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Jehovah's Witnesses is a
Christian denomination A Christian denomination is a distinct Religion, religious body within Christianity that comprises all Church (congregation), church congregations of the same kind, identifiable by traits such as a name, particular history, organization, leadersh ...
that is an outgrowth of the Bible Student movement founded by Charles Taze Russell in the nineteenth century. The denomination is
nontrinitarian Nontrinitarianism is a form of Christianity that rejects the orthodox Christian theology of the Trinity—the belief that God is three distinct hypostases or persons who are coeternal, coequal, and indivisibly united in one being, or essence ( ...
,
millenarian Millenarianism or millenarism () is the belief by a religious organization, religious, social, or political party, political group or Social movement, movement in a coming fundamental Social transformation, transformation of society, after which ...
, and restorationist. Russell co-founded
Zion's Watch Tower Tract Society The Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania is a Non-stock corporation, non-stock, not-for-profit organization headquartered in Warwick, New York. It is the main legal entity used worldwide by Jehovah's Witnesses to direct, adminis ...
in 1881 to organize and print the movement's publications. A leadership dispute after Russell's death resulted in several groups breaking away, with Joseph Franklin Rutherford retaining control of the Watch Tower Society and its properties. Rutherford made significant organizational and doctrinal changes, including adoption of the name ''Jehovah's witnesses'' in 1931 to distinguish the group from other Bible Student groups and symbolize a break with the legacy of Russell's traditions. In , Jehovah's Witnesses reported a peak membership of approximately worldwide. Jehovah's Witnesses are known for their
evangelism Evangelism, or witnessing, is the act of sharing the Christian gospel, the message and teachings of Jesus Christ. It is typically done with the intention of converting others to Christianity. Evangelism can take several forms, such as persona ...
, distributing literature such as ''
The Watchtower ''The Watchtower Announcing Jehovah's Kingdom'', or simply known as The Watchtower, is an illustrated religious magazine, published by the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania. Jehovah's Witnesses distribute ''The Watchtower� ...
'' and ''
Awake! ''Awake!'' is an illustrated religious magazine published by the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania. It is considered to be a companion magazine of '' The Watchtower'', and is distributed by Jehovah's Witnesses. The Watch Towe ...
'', and for refusing military service and
blood transfusion Blood transfusion is the process of transferring blood products into a person's Circulatory system, circulation intravenously. Transfusions are used for various medical conditions to replace lost components of the blood. Early transfusions used ...
s. They consider the use of God's name vital for proper worship. They reject
Trinitarianism The Trinity (, from 'threefold') is the Christian doctrine concerning the nature of God, which defines one God existing in three, , consubstantial divine persons: God the Father, God the Son (Jesus Christ) and God the Holy Spirit, three ...
, inherent immortality of the
soul The soul is the purported Mind–body dualism, immaterial aspect or essence of a Outline of life forms, living being. It is typically believed to be Immortality, immortal and to exist apart from the material world. The three main theories that ...
, and hellfire, which they consider unscriptural doctrines. Jehovah's Witnesses believe that the destruction of the present world system at Armageddon is imminent, and the establishment of God's kingdom over earth is the only solution to all of humanity's problems. They do not observe
Christmas Christmas is an annual festival commemorating Nativity of Jesus, the birth of Jesus Christ, observed primarily on December 25 as a Religion, religious and Culture, cultural celebration among billions of people Observance of Christmas by coun ...
,
Easter Easter, also called Pascha ( Aramaic: פַּסְחָא , ''paskha''; Greek: πάσχα, ''páskha'') or Resurrection Sunday, is a Christian festival and cultural holiday commemorating the resurrection of Jesus from the dead, described in t ...
,
birthday A birthday is the anniversary of the birth of a person or figuratively of an institution. Birthdays of people are celebrated in numerous cultures, often with birthday gifts, birthday cards, a birthday party, or a rite of passage. Many religion ...
s, or other holidays and customs they consider to have
pagan Paganism (, later 'civilian') is a term first used in the fourth century by early Christians for people in the Roman Empire who practiced polytheism, or ethnic religions other than Christianity, Judaism, and Samaritanism. In the time of the ...
origins incompatible with Christianity. They prefer to use their own Bible translation, the ''
New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures The New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures (NWT, also simply NW) is a Bible translations, translation of the Bible published by the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania, Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society; it is used and di ...
''. Jehovah's Witnesses consider human society morally corrupt and under the influence of
Satan Satan, also known as the Devil, is a devilish entity in Abrahamic religions who seduces humans into sin (or falsehood). In Judaism, Satan is seen as an agent subservient to God, typically regarded as a metaphor for the '' yetzer hara'', or ' ...
, and most limit their social interaction with non-Witnesses. The denomination is directed by a group known as the Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses, which establishes all
doctrine Doctrine (from , meaning 'teaching, instruction') is a codification (law), codification of beliefs or a body of teacher, teachings or instructions, taught principles or positions, as the essence of teachings in a given branch of knowledge or in a ...
s. Congregational disciplinary actions include formal expulsion and
shunning Shunning can be the act of social rejection, or emotional distance. In a religious context, shunning is a formal decision by a denomination or a congregation to cease interaction with an individual or a group, and follows a particular set of rule ...
, for what they consider serious offenses. Members who formally leave are considered to be ''disassociated'' and are also shunned. Some members who leave voluntarily successfully "fade" without being shunned. Former members may experience significant mental distress as a result of being shunned, and some seek reinstatement to maintain contact with their friends and family. The group's position on conscientious objection to military service and refusal to salute state symbols (for example,
national anthem A national anthem is a patriotic musical composition symbolizing and evoking eulogies of the history and traditions of a country or nation. The majority of national anthems are marches or hymns in style. American, Central Asian, and European ...
s and
flag A flag is a piece of textile, fabric (most often rectangular) with distinctive colours and design. It is used as a symbol, a signalling device, or for decoration. The term ''flag'' is also used to refer to the graphic design employed, and fla ...
s) has brought it into conflict with several governments. Jehovah's Witnesses have been persecuted, with their activities banned or restricted in some countries. Persistent legal challenges by Jehovah's Witnesses have influenced legislation related to
civil rights Civil and political rights are a class of rights that protect individuals' political freedom, freedom from infringement by governments, social organizations, and private individuals. They ensure one's entitlement to participate in the civil and ...
in several countries. The organization has been criticized regarding biblical translation, doctrines, and alleged coercion of its members. The Watch Tower Society has made various unfulfilled predictions about major biblical events, such as Jesus'
Second Coming The Second Coming (sometimes called the Second Advent or the Parousia) is the Christianity, Christian and Islam, Islamic belief that Jesus, Jesus Christ will return to Earth after his Ascension of Jesus, ascension to Heaven (Christianity), Heav ...
, the advent of God's kingdom, and Armageddon. Their policies for handling cases of child sexual abuse have been the subject of various formal inquiries.


