Joseph Déjacque
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Joseph Déjacque (; 27 December 1821 – 18 November 1865) was a French
political journalist Political journalism is a broad branch of journalism that includes coverage of all aspects of politics and political science, although the term usually refers specifically to coverage of civil governments and political power. Political journ ...
and poet. A house painter by trade, during the 1840s, he became involved in the French labour movement and taught himself how to write poetry. He was an active participant in the
French Revolution of 1848 The French Revolution of 1848 (), also known as the February Revolution (), was a period of civil unrest in France, in February 1848, that led to the collapse of the July Monarchy and the foundation of the French Second Republic. It sparked t ...
, fighting on the barricades during the June Days uprising, for which he was arrested and imprisoned. He quickly became a target for political repression by Louis Napoleon Bonaparte's government, which imprisoned him for his poetry and forced him to flee into exile. His experiences radicalised him towards
anarchism Anarchism is a political philosophy and Political movement, movement that seeks to abolish all institutions that perpetuate authority, coercion, or Social hierarchy, hierarchy, primarily targeting the state (polity), state and capitalism. A ...
and he regularly criticised republican politicians for their anti-worker sentiment. After spending time in
London London is the Capital city, capital and List of urban areas in the United Kingdom, largest city of both England and the United Kingdom, with a population of in . London metropolitan area, Its wider metropolitan area is the largest in Wester ...
and
Jersey Jersey ( ; ), officially the Bailiwick of Jersey, is an autonomous and self-governing island territory of the British Islands. Although as a British Crown Dependency it is not a sovereign state, it has its own distinguishing civil and gov ...
, he emigrated to the
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, developing a reputation as a controversial firebrand in
New York City New York, often called New York City (NYC), is the most populous city in the United States, located at the southern tip of New York State on one of the world's largest natural harbors. The city comprises five boroughs, each coextensive w ...
. There he became active in organising radical émigrés, helping to establish the International Association in 1855. He then moved to
New Orleans New Orleans (commonly known as NOLA or The Big Easy among other nicknames) is a Consolidated city-county, consolidated city-parish located along the Mississippi River in the U.S. state of Louisiana. With a population of 383,997 at the 2020 ...
, where he agitated for the abolition of slavery through social revolution, while also publishing essays that criticised Bonapartist figures and defended
gender equality Gender equality, also known as sexual equality, gender egalitarianism, or equality of the sexes, is the state of equal ease of access to resources and opportunities regardless of gender, including economic participation and decision-making, an ...
. Unable to find a publisher due to his abolitionist remarks, he returned to New York. There he established '' Le Libertaire'', the first non-English-language anarchist newspaper in the United States, in which he printed his utopian fiction novel '' L'humanisphère''. After Bonaparte's government extended an amnesty to exiled radicals, he returned to France, where he died in obscurity in the mid-1860s. Today he is remembered as an early forerunner of anarchist communism and particularly for coining the political definition of the word " libertarian" ().


Biography

Joseph Déjacque was born in 1821. His father died while he was an infant and his mother worked as a washerwoman, paying for him to go to school in
Faubourg Saint-Antoine The Faubourg Saint-Antoine () was one of the traditional suburbs of Paris, France. It grew up to the east of the Bastille around the abbey of Saint-Antoine-des-Champs, and ran along the Rue du Faubourg Saint-Antoine. Location The Faubourg Sain ...
, where he witnessed the
July Revolution The French Revolution of 1830, also known as the July Revolution (), Second French Revolution, or ("Three Glorious ays), was a second French Revolution after French Revolution, the first of 1789–99. It led to the overthrow of King Cha ...
of 1830. In 1834, he left school to work as a paper hanger, going on to sell
wallpaper Wallpaper is used in interior decoration to cover the interior walls of domestic and public buildings. It is usually sold in rolls and is applied onto a wall using wallpaper paste. Wallpapers can come plain as "lining paper" to help cover uneve ...
on Boulevard des Capucines. He found the work boring and decided to join the
French Navy The French Navy (, , ), informally (, ), is the Navy, maritime arm of the French Armed Forces and one of the four military service branches of History of France, France. It is among the largest and most powerful List of navies, naval forces i ...
in 1841, but was quickly put off by military discipline and the
hierarchy A hierarchy (from Ancient Greek, Greek: , from , 'president of sacred rites') is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) that are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy ...
of life at sea. He returned to selling wallpaper in
Paris Paris () is the Capital city, capital and List of communes in France with over 20,000 inhabitants, largest city of France. With an estimated population of 2,048,472 residents in January 2025 in an area of more than , Paris is the List of ci ...
and by 1847 was self-employed as a house painter. At this time, he became involved with the radical workers' group that published the Christian socialist publication '. During this time, Déjacque taught himself how to write what he called " social poetry".


