétiniaud-Dubos; it did not weather the passage of time well however, and in 1851 a new, similar tombstone was put in place, this one designed by Polish sculptor Władysław Oleszczyński. In 1927 Słowacki's remains were moved to
Wawel Cathedral The Wawel Cathedral (), formally titled the Archcathedral Basilica of Stanislaus of Szczepanów, Saint Stanislaus and St. Wenceslas, Saint Wenceslaus, () is a Catholic cathedral situated on Wawel Hill in Kraków, Poland. Nearly 1000 years old, it ...
in Poland, but an empty grave still remains at Montmartre.


Work

Słowacki was a prolific writer; his collected works (''Dzieła wszystkie'') were published in 17 volumes. His legacy includes 25 dramas and 253 works of poetry. He wrote in many
genre Genre () is any style or form of communication in any mode (written, spoken, digital, artistic, etc.) with socially agreed-upon conventions developed over time. In popular usage, it normally describes a category of literature, music, or other fo ...
s: dramas,
lyrical poem Modern lyric poetry is a formal type of poetry which expresses personal emotions or feelings, typically spoken in the first person. The term for both modern lyric poetry and modern song lyrics derives from a form of Ancient Greek literature, ...
s,
literary criticism A genre of arts criticism, literary criticism or literary studies is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often influenced by literary theory, which is the philosophical analysis of literature's ...
, letters, journals and memoirs, fragments of two novels, and a political
brochure A brochure is an promotional document primarily used to introduce a company, organization, products, or services and inform prospective customers or members of the public of the benefits. Although, initially, a paper document that can be folded ...
; he was also a translator. His letters to his mother are among the finest letters in all
Polish literature Polish literature is the literary tradition of Poland. Most Polish literature has been written in the Polish language, though other languages used in Poland over the centuries have also contributed to Polish literary traditions, including Latin, ...
. Although the majority of his works were in Polish, he tried his hand at several works in French language ('' Le roi de Landawa'', '' Beatrix Cenci''). Many of his works were published only
posthumously Posthumous may refer to: * Posthumous award, an award, prize or medal granted after the recipient's death * Posthumous publication, publishing of creative work after the author's death * Posthumous (album), ''Posthumous'' (album), by Warne Marsh, 1 ...
, often under arbitrary titles, as Słowacki never named them himself. He also left notes on works that he never began or never completed. Słowacki is also considered the father of modern Polish drama. Polish literary historian divides Słowacki's work into four periods: Wolter's circle (pseudoclassicism), Christian ethic, Towiański's ethic and genesic ethic. Other scholars offer slightly different periodizations; for example dividing his works into a classical period, a Swiss period, a Parisian period and a genesis period. Philologist combines Towiański's period with the genesic ones, speaking of a "mystical" period. Overall, Słowacki's early work was influenced by
Byron George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron (22 January 1788 – 19 April 1824) was an English poet. He is one of the major figures of the Romantic movement, and is regarded as being among the greatest poets of the United Kingdom. Among his best-kno ...
and
Shakespeare William Shakespeare ( 23 April 1564 – 23 April 1616) was an English playwright, poet and actor. He is widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world's pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called England's natio ...
, and included works that was often historical in nature, like (as in ''Maria Stuart'' or ''Mindowe''), or exotic,
Oriental The Orient is a term referring to the East in relation to Europe, traditionally comprising anything belonging to the Eastern world. It is the antonym of the term ''Occident'', which refers to the Western world. In English, it is largely a meto ...
locales (as in ').Michal Kosmulski
Juliusz Slowacki
1999
His work took on a more patriotic tone following the failed November Uprising of 1830–1831. His final works are heavy in mystical and philosophical undertones. In the 1840s he developed his own philosophy, or mystical system, with works such as ''Król-Duch'' and ''Genesis z Ducha'' being an exposition of his philosophical ideas ("") according to which the material world is an expression of an ever-improving spirit capable of progression (transmigration) into constantly newer forms. As Ławski notes, his philosophical works can transcend clear boundaries of simple literary genres. Słowacki's works, situated in the period of romanticism in Poland, contain rich and inventive vocabulary, including many
neologism In linguistics, a neologism (; also known as a coinage) is any newly formed word, term, or phrase that has achieved popular or institutional recognition and is becoming accepted into mainstream language. Most definitively, a word can be considered ...
s. They use
fantasy Fantasy is a genre of speculative fiction that involves supernatural or Magic (supernatural), magical elements, often including Fictional universe, imaginary places and Legendary creature, creatures. The genre's roots lie in oral traditions, ...
,
mysticism Mysticism is popularly known as becoming one with God or the Absolute (philosophy), Absolute, but may refer to any kind of Religious ecstasy, ecstasy or altered state of consciousness which is given a religious or Spirituality, spiritual meani ...
and symbolism and feature themes related to Poland's history, essence of Polishness, and relation to a larger universe. Ławski, enumerating the main characteristics of Słowacki's writings, notes first that he was a "creationist", in the sense of creating new meanings and words (many of his characters bear names he invented himself, such as Kordian). Second, he notes that Słowacki was not only inspired by works of others, from poets and writers to scholars and philosophers, but that his texts were often a masterful, ironic-grotesque
polemic Polemic ( , ) is contentious rhetoric intended to support a specific position by forthright claims and to undermine the opposing position. The practice of such argumentation is called polemics, which are seen in arguments on controversial to ...
with other creators. For example, Słowacki was so impressed by
Antoni Malczewski Antoni Malczewski (3 June 1793 – 2 May 1826) was a Polish romantic poet, known for his only work, "a narrative poem of dire pessimism", ''Maria'' (1825). At the times, prominent and scandalizing was his autodestructive romance with a married ...
's ' that he wrote a sequel to it, '. Likewise, ''Kordian'' is seen as building on
William Shakespeare William Shakespeare ( 23 April 1564 – 23 April 1616) was an English playwright, poet and actor. He is widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world's pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called England's nation ...
's ''
Hamlet ''The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark'', often shortened to ''Hamlet'' (), is a Shakespearean tragedy, tragedy written by William Shakespeare sometime between 1599 and 1601. It is Shakespeare's longest play. Set in Denmark, the play (the ...
'', and as Słowacki's response to Mickiewicz's '' Dziady''. Agnieszka Szurek
Kordian
gazeta.pl, 1 July 2008
This Ławski calls "ivy-like imagination", comparing Słowacki's approach to that of an ivy, growing around works of others and reshaping them into new forms in a sophisticated literary game. Third, Słowacki was a master of
irony Irony, in its broadest sense, is the juxtaposition of what, on the surface, appears to be the case with what is actually or expected to be the case. Originally a rhetorical device and literary technique, in modernity, modern times irony has a ...
; he used it not only on others, but on himself, and even on irony itself – the "irony of irony".