Demographics

Jehovah's Witnesses have an active presence in most countries. In , Jehovah's Witnesses reported approximately ''publishers''—the term they use for members actively involved in preaching—in about congregations. In the same year, they conducted Bible studies with individuals (including those conducted by Witness parents with their children). 4,091 members served as missionaries in 2021. In , Jehovah's Witnesses reported a worldwide annual increase of . people attended the annual memorial of Christ's death. According to the Watch Tower Society, more than 25,600 members have died of
COVID-19 Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a contagious disease caused by the coronavirus SARS-CoV-2. In January 2020, the disease spread worldwide, resulting in the COVID-19 pandemic. The symptoms of COVID‑19 can vary but often include fever ...
. The official published membership statistics, such as those above, include only those who submit reports for their personal ministry. As a result, only about half of those who self-identify as Jehovah's Witnesses in independent demographic studies are considered ''active'' by the faith itself. Research regarding the demographics of Jehovah's Witnesses is incredibly limited;
sample size Sample size determination or estimation is the act of choosing the number of observations or replicates to include in a statistical sample. The sample size is an important feature of any empirical study in which the goal is to make inferences abo ...
s tend to be small and focused to a specific region. Cross-cultural studies are "virtually non-existent". The 2008 US Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life survey found a low retention rate among members of the denomination: about 37% of people raised in the group continued to identify as Jehovah's Witnesses. The next lowest retention rates were for Buddhism at 50% and Catholicism at 68%. The study also found that 65% of adult American Jehovah's Witnesses are converts. In 2016, Jehovah's Witnesses had the lowest average household income among surveyed religious groups, with approximately half of Witness households in the United States earning less than $30,000 per year. As of 2016, Jehovah's Witnesses were considered to be the most racially diverse Christian denomination in the United States. A sociological comparative study by the
Pew Research Center The Pew Research Center (also simply known as Pew) is a nonpartisan American think tank based in Washington, D.C. It provides information on social issues, public opinion, and demographic trends shaping the United States and the world. It ...
found that American Jehovah's Witnesses ranked highest in getting no further than high school graduation, belief in God, importance of religion in one's life, frequency of religious attendance, frequency of prayers, frequency of Bible reading outside of religious services, belief that their prayers are answered, belief that their religion can only be interpreted one way, belief that theirs is the only one true faith leading to eternal life, opposition to abortion, and opposition to homosexuality. Jehovah's Witnesses also ranked lowest in interest in politics.


History

Scholarly analysis of Jehovah's Witnesses is limited in Western academia, with most works focusing on legal challenges faced by the group. The denomination does not cooperate with scholars beyond limited communication from anonymous individuals. Consequently, academics often rely on literature written by former members such as James Penton and Raymond Franz to understand its inner workings. The denomination has been variously described as a ''church'', ''
sect A sect is a subgroup of a religion, religious, politics, political, or philosophy, philosophical belief system, typically emerging as an offshoot of a larger organization. Originally, the term referred specifically to religious groups that had s ...
'', ''
new religious movement A new religious movement (NRM), also known as a new religion, is a religious or Spirituality, spiritual group that has modern origins and is peripheral to its society's dominant religious culture. NRMs can be novel in origin, or they can be part ...
'', or ''
cult Cults are social groups which have unusual, and often extreme, religious, spiritual, or philosophical beliefs and rituals. Extreme devotion to a particular person, object, or goal is another characteristic often ascribed to cults. The term ...
''. Usage of the various terms has been debated among sociologists. When the term ''sect'' is used by sociologists, it is within the framework of church-sect typology for their activities within a specific country. Sociologists from the 1940s to the 1960s frequently compared the group's structure with
totalitarianism Totalitarianism is a political system and a form of government that prohibits opposition from political parties, disregards and outlaws the political claims of individual and group opposition to the state, and completely controls the public s ...
. Throughout the 1970s and 80s, sociologists determined that ''cult'' was a reductionist label when applied to Jehovah's Witnesses, noting that new members did not undergo "sudden transformations" and made a rational choice to join the group. Academics generally stopped using the term ''cult'' in the 1980s due to its
pejorative A pejorative word, phrase, slur, or derogatory term is a word or grammatical form expressing a negative or disrespectful connotation, a low opinion, or a lack of respect toward someone or something. It is also used to express criticism, hosti ...
association and its usage by the Christian countercult movement, with ''new religious movement'' largely replacing it. George Chryssides and Zoe Knox avoid using the term ''new religious movement'' because it also has negative connotations. Chryssides refers to the denomination as an "old new religion".