Revolutionary activities (1848–1851)

Together with Ernest Cœurderoy, Déjacque was an active participant in the
French Revolution of 1848 The French Revolution of 1848 (), also known as the February Revolution (), was a period of civil unrest in France, in February 1848, that led to the collapse of the July Monarchy and the foundation of the French Second Republic. It sparked t ...
, which deposed the
July Monarchy The July Monarchy (), officially the ''Kingdom of France'' (), was a liberalism, liberal constitutional monarchy in France under , starting on 9 August 1830, after the revolutionary victory of the July Revolution of 1830, and ending 26 Februar ...
and established the
French Second Republic The French Second Republic ( or ), officially the French Republic (), was the second republican government of France. It existed from 1848 until its dissolution in 1852. Following the final defeat of Napoleon, Napoleon Bonaparte at the Battle ...
. Following the revolution, Déjacque joined the socialist feminist circles of Jeanne Deroin and Pauline Roland, becoming a keen supporter of
women's rights Women's rights are the rights and Entitlement (fair division), entitlements claimed for women and girls worldwide. They formed the basis for the women's rights movement in the 19th century and the feminist movements during the 20th and 21st c ...
and beginning his career as a revolutionary journalist. Despite the regime change brought by the revolution,
unemployment Unemployment, according to the OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development), is the proportion of people above a specified age (usually 15) not being in paid employment or self-employment but currently available for work du ...
and
poverty Poverty is a state or condition in which an individual lacks the financial resources and essentials for a basic standard of living. Poverty can have diverse Biophysical environmen ...
was still rife, forcing the newly-established
provisional government A provisional government, also called an interim government, an emergency government, a transitional government or provisional leadership, is a temporary government formed to manage a period of transition, often following state collapse, revoluti ...
to make concessions to
Louis Blanc Louis Jean Joseph Charles Blanc ( ; ; 29 October 1811 – 6 December 1882) was a French Socialism, socialist politician, journalist and historian. He called for the creation of cooperatives in order to job guarantee, guarantee employment for t ...
's socialist faction. The provisional government established National Workshops to employ Parisian workers, with Déjacque himself enrolling in the programme on 10 May. But within the month, the subsequent government of the Executive Commission shut down the Workshops and arrested a number of socialist leaders, which brought thousands of workers out into the streets in what became the June Days uprising. Déjacque fought on the barricades against the government, but the uprising was violently suppressed by the
French Army The French Army, officially known as the Land Army (, , ), is the principal Army, land warfare force of France, and the largest component of the French Armed Forces; it is responsible to the Government of France, alongside the French Navy, Fren ...
and Déjacque was among the thousands that were arrested. Over 15,000 workers were deported, Déjacque himself was imprisoned at
Cherbourg Cherbourg is a former Communes of France, commune and Subprefectures in France, subprefecture located at the northern end of the Cotentin peninsula in the northwestern French departments of France, department of Manche. It was merged into the com ...
. When Louis Napoleon Bonaparte was elected as
President of France The president of France, officially the president of the French Republic (), is the executive head of state of France, and the commander-in-chief of the French Armed Forces. As the presidency is the supreme magistracy of the country, the po ...
in December 1848, his government suppressed
freedom of association Freedom of association encompasses both an individual's right to join or leave groups voluntarily, the right of the group to take collective action to pursue the interests of its members, and the right of an association to accept or decline membe ...
and banned the remaining socialist clubs. Déjacque was released from prison in March 1849, but he continued to find himself in trouble with the authorities. Following the
election An election is a formal group decision-making process whereby a population chooses an individual or multiple individuals to hold Public administration, public office. Elections have been the usual mechanism by which modern representative d ...
of a conservative government in June 1849, he and Cœurderoy joined The Mountain's against the administration. When this too was suppressed, Cœurderoy fled to
Switzerland Switzerland, officially the Swiss Confederation, is a landlocked country located in west-central Europe. It is bordered by Italy to the south, France to the west, Germany to the north, and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east. Switzerland ...
. Déjacque sought to justify the June events through his poetry, penning a collection of romantic poetry that depicted issues of
class conflict In political science, the term class conflict, class struggle, or class war refers to the economic antagonism and political tension that exist among social classes because of clashing interests, competition for limited resources, and inequali ...
, social injustice and the
authoritarianism Authoritarianism is a political system characterized by the rejection of political plurality, the use of strong central power to preserve the political ''status quo'', and reductions in democracy, separation of powers, civil liberties, and ...
of
religious Religion is a range of social- cultural systems, including designated behaviors and practices, morals, beliefs, worldviews, texts, sanctified places, prophecies, ethics, or organizations, that generally relate humanity to supernatural ...
and
political Politics () is the set of activities that are associated with decision-making, making decisions in social group, groups, or other forms of power (social and political), power relations among individuals, such as the distribution of Social sta ...
institution An institution is a humanly devised structure of rules and norms that shape and constrain social behavior. All definitions of institutions generally entail that there is a level of persistence and continuity. Laws, rules, social conventions and ...
s. This collection was published in August 1851 as ''Les Lazaréenes, Fables et Poesies Sociales'' (); by October 1851, Déjacque found himself charged with
incitement In criminal law, incitement is the encouragement of another person to commit a crime. Depending on the jurisdiction, some or all types of incitement may be illegal. Where illegal, it is known as an inchoate offense, where harm is intended but ma ...
over the anti-authoritarian themes he had expressed in the book, for which he was sentenced to two years in prison.