Legacy

After his death, Słowacki acquired the reputation of a national prophet. He is now considered to be one of the " Three Bards" (''wieszczs'') of
Polish literature Polish literature is the literary tradition of Poland. Most Polish literature has been written in the Polish language, though other languages used in Poland over the centuries have also contributed to Polish literary traditions, including Latin, ...
. Słowacki was not a very popular figure in Paris, nor among his contemporaries. He wrote many dramas, which can be seen as his favorite genre, yet he was a playwright who never saw any of his work performed on stage (only ''Mazepa'' was staged during his lifetime, and not in his presence). His works, written in Polish, dense with Slavic myths, philosophy and symbols, were difficult to translate to other languages. Słowacki's unpopularity among other Polish émigrés can be attributed to his unwillingness to pander to contemporary tastes; and in particular, his refusal to comfort his compatriots, shaken by the loss of Polish statehood and the failure of the November Uprising. Słowacki's ironic and sometimes pessimistic attitude was not appreciated by his contemporaries, nor was his denial of Polish uniqueness. Whereas Mickiewicz followed the Messianic tradition and in '' Konrad'' suggested that Poland's fate was in the hands of God, Słowacki's '' Kordian'' questioned whether his country was not instead a plaything of
Satan Satan, also known as the Devil, is a devilish entity in Abrahamic religions who seduces humans into sin (or falsehood). In Judaism, Satan is seen as an agent subservient to God, typically regarded as a metaphor for the '' yetzer hara'', or ' ...
. However, the same work has God and the Angels watching over Poland and the Earth. In '' Anhelli'', Słowacki's describes the tragic fate of Polish exiles in Siberia, painting a gloomy vision of Poland's destiny; the same topic was taken by Mickiewicz in the ''Books of the Polish Nation and of the Polish Pilgrimage'' as a call for Poles to spread hope and spirituality across Europe.M.J. Mikos
JULIUSZ SLOWACKI (1809–1849)
1999
While a small circle of his friends talked about his wit, perseverance and inspiration, in popular memory he was a "sickly man of weak character", egocentric, bitter due to his failed rivalry with Mickiewicz. Mickiewicz himself wrote of Słowacki's work as a "beautiful church, but without God inside". After his death, Słowacki gained a cult-like status in Poland; in particular, in the cultural center of
Kraków , officially the Royal Capital City of Kraków, is the List of cities and towns in Poland, second-largest and one of the oldest cities in Poland. Situated on the Vistula River in Lesser Poland Voivodeship, the city has a population of 804,237 ...
. Several obituaries and longer articles appeared in the Polish press upon Słowacki's death. His works, many of them published posthumously for the first time, found growing acceptance among a new generation; an 1868 work noted that "Słowacki took the fancy of the Polish youth. He was its singer, its spiritual leader in the full meaning of the term". Through undoubtedly a poet of the
romantic era Romanticism (also known as the Romantic movement or Romantic era) was an artistic and intellectual movement that originated in Europe towards the end of the 18th century. The purpose of the movement was to advocate for the importance of subjec ...
, he was increasingly popular among the positivists and the authors of the Young Poland period in the late 1800s and early 1900s. His works were popularized by other writers, such as Adam Asnyk and Michał Bałucki, and his dramas were shown in theaters. He became a major literary figure for the new generation of Polish writers. He also became respected abroad; a 1902 English language book edited by Charles Dudley Warner noted that "the splendid exuberance of his thought and fancy ranks him among the great poets of the nineteenth century". In 1927, some eight years after Poland had regained independence, the Polish government arranged for Słowacki's remains to be transferred from Paris to