Background

In 1870, Charles Taze Russell and others formed a group in
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Pittsburgh ( ) is a city in Allegheny County, Pennsylvania, United States, and its county seat. It is the List of municipalities in Pennsylvania#Municipalities, second-most populous city in Pennsylvania (after Philadelphia) and the List of Un ...
, to study the Bible. During his ministry, Russell disputed many of mainstream Christianity's tenets, including immortality of the soul, hellfire, predestination, Christ's return, the Trinity, and the burning up of the world. In 1876, he met Nelson H. Barbour. Later that year they jointly produced the book '' Three Worlds,'' which combined restitutionist views with end time prophecy. The book taught that God's dealings with humanity were divided dispensationally, with each period ending with a "harvest", and that Jesus inaugurated the "harvest of the Gospel age" by means of his invisible return in 1874. The book asserted that 1914 would mark the end of a 2,520-year period called "the Gentile Times", at which time world society would be replaced by the full establishment of God's kingdom on earth. Beginning in 1878, Russell and Barbour jointly edited a religious magazine, ''Herald of the Morning''. In June 1879, the two split over doctrinal differences, and in July, Russell began publishing the magazine '' Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence'', saying its purpose was to demonstrate that the world was in "the last days" and that a new age of earthly and human restitution under Jesus' reign was imminent. From 1879, ''Watch Tower'' supporters gathered as autonomous congregations to study the Bible topically. Thirty congregations were founded, and during 1879 and 1880, Russell visited each to provide the format he recommended for conducting meetings. In 1881, ''Zion's Watch Tower Tract Society'' was presided over by William Henry Conley, and in 1884, Russell incorporated the society as a nonprofit business to distribute tracts and Bibles. He also published a six book series entitled '' Studies in the Scriptures''. By about 1900, Russell had organized thousands of part- and full-time colporteurs, and was appointing foreign
missionaries A missionary is a member of a religious group who is sent into an area in order to promote its faith or provide services to people, such as education, literacy, social justice, health care, and economic development.Thomas Hale 'On Being a Miss ...
and establishing branch offices. By the 1910s, Russell's organization maintained nearly a hundred "pilgrims", or traveling preachers. Russell engaged in significant global publishing efforts during his ministry, and by 1912, he was the most distributed Christian author in the United States. He also directed '' The Photo-Drama of Creation''. Russell moved the Watch Tower Society's headquarters to
Brooklyn Brooklyn is a Boroughs of New York City, borough of New York City located at the westernmost end of Long Island in the New York (state), State of New York. Formerly an independent city, the borough is coextensive with Kings County, one of twelv ...
, New York, in 1909, combining printing and corporate offices with a house of worship; volunteers were housed in a nearby residence he named ''Bethel''. He identified the religious movement as "Bible Students", and more formally as the International Bible Students Association. By 1910, about 50,000 people worldwide were associated with the movement and congregations reelected him annually as their pastor. Russell died on October 31, 1916, at the age of 64 while returning from a ministerial speaking tour.


Joseph Rutherford

In January 1917, the Watch Tower Society's legal representative, Joseph Franklin Rutherford, was elected as its next president. His election was disputed, and members of the Board of Directors accused him of acting in an autocratic and secretive manner. The divisions between his supporters and opponents triggered a major turnover of members over the next decade. Because of disappointment over the changes and unfulfilled predictions, tens of thousands of defections occurred during the first half of Rutherford's tenure, leading to the formation of several Bible Student organizations independent of the Watch Tower Society, the largest of which was the Dawn Bible Students Association. There are varying estimates of how many Bible Students left during Rutherford's tenure, with Alan Rogerson believing the total number to be unclear. By mid-1919, an estimated one in seven of Russell-era Bible Students had ceased their association with the Society. By the 1920s, three-quarters were estimated to have left. Rutherford enacted several changes under his leadership, many of which are considered "distinctive" to modern Jehovah's Witness beliefs and practices. Some of these changes include advocating for door-to-door preaching, prohibiting celebrations believed to be pagan such as Christmas, the belief that Jesus died on a stake instead of a cross, and a more uniform
organization An organization or organisation (English in the Commonwealth of Nations, Commonwealth English; American and British English spelling differences#-ise, -ize (-isation, -ization), see spelling differences) is an legal entity, entity—such as ...
al hierarchy. In 1919, Rutherford instituted the appointment of a director in each congregation, and a year later all members were instructed to report their weekly preaching activity to the Brooklyn headquarters. In 1920, he announced that the Hebrew patriarchs (such as
Abraham Abraham (originally Abram) is the common Hebrews, Hebrew Patriarchs (Bible), patriarch of the Abrahamic religions, including Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. In Judaism, he is the founding father who began the Covenant (biblical), covenanta ...
and
Isaac Isaac ( ; ; ; ; ; ) is one of the three patriarchs (Bible), patriarchs of the Israelites and an important figure in the Abrahamic religions, including Judaism, Christianity, Islam, and the Baháʼí Faith. Isaac first appears in the Torah, in wh ...
) would be resurrected in 1925, marking the beginning of
Christ Jesus ( AD 30 or 33), also referred to as Jesus Christ, Jesus of Nazareth, and many other names and titles, was a 1st-century Jewish preacher and religious leader. He is the Jesus in Christianity, central figure of Christianity, the M ...
's thousand-year earthly kingdom. In July 1917, he released ''The Finished Mystery'' as a seventh volume to the ''Studies in the Scriptures'' series. Rutherford claimed it to be Russell's posthumous work, but it was actually written by Clayton Woodworth, George Fisher, and Gertrude Seibert. It strongly criticized Catholic and Protestant clergy and Christian involvement in the Great War. As a result, Watch Tower Society directors were jailed for
sedition Sedition is overt conduct, such as speech or organization, that tends toward rebellion against the established order. Sedition often includes subversion of a constitution and incitement of discontent toward, or insurrection against, establ ...
under the '' Espionage Act'' in 1918 and members were subjected to mob violence; the directors were released in March 1919 and charges against them were dropped in 1920. On July 26, 1931, at a convention in
Columbus, Ohio Columbus (, ) is the List of capitals in the United States, capital and List of cities in Ohio, most populous city of the U.S. state of Ohio. With a 2020 United States census, 2020 census population of 905,748, it is the List of United States ...
, Rutherford introduced the new name ''Jehovah's witnesses'', based on Isaiah 43:10: "Ye are my witnesses, saith the Lord, and my servant whom I have chosen: that ye may know and believe me, and understand that I am he: before me there was no God formed, neither shall there be after me" (King James Version). It was adopted by resolution. The name was chosen to distinguish his group of Bible Students from other independent groups that had severed ties with the Society, as well as to symbolize the instigation of new outlooks and the promotion of fresh evangelizing methods... In 1932, Rutherford eliminated the system of locally elected elders. In 1938, he introduced what he called a
theocratic Theocracy is a form of autocracy or oligarchy in which one or more deities are recognized as supreme ruling authorities, giving divine guidance to human intermediaries, with executive and legislative power, who manage the government's daily a ...
organizational system, under which appointments in congregations worldwide were made from the Brooklyn headquarters. Doctrine regarding life after death also evolved under his tenure. In addition to the preexisting belief that there would be 144,000 people to survive Armageddon and live in heaven to rule over earth with Jesus, a separate class of members, the "great multitude", was introduced. This group would live in a paradise restored on earth; from 1935, new converts to the movement were considered part of that class. By the mid-1930s, the timing of the beginning of Jesus' presence, his enthronement as king, and the start of the last days were each moved to 1914. As their interpretations of the Bible evolved, Witness publications decreed that saluting national flags is a form of idolatry, which led to a new outbreak of mob violence and government opposition in various countries.