Exile and radicalisation (1851–1854)

During the "
reactionary In politics, a reactionary is a person who favors a return to a previous state of society which they believe possessed positive characteristics absent from contemporary.''The New Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thought'' Third Edition, (1999) p. 729. ...
period" of the
Second French Empire The Second French Empire, officially the French Empire, was the government of France from 1852 to 1870. It was established on 2 December 1852 by Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, president of France under the French Second Republic, who proclaimed hi ...
(1851–1871), the socialist press was suppressed, but French anarchist thought continued to develop abroad. Together with Anselme Bellegarrigue, and Ernest Cœurderoy, Déjacque became one of the period's most prominent French anarchist voices, helping to popularise the works of the anarchist thinker
Pierre-Joseph Proudhon Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (, ; ; 1809 – 19 January 1865) was a French anarchist, socialist, philosopher, and economist who founded mutualist philosophy and is considered by many to be the "father of anarchism". He was the first person to ca ...
. By the time of the
1851 French coup d'état The coup d'état of 2 December 1851 was a self-coup staged by Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte (later Napoleon III), at the time President of France under the Second Republic. Code-named Operation Rubicon and timed to coincide with the anniversary of ...
, Déjacque had fled into exile, making his way to
Brussels Brussels, officially the Brussels-Capital Region, (All text and all but one graphic show the English name as Brussels-Capital Region.) is a Communities, regions and language areas of Belgium#Regions, region of Belgium comprising #Municipalit ...
and then on to
London London is the Capital city, capital and List of urban areas in the United Kingdom, largest city of both England and the United Kingdom, with a population of in . London metropolitan area, Its wider metropolitan area is the largest in Wester ...
. Upon arrival in the British capital, he was reunited with fellow French anarchist Gustave Lefrançais, who informed him of the situation of their exiled compatriots. Déjacque complained to Lefrançais about the moral disengagement of the republican exiles led by Alexandre Auguste Ledru-Rollin and the
cult of personality A cult of personality, or a cult of the leader,Cas Mudde, Mudde, Cas and Kaltwasser, Cristóbal Rovira (2017) ''Populism: A Very Short Introduction''. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 63. is the result of an effort which is made to create ...
around factional leaders such as Louis Auguste Blanqui, finding himself disillusioned by the complete lack of rapport between the rival émigré factions. At the funeral of an exiled French worker, when republican leaders turned to leave prematurely, Déjacque forced himself to the front, demanding to speak and be heard. He fiercely criticised the "
bourgeois The bourgeoisie ( , ) are a class of business owners, merchants and wealthy people, in general, which emerged in the Late Middle Ages, originally as a "middle class" between the peasantry and Aristocracy (class), aristocracy. They are tradition ...
republicans" and declared himself an enemy of "all who, in London and Paris, dream of governing to better guarantee their social privileges against proletarian demands, one in the name of
Empire An empire is a political unit made up of several territories, military outpost (military), outposts, and peoples, "usually created by conquest, and divided between a hegemony, dominant center and subordinate peripheries". The center of the ...
, the other in the name of the
Republic A republic, based on the Latin phrase ''res publica'' ('public affair' or 'people's affair'), is a State (polity), state in which Power (social and political), political power rests with the public (people), typically through their Representat ...
." Some of the exiled French workers, including Déjacque and Lefrançais, found themselves living in poverty in
Soho SoHo, short for "South of Houston Street, Houston Street", is a neighborhood in Lower Manhattan, New York City. Since the 1970s, the neighborhood has been the location of many artists' lofts and art galleries, art installations such as The Wall ...
, subsisting only on meagre rations. They were sent relief funds by sympathetic workers in France, but the distribution of this money was controlled by the exiled political leaders, with their mutual aid societies sitting on much of the money that they collected. By 1853, Déjacque had moved to the Channel island of
Jersey Jersey ( ; ), officially the Bailiwick of Jersey, is an autonomous and self-governing island territory of the British Islands. Although as a British Crown Dependency it is not a sovereign state, it has its own distinguishing civil and gov ...
. There he started to vocally advocate for violence against the state and began penning an essay, "The Revolutionary Question", inspired by the example of Armand Barbès. He also attended the funeral of the French revolutionary poet Louise Julien, where he protested the appointment of
Victor Hugo Victor-Marie Hugo, vicomte Hugo (; 26 February 1802 – 22 May 1885) was a French Romanticism, Romantic author, poet, essayist, playwright, journalist, human rights activist and politician. His most famous works are the novels ''The Hunchbac ...
as the "sole speaker" at the burial. Such continued radical outbursts ended up isolating Déjacque from the rest of the French exiles, spurring him to move to the
United States The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...
the following year.


Émigré organising in New York (1854–1855)