Wawel Cathedral The Wawel Cathedral (), formally titled the Archcathedral Basilica of Stanislaus of Szczepanów, Saint Stanislaus and St. Wenceslas, Saint Wenceslaus, () is a Catholic cathedral situated on Wawel Hill in Kraków, Poland. Nearly 1000 years old, it ...
, in
Kraków , officially the Royal Capital City of Kraków, is the List of cities and towns in Poland, second-largest and one of the oldest cities in Poland. Situated on the Vistula River in Lesser Poland Voivodeship, the city has a population of 804,237 ...
. Anna Agaciak
"Wielkie spory o narodowy panteon"
''Polska Times'', 13 April 2010.
He was interred in the , beside Mickiewicz. Słowacki's interment at Waweł Cathedral was controversial, as many of his works were considered
heretic Heresy is any belief or theory that is strongly at variance with established beliefs or customs, particularly the accepted beliefs or religious law of a religious organization. A heretic is a proponent of heresy. Heresy in Christianity, Judai ...
al by Polish Catholic-Church officials. It took almost two decades and the backing of
Józef Piłsudski Józef Klemens Piłsudski (; 5 December 1867 – 12 May 1935) was a Polish statesman who served as the Chief of State (Poland), Chief of State (1918–1922) and first Marshal of Poland (from 1920). In the aftermath of World War I, he beca ...
, for whom Słowacki was a favorite poet, to obtain the Church's agreement to interring Słowacki at Wawel Cathedral.
Słowacki. Heretyk królom równy
'', Focus.pl, 17 February 2010.
At the 1927 ceremony, Piłsudski commanded: Several streets and schools in modern Poland bear Juliusz Słowacki's name. Three parks are dedicated to him: in
Bielsko-Biała Bielsko-Biała (; ; , ; ) is a city in southern Poland, with a population of approximately 166,765 as of December 2022, making it the List of cities and towns in Poland#Largest cities and towns by population, 22nd largest city in Poland, and an a ...
, in
Łódź Łódź is a city in central Poland and a former industrial centre. It is the capital of Łódź Voivodeship, and is located south-west of Warsaw. Łódź has a population of 655,279, making it the country's List of cities and towns in Polan ...
and in
Wrocław Wrocław is a city in southwestern Poland, and the capital of the Lower Silesian Voivodeship. It is the largest city and historical capital of the region of Silesia. It lies on the banks of the Oder River in the Silesian Lowlands of Central Eu ...
. There are several monuments of Juliusz Słowacki, including ones in
Warsaw Warsaw, officially the Capital City of Warsaw, is the capital and List of cities and towns in Poland, largest city of Poland. The metropolis stands on the Vistula, River Vistula in east-central Poland. Its population is officially estimated at ...
(2001) and
Wrocław Wrocław is a city in southwestern Poland, and the capital of the Lower Silesian Voivodeship. It is the largest city and historical capital of the region of Silesia. It lies on the banks of the Oder River in the Silesian Lowlands of Central Eu ...
(1984). Among the most notable landmarks bearing his name is the Juliusz Słowacki Theatre in Kraków, and the , Ukraine, opened in 2004 at his family's former manor house. In 2009 the Polish
Sejm The Sejm (), officially known as the Sejm of the Republic of Poland (), is the lower house of the bicameralism, bicameral parliament of Poland. The Sejm has been the highest governing body of the Third Polish Republic since the Polish People' ...
(parliament) declared that year, the two-hundredth anniversary of Słowacki's birth, to be the Year of Juliusz Słowacki. The oldest monument to Juliusz Słowacki, unveiled in 1899, is in Miloslaw Park. In 2014, his 205th birthday was honored with a Google Doodle.