Nathan Knorr

Nathan Knorr was appointed as third president of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society in 1942. Knorr organized large international assemblies, instituted new training programs for members, and expanded missionary activity and branch offices worldwide. He also increased the use of explicit instructions guiding Jehovah's Witnesses' lifestyle and conduct as well as a greater use of congregational judicial procedures to enforce a strict moral code. Watch Tower Society literature stopped crediting individual contributors during his tenure, as he believed that recognition should only be given to God. Knorr commissioned a new translation of the Bible, the ''
New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures The New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures (NWT, also simply NW) is a Bible translations, translation of the Bible published by the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania, Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society; it is used and di ...
'', the full version of which was released in 1961. Various Bible scholars, including Bruce M. Metzger and MacLean Gilmour, have said that while scholarship is evident in ''New World Translation'', its rendering of certain texts is inaccurate and biased in favor of Witness practices and doctrines. Critics of the group such as Edmund C. Gruss and Christian writers such as Ray C. Stedman, Walter Martin, Norman Klann, and Anthony Hoekema say the ''New World Translation'' is scholastically dishonest. Most criticism of the ''New World Translation'' relates to its rendering of the New Testament, particularly regarding the introduction of the name ''Jehovah'' and in passages related to the Trinity doctrine. The offices of elder and ministerial servant were restored to Witness congregations in 1972. In a major organizational overhaul in 1976, the power of the Watch Tower Society president was diminished, with authority for doctrinal and organizational decisions being passed to the
Governing Body A governing body is a group of people that has the authority to exercise governance over an organization or political entity. The most formal is a government, a body whose sole responsibility and authority is to make binding decisions in a taken ...
. Knorr introduced these changes as he believed that people making spiritual decisions should be "called by Christ" rather than elected. The presidency's role transitioned into heading the denomination's
legal entity In law, a legal person is any person or legal entity that can do the things a human person is usually able to do in law – such as enter into contracts, lawsuit, sue and be sued, ownership, own property, and so on. The reason for the term "''le ...
. The distinction between these roles grew further when all Governing Body members resigned as directors and the Christian Congregation of Jehovah's Witnesses, Inc. was formed in 2000. Since Knorr's death in 1977, the presidency has been held by Frederick Franz, Milton Henschel, Don Alden Adams and Robert Ciranko.


Further development

From 1966, Witness publications and convention talks built anticipation of the possibility that Jesus' thousand-year reign might begin in 1975 or shortly thereafter. The number of baptisms increased significantly, from about 59,000 in 1966 to more than 297,000 in 1974. By 1975, the number of active members exceeded two million. From 1971 to 1981, there was a net increase of 737,241 publishers worldwide, while baptisms totaled 1.71 million for the same period. Watch Tower Society literature did not say that 1975 would definitely mark the end, though it was strongly implied. Frederick Franz, then–president of the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society, stated at a 1975 convention that the
great tribulation In Christian eschatology, the Great Tribulation () is a period mentioned by Jesus in the Olivet Discourse as a sign that would occur in the time of the end. At , "the Great Tribulation" () is used to indicate the period spoken of by Jesus. us ...
could be expected to start by the end of that year. Many Jehovah's Witnesses acted upon this information by quitting their jobs and preaching more fervently. After that prediction failed, ordinary Jehovah's Witness members were blamed for believing in the date rather than the Governing Body acknowledging responsibility. Membership declined significantly for a few years after the failed prediction. Jehovah's Witnesses have not set any specific dates for the end since 1975. Their publications emphasize that "one cannot know the day or the hour", but they still believe Armageddon to be imminent. Verse 34 of Matthew 24, where Jesus tells his disciples that "this generation will by no means pass away until all these things happen", was interpreted to refer to the generation of people alive in 1914. The initial teaching was that Armageddon would begin before the last person alive during that timeframe had died. The time limit was removed in 1995. This doctrine changed further in 2008, where ''generation'' was interpreted to refer to both the original anointed class and their remnant, the latter of which would be alive when Armageddon began. In 2010, the meaning of ''generation'' was re-interpreted to include individuals whose lives overlapped with anointed individuals alive during 1914.