Upon arrival in
New York City New York, often called New York City (NYC), is the most populous city in the United States, located at the southern tip of New York State on one of the world's largest natural harbors. The city comprises five boroughs, each coextensive w ...
, Déjacque returned to work painting houses and became involved with the French radical emigres in the city. Having earned fame for his romantic poetry, in June 1854, he was invited to speak at a republican society, where he presented his essay, "The Revolutionary Question", for the first time. In his speech, he called for a "war on civilization by criminal means", advocating for small revolutionary cells to carry out direct action against traditional institutions, such as the Church,
state State most commonly refers to: * State (polity), a centralized political organization that regulates law and society within a territory **Sovereign state, a sovereign polity in international law, commonly referred to as a country **Nation state, a ...
,
private property Private property is a legal designation for the ownership of property by non-governmental Capacity (law), legal entities. Private property is distinguishable from public property, which is owned by a state entity, and from Collective ownership ...
and even the
family Family (from ) is a Social group, group of people related either by consanguinity (by recognized birth) or Affinity (law), affinity (by marriage or other relationship). It forms the basis for social order. Ideally, families offer predictabili ...
. Although it was largely poorly received by its audience, he gained enough support to publish the essay the following month. Having recognised the international character of the
Revolutions of 1848 The revolutions of 1848, known in some countries as the springtime of the peoples or the springtime of nations, were a series of revolutions throughout Europe over the course of more than one year, from 1848 to 1849. It remains the most widespre ...
and that the counterrevolutionary repression had brought together revolutionaries of different nationalities, Déjacque began to advocate for workers to set aside bourgeois nationalism and instead practice
proletarian internationalism Proletarian internationalism, sometimes referred to as international socialism, is the perception of all proletarian revolutions as being part of a single global class struggle rather than separate localized events. It is based on the theory th ...
. In February 1855, Déjacque participated in the establishment of the International Association (IA), which was formed by a coalition of British Chartists,
German communists German(s) may refer to: * Germany, the country of the Germans and German things **Germania (Roman era) * Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language ** For citizenship in Germany, see also Ge ...
, American radicals and French socialists. Despite the international character of the organisation, Déjacque mostly kept to the French community; there is no evidence that he ever spoke English during his time in the United States. By 1858, the IA had dissolved due to internal differences over revolutionary nationalism.


Activism in New Orleans (1855–1858)

Not long after the founding of the International Association, Déjacque moved to
New Orleans New Orleans (commonly known as NOLA or The Big Easy among other nicknames) is a Consolidated city-county, consolidated city-parish located along the Mississippi River in the U.S. state of Louisiana. With a population of 383,997 at the 2020 ...
, a relatively cosmopolitan southern city where French radicalism had taken already root, although its followers chose to defer the pressing question of abolition. While his fellow émigrés respected these boundaries of American republicanism, Déjacque himself made no pretence towards respectability. In 1856, he gave a public address at a bar in Royal Street, calling on slaves to arm themselves and rise up against the United States. He praised the actions of the radical abolitionist John Brown and advocated for a united front between the white working class and black slaves, which he believed could together overthrow the United States in a social revolution and bring about a post-racial America. He was not able to find a publisher for his abolitionist remarks. He nevertheless continued to publish his radical writings, including a polemic against the Bonapartist Pierre-Jean de Béranger and an open letter on
gender equality Gender equality, also known as sexual equality, gender egalitarianism, or equality of the sexes, is the state of equal ease of access to resources and opportunities regardless of gender, including economic participation and decision-making, an ...
addressed to
Pierre-Joseph Proudhon Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (, ; ; 1809 – 19 January 1865) was a French anarchist, socialist, philosopher, and economist who founded mutualist philosophy and is considered by many to be the "father of anarchism". He was the first person to ca ...
, the latter of which he included in an expanded second edition of ''Les Lazaréenes''. In the open letter, he criticised Proudhon for his
antifeminism Antifeminism or anti-feminism is opposition to feminism. In the late 19th century and early 20th century, antifeminists opposed particular policy proposals for women's rights, such as the right to vote, educational opportunities, property righ ...
, which he saw as inconsistent with
anarchism Anarchism is a political philosophy and Political movement, movement that seeks to abolish all institutions that perpetuate authority, coercion, or Social hierarchy, hierarchy, primarily targeting the state (polity), state and capitalism. A ...
; Déjacque declared that he refused to "establish hierarchic distinctions between the sexes and races," saying that to him "humanity is humanity". He also became the first person to use the term "libertarian" () in a political sense, defining it synonymously with "anarchist". He also attempted to publish a work of utopian fiction, but was not able to secure enough subscriptions to cover the cost of printing. By February 1858, the failure of Déjacque's publishing efforts left him disillusioned with New Orleans and he returned to New York.