Selected works


Drama

* '' Balladyna'' (1834, published 1839, performed 1862) * '' Fantazy'' (1841, published 1866, performed 1867) * '' Horsztyński'' (1835, published 1866, performed 1871) * '' Kordian'' (1833, published 1834, performed 1899) * '' Ksiądz Marek'' (''Father Marek'', 1843, published same year, performed 1901) * '' Książę niezłomny'' (''The Constant Prince'', after
Pedro Calderón de la Barca Pedro Calderón de la Barca y Barreda González de Henao Ruiz de Blasco y Riaño (17 January 160025 May 1681) (, ; ) was a Spanish dramatist, poet, and writer. He is known as one of the most distinguished Spanish Baroque literature, poets and ...
, 1843, published 1844, performed 1874) * '' Lilla Weneda'' (1839, published 1840, performed 1863) * '' Maria Stuart'' (1830, performed 1862) * '' Mazepa'' (1839, published 1840, performed in Hungarian 1847, performed in Polish 1851) * '' Sen srebny Salomei'' (''The Silver Dream of Salomea'', 1843, published 1844, performed 1900) * '' Samuel Zborowski'' (1845, published 1903, performed 1911)


Poetry

* '' Anhelli'' (1838) * ''
Arab Arabs (,  , ; , , ) are an ethnic group mainly inhabiting the Arab world in West Asia and North Africa. A significant Arab diaspora is present in various parts of the world. Arabs have been in the Fertile Crescent for thousands of years ...
'' (1830) * '' Lambro, powstańca grecki'' (''Lambro, a Greek insurgent'', 1833) * '' Beniowski'' (1841–1846) * '' Genezis z Ducha'' (''Genesis from the Spirit'', 1844) * '' Godzina myśli'' (''An Hour of Thought'', 1832–1833) * '' Hugo. Powieść krzyżacka'' (''Hugo. Teutonic Order Novel'', 1830) * '' Król-Duch'' (''The Spirit King'', portions published 1847, published in full 1925) * '' Ojciec zadżumionych'' (''The Father of the Plague-stricken'', 1838) * '' Podróż do ziemi świętej'' ("Voyage to the Holy Land", 1866) * '' Testament mój'' (''My Last Will'', 1839–1840) * '' W Szwajcarii'' (''In Switzerland'', 1835, published 1839) * '' Wacław'' (1838)


Notes


References


External links


Slowacki´s biographyA multililngual site created by Dr. Z. W. Wolkowski for the sesquicentennial of Słowacki's death, containing biographical texts, poetry, translations and other information about the poet.
*
Juliusz Słowacki
at poezja.org (polish)
Juliusz Słowacki
at culture.pl * * * {{DEFAULTSORT:Slowacki, Juliusz 1809 births 1849 deaths People from Kremenets Writers from Ternopil Oblast People from Volhynian Governorate Activists of the Great Emigration Burials at Wawel Cathedral Burials at Montmartre Cemetery 19th-century deaths from tuberculosis Polish diplomats of November Uprising Polish male dramatists and playwrights Polish male poets Polish Roman Catholics People from the Russian Empire of Polish descent Romantic poets Vilnius University alumni Roman Catholic mystics 19th-century Polish poets 19th-century Polish dramatists and playwrights 19th-century Polish male writers 19th-century Christian mystics 19th-century Polish philosophers Tuberculosis deaths in France Polish messianism