Organization

Jehovah's Witnesses are organized hierarchically, in what the leadership calls a theocratic organization, reflecting their belief that it is God's visible organization on earth. Jehovah's Witnesses establish branch offices to manage their activities in various countries or regions. Each branch office is also referred to as Bethel. Supporting staff live on these properties where they operate as a religious community and administrative unit. Their living expenses and those of other full-time volunteers are covered along with a basic monthly
stipend A stipend is a regular fixed sum of money paid for services or to defray expenses, such as for scholarship, internship, or apprenticeship. It is often distinct from an income or a salary because it does not necessarily represent payment for work pe ...
. These volunteers are called Bethelites and are assigned specific tasks such as printing literature or doing laundry. They are allowed to marry but must leave Bethel if they have children. Bethelites are expected to read the Bible cover-to-cover during their first year of service. Consultants are sometimes hired for specialized tasks such as legal advice. Regular Jehovah's Witness members are encouraged to visit Bethel as a recreational activity. Traveling overseers appoint local elders and ministerial servants, while branch offices may appoint regional committees for matters such as Kingdom Hall construction or disaster relief. Each congregation has a body of appointed unpaid male elders and ministerial servants. Elders maintain general responsibility for congregational governance, setting meeting times, selecting speakers and conducting meetings, directing the public preaching work, and creating judicial committees to investigate and decide disciplinary action for cases involving sexual misconduct or doctrinal breaches. New elders are appointed by a traveling overseer after recommendation by the existing body of elders. Ministerial servants—appointed in a similar manner as elders—fulfill clerical and attendant duties, but may also teach and conduct meetings. Jehovah's Witnesses do not use ''elder'' as a title to signify a formal clergy-laity division, though elders may employ ecclesiastical privilege regarding confession of sins. Much of the denomination's funding is donated, primarily by members. There is no tithing or collection. In 2001 ''
Newsday ''Newsday'' is a daily newspaper in the United States primarily serving Nassau and Suffolk counties on Long Island, although it is also sold throughout the New York metropolitan area. The slogan of the newspaper is "Newsday, Your Eye on LI" ...
'' listed the Watch Tower Society as one of New York's 40 richest corporations, with revenues exceeding $950 million. In 2016, it ranked eighteenth for donations received by registered charities in Canada at $80 million. From 1969 until 2015, the denomination's headquarters were housed in
Brooklyn Brooklyn is a Boroughs of New York City, borough of New York City located at the westernmost end of Long Island in the New York (state), State of New York. Formerly an independent city, the borough is coextensive with Kings County, one of twelv ...
, with plans to completely move its operations to
Warwick Warwick ( ) is a market town, civil parish and the county town of Warwickshire in the Warwick District in England, adjacent to the River Avon, Warwickshire, River Avon. It is south of Coventry, and south-east of Birmingham. It is adjoined wit ...
in 2017. The property was sold to Kushner Companies for $340 million in 2016.


Governing Body

The denomination is led by the Governing Body—an all-male group that varies in size. The Governing Body directs several committees that are responsible for administrative functions, including publishing, assembly programs and evangelizing activities.
Doctrine Doctrine (from , meaning 'teaching, instruction') is a codification (law), codification of beliefs or a body of teacher, teachings or instructions, taught principles or positions, as the essence of teachings in a given branch of knowledge or in a ...
s of Jehovah's Witnesses are established by the Governing Body, which assumes responsibility for
interpreting Interpreting is translation from a spoken or signed language into another language, usually in real time to facilitate live communication. It is distinguished from the translation of a written text, which can be more deliberative and make use o ...
and applying scripture. The Governing Body does not issue a single, comprehensive statement of faith, but expresses its doctrinal positions in a variety of ways through publications published by the Watch Tower Society. The publications teach that doctrinal changes and refinements result from a process of progressive
revelation Revelation, or divine revelation, is the disclosing of some form of Religious views on truth, truth or Knowledge#Religion, knowledge through communication with a deity (god) or other supernatural entity or entities in the view of religion and t ...
, in which God gradually reveals his will and purpose, and that such enlightenment or "new light" results from the application of reason and study. Sociologist Andrew Holden's ethnographic study of the group concluded that pronouncements of the Governing Body, through Watch Tower Society publications, carry almost as much weight as the Bible. The organization makes no provision for members to criticize or contribute to its teachings. Witness publications strongly discourage followers from questioning doctrine and counsel received from the Governing Body, reasoning that it is to be trusted as part of "God's organization". The denomination does not tolerate dissent over doctrines and practices; members who openly disagree with the group's teachings are expelled and shunned.


Gender roles

Jehovah's Witnesses have a complementarian view of women. Only men may hold positions of authority, such as ministerial servant or elder. Women may actively participate in the public preaching work, serve at Bethel, and profess to be members of the 144,000. They are not typically allowed to address the congregation directly. In rare circumstances, women can substitute in certain capacities if there are no eligible men. In these situations, women must wear a
head covering Headgear, headwear, or headdress is any element of clothing which is worn on one's Human head, head, including hats, helmets, turbans and many other types. Headgear is worn for many purposes, including protective clothing, protection against t ...
if they are performing a teaching role. Jehovah's Witnesses believe that
transgender A transgender (often shortened to trans) person has a gender identity different from that typically associated with the sex they were sex assignment, assigned at birth. The opposite of ''transgender'' is ''cisgender'', which describes perso ...
people should live as the gender they were assigned at birth and view
gender-affirming surgery Gender-affirming surgery (GAS) is a surgical procedure, or series of procedures, that alters a person's physical appearance and sexual characteristics to resemble those associated with their gender identity. The phrase is most often associated ...
as mutilation. Modesty in dress and grooming is frequently emphasized for both men and women.