Publishing in New York (1858–1861)

Upon his return, Déjacque found himself living in poverty; in order to fund his publishing efforts, he returned to work painting houses and solicited donations from sympathisers. In June 1858, he established the newspaper '' Le Libertaire, journal d'un mouvement social''. Published on a shoestring budget and with Déjacque as its main contributor, the paper ran 27 issues between 1858 and 1861. With this, Déjacque became the first publisher of a non-English-language anarchist newspaper in the United States, although this limited its reach to French émigrés. During this period, he finally published his utopian novel, '' L'humanisphère'', which he serialised in ''Le Libertaire''. Set in the year 2858, ''L'humanisphère'' depicted the kind of society that Déjacque hoped would eventually arise after the abolition of
capitalism Capitalism is an economic system based on the private ownership of the means of production and their use for the purpose of obtaining profit. This socioeconomic system has developed historically through several stages and is defined by ...
. Inspired by the work of Charles Fourier, Déjacque formulated a radical form of
communism Communism () is a political sociology, sociopolitical, political philosophy, philosophical, and economic ideology, economic ideology within the history of socialism, socialist movement, whose goal is the creation of a communist society, a ...
distinct from the authoritarian models advocated by many of his peers. His society had no
government A government is the system or group of people governing an organized community, generally a State (polity), state. In the case of its broad associative definition, government normally consists of legislature, executive (government), execu ...
or
religion Religion is a range of social system, social-cultural systems, including designated religious behaviour, behaviors and practices, morals, beliefs, worldviews, religious text, texts, sanctified places, prophecies, ethics in religion, ethics, or ...
; instead, sovereign individuals governed themselves and participated directly in all
group decision-making Group decision-making (also known as collaborative decision-making or collective decision-making) is a situation faced when individuals collectively make a choice from the alternatives before them. The decision is then no longer attributable to ...
. In an attempt to go further than any previous works of utopian fiction, he depicted ''L'humanisphère'' as a world in which every individual was able to achieve their potential, as they lived in conditions of
post-scarcity Post-scarcity is a theoretical economic situation in which most goods can be produced in great abundance with minimal human labor, so that they become available to all very cheaply or even freely. Post-scarcity does not mean that scarcity ...
, without any form of poverty. In this future society, "
commerce Commerce is the organized Complex system, system of activities, functions, procedures and institutions that directly or indirectly contribute to the smooth, unhindered large-scale exchange (distribution through Financial transaction, transactiona ...
, hescourge of the 19th century," had been eliminated; nothing was being bought or sold. In order to achieve this, Déjacque proposed the abolition of all
private property Private property is a legal designation for the ownership of property by non-governmental Capacity (law), legal entities. Private property is distinguishable from public property, which is owned by a state entity, and from Collective ownership ...