Beliefs

Jehovah's Witnesses believe their denomination is a restoration of first-century Christianity. They believe that
mainstream Christianity Nicene Christianity includes those Christian denominations that adhere to the teaching of the Nicene Creed, which was formulated at the First Council of Nicaea in AD 325 and amended at the First Council of Constantinople in AD 381. It encompasses ...
departed from true worship over time, that groups such as Cathars attempted to restore some aspects of it, and that the
Protestant Reformation The Reformation, also known as the Protestant Reformation or the European Reformation, was a time of major theological movement in Western Christianity in 16th-century Europe that posed a religious and political challenge to the papacy and ...
"did not go far enough". Older books published by the Watch Tower Society such as those by Charles Russell and Joseph Rutherford are usually unfamiliar to a modern Jehovah's Witness, although some congregations have these publications in their libraries. Jehovah's Witnesses consider the Bible scientifically and historically accurate and reliable and interpret much of it literally, but accept parts of it as symbolic. Jehovah's Witnesses are old Earth creationists. The entire Protestant canon of scripture is considered the inspired, inerrant word of God. Regular personal Bible reading is frequently recommended. Members are discouraged from formulating doctrines and "private ideas" reached through Bible research independent of Watch Tower Society publications and are cautioned against reading other religious literature.James A. Beverley, ''Crisis of Allegiance'', Welch Publishing Company, Burlington, Ontario, 1986, , pages 25–26, 101. Adherents commonly call their body of beliefs "The Truth".


Jehovah

Jehovah's Witnesses emphasize the use of God's name, and they prefer the form ''
Jehovah Jehovah () is a Romanization, Latinization of the Hebrew language, Hebrew , one Tiberian vocalization, vocalization of the Tetragrammaton (YHWH), the proper name of the God in Judaism, God of Israel in the Hebrew BibleOld Testament. The Tetr ...
''—a vocalization of
God In monotheistic belief systems, God is usually viewed as the supreme being, creator, and principal object of faith. In polytheistic belief systems, a god is "a spirit or being believed to have created, or for controlling some part of the un ...
's name based on the
Tetragrammaton The TetragrammatonPronounced ; ; also known as the Tetragram. is the four-letter Hebrew-language theonym (transliteration, transliterated as YHWH or YHVH), the name of God in the Hebrew Bible. The four Hebrew letters, written and read from ...
. They believe that Jehovah is the only true god, the creator of all things, and the "Universal Sovereign". They believe that all worship should be directed toward him, and that he is not part of a
Trinity The Trinity (, from 'threefold') is the Christian doctrine concerning the nature of God, which defines one God existing in three, , consubstantial divine persons: God the Father, God the Son (Jesus Christ) and God the Holy Spirit, thr ...
; consequently, the group places more emphasis on God than on Christ. They believe that the
Holy Spirit The Holy Spirit, otherwise known as the Holy Ghost, is a concept within the Abrahamic religions. In Judaism, the Holy Spirit is understood as the divine quality or force of God manifesting in the world, particularly in acts of prophecy, creati ...
is God's applied power or "active force", rather than a person. Jehovah's Witnesses believe that they can have a personal relationship with God.


Jesus

Jehovah's Witnesses believe that
Jesus Jesus (AD 30 or 33), also referred to as Jesus Christ, Jesus of Nazareth, and many Names and titles of Jesus in the New Testament, other names and titles, was a 1st-century Jewish preacher and religious leader. He is the Jesus in Chris ...
is God's only direct creation, that everything else was created through him by means of God's power, and that the initial unassisted act of creation uniquely identifies Jesus as God's "only-begotten Son". As part of their nontrinitarian beliefs, they do not believe that Jesus is
God the Son God the Son (, ; ) is the second Person of the Trinity in Christian theology. According to Christian doctrine, God the Son, in the form of Jesus Christ, is the incarnation of the eternal, pre-existent divine ''Logos'' (Koine Greek for "word") ...
. They do believe that he was the first
angel An angel is a spiritual (without a physical body), heavenly, or supernatural being, usually humanoid with bird-like wings, often depicted as a messenger or intermediary between God (the transcendent) and humanity (the profane) in variou ...
, and is the only
archangel Archangels () are the second lowest rank of angel in the Catholic hierarchy of angels, based on and put forward by Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite in the 5th or 6th century in his book ''De Coelesti Hierarchia'' (''On the Celestial Hierarchy'') ...
. Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Mary conceived Jesus as a virgin but do not believe that she was born free from sin or that she remained a virgin after his birth. Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Jesus served as a redeemer and a ransom sacrifice to atone for
original sin Original sin () in Christian theology refers to the condition of sinfulness that all humans share, which is inherited from Adam and Eve due to the Fall of man, Fall, involving the loss of original righteousness and the distortion of the Image ...
. They believe that he died on a single upright post rather than a
cross A cross is a religious symbol consisting of two Intersection (set theory), intersecting Line (geometry), lines, usually perpendicular to each other. The lines usually run vertically and horizontally. A cross of oblique lines, in the shape of t ...
, which they regard as a pagan symbol. Accordingly, they do not use the word "crucifixion" when referring to Jesus' death. Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Jesus was resurrected with a "spirit body", and that he assumed human form only temporarily after his resurrection. Biblical references to the
Michael Michael may refer to: People * Michael (given name), a given name * he He ..., a given name * Michael (surname), including a list of people with the surname Michael Given name * Michael (bishop elect)">Michael (surname)">he He ..., a given nam ...
, Abaddon (Apollyon), and the Word are interpreted as names for Jesus in various roles. Jesus is considered the only intercessor and
high priest The term "high priest" usually refers either to an individual who holds the office of ruler-priest, or to one who is the head of a religious organisation. Ancient Egypt In ancient Egypt, a high priest was the chief priest of any of the many god ...
between God and humanity, appointed by God as the king and judge of his kingdom.