, exchange values and states, and their replacement with anarchy. He considered a worker's right to be the satisfaction of their needs, rather than the product of their own labour, as he felt the latter would inevitably lead to
capital accumulation Capital accumulation is the dynamic that motivates the pursuit of profit, involving the investment of money or any financial asset with the goal of increasing the initial monetary value of said asset as a financial return whether in the form ...
. He thus advocated for "unlimited freedom of production and consumption", subordinated only to the
authority Authority is commonly understood as the legitimate power of a person or group of other people. In a civil state, ''authority'' may be practiced by legislative, executive, and judicial branches of government,''The New Fontana Dictionary of M ...
of the "statistics book". In order to guarantee the universal satisfaction of needs, Déjacque saw the need for the abolition of forced labour through
workers' self-management Workers' self-management, also referred to as labor management and organizational self-management, is a form of organizational management based on self-directed work processes on the part of an organization's workforce. Self-managed economy, ...
, which he figured would replace " arduous work" with "attractive work". Déjacque's imaginative writing in ''L'humanisphère'' has been described as a "series of anarchic dreams of marvelous textures and wondrous designs", going beyond
rationality Rationality is the quality of being guided by or based on reason. In this regard, a person acts rationally if they have a good reason for what they do, or a belief is rational if it is based on strong evidence. This quality can apply to an ab ...
and constructing an entirely alternate reality. It has been cited as a literary form of Neo-Impressionism, with art historian Robyn Roslack highlighting the following passage: "Just as orbs toms and moleculescirculate anarchically in universality, so men must circulate anarchically in humanity, under the sole impulse of sympathies and aversions, of reciprocal attractions and repulsions. Harmony can only exist through anarchy. There is the whole solution to the social problem." Although it anticipated the utopian society depicted by
H. G. Wells Herbert George Wells (21 September 1866 – 13 August 1946) was an English writer, prolific in many genres. He wrote more than fifty novels and dozens of short stories. His non-fiction output included works of social commentary, politics, hist ...
in '' Men Like Gods'', ''L'humanisphère'' is often overlooked in studies of utopian fiction, which neglect it in favour of focusing on more well-known examples, like
Plato Plato ( ; Greek language, Greek: , ; born  BC, died 348/347 BC) was an ancient Greek philosopher of the Classical Greece, Classical period who is considered a foundational thinker in Western philosophy and an innovator of the writte ...
's ''
Republic A republic, based on the Latin phrase ''res publica'' ('public affair' or 'people's affair'), is a State (polity), state in which Power (social and political), political power rests with the public (people), typically through their Representat ...
'',
Thomas More Sir Thomas More (7 February 1478 – 6 July 1535), venerated in the Catholic Church as Saint Thomas More, was an English lawyer, judge, social philosopher, author, statesman, theologian, and noted Renaissance humanist. He also served Henry VII ...
's ''
Utopia A utopia ( ) typically describes an imagined community or society that possesses highly desirable or near-perfect qualities for its members. It was coined by Sir Thomas More for his 1516 book ''Utopia (book), Utopia'', which describes a fictiona ...
'' and Étienne Cabet's '' The Voyage to Icaria''.


Final years (1861–1865)

With the outbreak of the Franco-Austrian War in 1859, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte moved to mend ties with the previously repressed French secularists and offered amnesty to all exiled radicals. Shortly before the outbreak of the
American Civil War The American Civil War (April 12, 1861May 26, 1865; also known by Names of the American Civil War, other names) was a civil war in the United States between the Union (American Civil War), Union ("the North") and the Confederate States of A ...
, in February 1861, ''Le Libertaire'' ran its final issue and Déjacque finally returned to Paris. Déjacque lived out his final years in obscurity, which has led to differing accounts over the cause and time of his death. According to Gustave Lefrançais, Déjacque died in 1864, reportedly having succumbed to
mental illness A mental disorder, also referred to as a mental illness, a mental health condition, or a psychiatric disability, is a behavioral or mental pattern that causes significant distress or impairment of personal functioning. A mental disorder is ...
. According to hospital records, he was admitted to Bicêtre Hospital on 22 April 1864 and died from
paralysis Paralysis (: paralyses; also known as plegia) is a loss of Motor skill, motor function in one or more Skeletal muscle, muscles. Paralysis can also be accompanied by a loss of feeling (sensory loss) in the affected area if there is sensory d ...
on 18 November 1865. Other sources allege that he committed
suicide Suicide is the act of intentionally causing one's own death. Risk factors for suicide include mental disorders, physical disorders, and substance abuse. Some suicides are impulsive acts driven by stress (such as from financial or ac ...
in 1867, or died much later of natural causes after experiencing a
religious conversion Religious conversion is the adoption of a set of beliefs identified with one particular religious denomination to the exclusion of others. Thus "religious conversion" would describe the abandoning of adherence to one denomination and affiliatin ...
.