Life after death

Jehovah's Witnesses believe death is a state of nonexistence with no
consciousness Consciousness, at its simplest, is awareness of a state or object, either internal to oneself or in one's external environment. However, its nature has led to millennia of analyses, explanations, and debate among philosophers, scientists, an ...
. There is no
Hell In religion and folklore, hell is a location or state in the afterlife in which souls are subjected to punishment after death. Religions with a linear divine history sometimes depict hells as eternal destinations, such as Christianity and I ...
of fiery torment;
Hades Hades (; , , later ), in the ancient Greek religion and Greek mythology, mythology, is the god of the dead and the king of the Greek underworld, underworld, with which his name became synonymous. Hades was the eldest son of Cronus and Rhea ...
and
Sheol Sheol ( ; ''Šəʾōl'', Tiberian: ''Šŏʾōl'') in the Hebrew Bible is the underworld place of stillness and darkness which is death. Within the Hebrew Bible, there are few—often brief and nondescript—mentions of Sheol, seemingly descri ...
are understood to refer to the condition of death, termed the ''common grave''. They consider the
soul The soul is the purported Mind–body dualism, immaterial aspect or essence of a Outline of life forms, living being. It is typically believed to be Immortality, immortal and to exist apart from the material world. The three main theories that ...
a life or a living body that can die. They believe that humanity is in a sinful state, from which release is possible only by means of Jesus' shed blood as a ransom, or
atonement Atonement, atoning, or making amends is the concept of a person taking action to correct previous wrongdoing on their part, either through direct action to undo the consequences of that act, equivalent action to do good for others, or some othe ...
, for humankind's sins. Jehovah's Witnesses believe that a "little flock" of 144,000 selected humans go to heaven, but that God will resurrect the majority (the "other sheep") to a cleansed earth after Armageddon. They interpret
Revelation Revelation, or divine revelation, is the disclosing of some form of Religious views on truth, truth or Knowledge#Religion, knowledge through communication with a deity (god) or other supernatural entity or entities in the view of religion and t ...
14:1–5 to mean that the number of Christians going to heaven is limited to exactly 144,000, who will rule with Jesus as kings and priests over earth. They believe that baptism as a Jehovah's Witness is vital for salvation, and do not recognize baptism from other denominations as valid. Jehovah's Witnesses believe that some people who died before Armageddon will be resurrected, taught the proper way to worship God, and then face a final test at the end of the millennial reign. This judgment will be based on their actions after resurrection rather than past deeds. At the end of the thousand years, Jesus will hand all authority back to God. Then a final test will take place when Satan is released to mislead humankind. Those who fail will die, along with Satan and his demons. They also believe that those who rejected their beliefs while still alive will not be resurrected.