Legacy


Anarchist communism

Around the time that Déjacque died, in 1864, the socialist movement experienced a revival with the foundation of the International Workingmen's Association (IWA), established by a coalition of British Chartists and French mutualists. As time went on, anarchists in the International increasingly gravitated away from Proudhon's mutualism and towards the anarchist communism favoured by Déjacque. Parts of his programme were implemented during the
Paris Commune The Paris Commune (, ) was a French revolutionary government that seized power in Paris on 18 March 1871 and controlled parts of the city until 28 May 1871. During the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71, the French National Guard (France), Nation ...
in 1871. Déjacque's advocacy of violence also anticipated later insurrectionary anarchists' conception of " propaganda of the deed", as well as the
nihilism Nihilism () encompasses various views that reject certain aspects of existence. There have been different nihilist positions, including the views that Existential nihilism, life is meaningless, that Moral nihilism, moral values are baseless, and ...
of Sergey Nechayev. Embarrassed by this violent temperament, when Jean Grave re-published ''L'humanisphère'' in 1899, he cut out parts that could have been read as
incitement In criminal law, incitement is the encouragement of another person to commit a crime. Depending on the jurisdiction, some or all types of incitement may be illegal. Where illegal, it is known as an inchoate offense, where harm is intended but ma ...
. Nevertheless, this reprint exposed Déjacque's conception of communism to a new generation. Déjacque's "iconoclastic" anarchist communism, with both its utopian and insurrectionary dimensions, was soon taken up by
Peter Kropotkin Pyotr Alexeyevich Kropotkin (9 December 1842 – 8 February 1921) was a Russian anarchist and geographer known as a proponent of anarchist communism. Born into an aristocratic land-owning family, Kropotkin attended the Page Corps and later s ...
and Luigi Galleani. By the turn of the 20th century, anarchist historians Max Nettlau and Gustav Landauer were beginning to characterise Déjacque as a "vital forerunner" of anarchist communism.


Libertarianism

Before Déjacque, "
libertarianism Libertarianism (from ; or from ) is a political philosophy that holds freedom, personal sovereignty, and liberty as primary values. Many libertarians believe that the concept of freedom is in accord with the Non-Aggression Principle, according t ...
" had referred to a metaphysical philosophy that upheld the notion of
free will Free will is generally understood as the capacity or ability of people to (a) choice, choose between different possible courses of Action (philosophy), action, (b) exercise control over their actions in a way that is necessary for moral respon ...
. Over time, Déjacque's
libertarianism Libertarianism (from ; or from ) is a political philosophy that holds freedom, personal sovereignty, and liberty as primary values. Many libertarians believe that the concept of freedom is in accord with the Non-Aggression Principle, according t ...
was developed into a
political philosophy Political philosophy studies the theoretical and conceptual foundations of politics. It examines the nature, scope, and Political legitimacy, legitimacy of political institutions, such as State (polity), states. This field investigates different ...
that upholds
liberty Liberty is the state of being free within society from oppressive restrictions imposed by authority on one's way of life, behavior, or political views. The concept of liberty can vary depending on perspective and context. In the Constitutional ...
. It was first adopted in the 1880s by American individualist anarchists such as Benjamin Tucker; and then in the 1890s by French anarchists such as Sébastien Faure, in order to distinguish anarchism from
authoritarian socialism Authoritarian socialism, or socialism from above, is an Economic system, economic and political system supporting some form of socialist economics while rejecting Pluralism (political philosophy), political pluralism. As a term, it represents a s ...
. During the 20th century, figures of the
New Left The New Left was a broad political movement that emerged from the counterculture of the 1960s and continued through the 1970s. It consisted of activists in the Western world who, in reaction to the era's liberal establishment, campaigned for freer ...
began to refer to themselves as " libertarian socialists"; with anarchists such as Daniel Guérin using the term to avoid the negative connotations of "anarchism", while Marxists such as E. P. Thompson used it to distance themselves from Marxism-Leninism. By this time, the term also gained popularity among proponents of laissez-faire and free market economics, such as Robert Nozick, David D. Friedman, David Friedman and Murray Rothbard. This re-definition of libertarianism is largely used in the English-speaking world; in the contemporary French language, this latter form is today referred to by the word "", while the term "" has retained its social anarchism, left-wing anarchist definition. Over one hundred years after his death, Déjacque's work has been slowly rediscovered, with the protests of 1968 and later dissolution of the Soviet Union spurring fresh interest in his vision of libertarian socialism. His works have recently developed an "underground reputation", due in part to the English language translations carried out by Shawn Wilbur.


Selected works

Essays * * * * * * Novels * Poetry *


References


Bibliography

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Further reading

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External links


Joseph Déjacque page
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