Eschatology

Jehovah's Witnesses believe that
Satan Satan, also known as the Devil, is a devilish entity in Abrahamic religions who seduces humans into sin (or falsehood). In Judaism, Satan is seen as an agent subservient to God, typically regarded as a metaphor for the '' yetzer hara'', or ' ...
was originally a perfect
angel An angel is a spiritual (without a physical body), heavenly, or supernatural being, usually humanoid with bird-like wings, often depicted as a messenger or intermediary between God (the transcendent) and humanity (the profane) in variou ...
who developed feelings of self-importance and craved worship. Satan influenced
Adam and Eve Adam and Eve, according to the creation myth of the Abrahamic religions, were the first man and woman. They are central to the belief that humanity is in essence a single family, with everyone descended from a single pair of original ancestors. ...
to disobey God, and humanity subsequently became participants in a challenge involving the competing claims of Jehovah and Satan to universal sovereignty. Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Jesus began to rule invisibly in heaven as king of God's kingdom in October 1914 and that Satan was subsequently ousted from heaven to the earth. They base this belief on a rendering of the Greek word '' parousia''—usually translated as "coming" when referring to Jesus—as "presence". Jehovah's Witnesses believe that they are the kingdom's representatives on earth. They also believe that they must remain separate from human governments, which they consider to be controlled by Satan. The kingdom is viewed as the means by which God will accomplish his original purpose for the earth, transforming it into a paradise without sickness or death. Jehovah's Witnesses do not currently suggest any specific date for the end of the world, but Watch Tower Society literature has previously made such statements about 1914, 1925 and 1975. These failed predictions were presented as "beyond doubt" and "approved by God". Some Watch Tower Society publications state that God has used Jehovah's Witnesses and the International Bible Students as a modern-day prophet.Raymond Franz cites numerous examples. In ''Crisis of Conscience'', 2002, pg. 173, he quotes from which states that God had raised Jehovah's Witnesses as a prophet "to warn (people) of dangers and declare things to come". He also cites which identifies the Witnesses as his "true messengers ... by making the messages he delivers through them come true", in contrast to "false messengers", whose predictions fail. In ''In Search of Christian Freedom,'' 2007, he quotes which describes Witnesses as the modern Ezekiel class, "a genuine prophet within our generation". The Watch Tower book noted: "Concerning the message faithfully delivered by the Ezekiel class, Jehovah positively states that it 'must come true' ... those who wait undecided until it does 'come true' will also have to know that a prophet himself had proved to be in the midst of them." He also cites which claims God gives the Witnesses "special knowledge that others do not have ... advance knowledge about this system's end". A central teaching of Jehovah's Witnesses is that the world faces imminent destruction through intervention by God and Jesus Christ. This belief has been present since the group's founding. They believe that Jesus' inauguration as king in 1914 is a sign that the
great tribulation In Christian eschatology, the Great Tribulation () is a period mentioned by Jesus in the Olivet Discourse as a sign that would occur in the time of the end. At , "the Great Tribulation" () is used to indicate the period spoken of by Jesus. us ...
is about to take place. Jehovah's Witnesses believe that all other present-day religions are false, identifying them with Babylon the Great, the "harlot" of Revelation 17. They believe that
Nebuchadnezzar II Nebuchadnezzar II, also Nebuchadrezzar II, meaning "Nabu, watch over my heir", was the second king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, ruling from the death of his father Nabopolassar in 605 BC to his own death in 562 BC. Often titled Nebuchadnezzar ...
had a dream where he saw a statue with a gold head, silver chest and arms, copper abdomen, iron legs, and feet that were a mixture of clay and iron. This dream is interpreted as a prophecy representing the rise and fall of empires: gold represents Babylon, silver represents Persia, copper represents Greece, iron represents Rome, and clay represents an Anglo-American empire. Jehovah's Witnesses believe that humanity is currently living in the last empire that will eventually be destroyed by the
United Nations The United Nations (UN) is the Earth, global intergovernmental organization established by the signing of the Charter of the United Nations, UN Charter on 26 June 1945 with the stated purpose of maintaining international peace and internationa ...
, which is also interpreted as the scarlet-colored wild beast. Satan will subsequently use world governments to attack Jehovah's Witnesses, which will prompt God to begin the war of Armageddon, during which all forms of human government will be destroyed and all people not counted as Jesus' sheep will be killed. After Armageddon, God will extend his heavenly kingdom to include earth, which will be transformed into a paradise like the
Garden of Eden In Abrahamic religions, the Garden of Eden (; ; ) or Garden of God ( and ), also called the Terrestrial Paradise, is the biblical paradise described in Genesis 2–3 and Ezekiel 28 and 31.. The location of Eden is described in the Book of Ge ...
. They thus depart from the mainstream Christian belief that the "
second coming The Second Coming (sometimes called the Second Advent or the Parousia) is the Christianity, Christian and Islam, Islamic belief that Jesus, Jesus Christ will return to Earth after his Ascension of Jesus, ascension to Heaven (Christianity), Heav ...
" of Matthew 24 refers to a single moment of arrival on earth to judge humans.


Family life

Jehovah's Witnesses believe that dating should only occur if the couple is seriously considering marriage. Dating outside the denomination is strongly discouraged and can lead to religious sanctions. Dating Jehovah's Witnesses are encouraged to have a chaperone when they are together to avoid acting on sexual desires. All sexual relations outside marriage are grounds for expulsion if the person is not deemed repentant;
homosexual Homosexuality is romantic attraction, sexual attraction, or sexual behavior between people of the same sex or gender. As a sexual orientation, homosexuality is "an enduring pattern of emotional, romantic, and/or sexual attractions" exc ...
activity is considered a serious sin, and
same-sex marriage Same-sex marriage, also known as gay marriage, is the marriage of two people of the same legal Legal sex and gender, sex. marriage between same-sex couples is legally performed and recognized in 38 countries, with a total population of 1.5 ...
is forbidden. Masturbation is also prohibited. Jehovah's Witnesses may get married at a Kingdom Hall in a simple ceremony and practices considered pagan such as wishing good luck or throwing rice are prohibited. An elder will give a talk to the congregation. Once married, a husband is considered to have spiritual headship over his wife, unless he is not one of Jehovah's Witnesses.
Contraception Birth control, also known as contraception, anticonception, and fertility control, is the use of methods or devices to prevent pregnancy. Birth control has been used since ancient times, but effective and safe methods of birth control only be ...
is allowed.
Divorce Divorce (also known as dissolution of marriage) is the process of terminating a marriage or marital union. Divorce usually entails the canceling or reorganising of the legal duties and responsibilities of marriage, thus dissolving the M ...
is forbidden if not sought on the grounds of
adultery Adultery is extramarital sex that is considered objectionable on social, religious, moral, or legal grounds. Although the sexual activities that constitute adultery vary, as well as the social, religious, and legal consequences, the concept ...
, which is called a "scriptural divorce". If a divorce is obtained for any other reason, remarriage is considered adulterous unless the former spouse has died or is considered to have committed sexual immorality. Spouses may separate in cases of
domestic violence Domestic violence is violence that occurs in a domestic setting, such as in a marriage Marriage, also called matrimony or wedlock, is a culturally and often legally recognised union between people called spouses. It establishes r ...
. Jehovah's Witness households are expected to have a family worship session each week.


Practices


Baptism

Baptism Baptism (from ) is a Christians, Christian sacrament of initiation almost invariably with the use of water. It may be performed by aspersion, sprinkling or affusion, pouring water on the head, or by immersion baptism, immersing in water eit ...
is considered a requirement for salvation. Baptisms performed by other denominations are not considered valid. Before being baptized, a member will become an unbaptized publisher. Jehovah's Witnesses do not practice
infant baptism Infant baptism, also known as christening or paedobaptism, is a Christian sacramental practice of Baptism, baptizing infants and young children. Such practice is done in the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox churches, va ...
but allow children to be baptized as long as they meet the same requirements as other candidates. To qualify for baptism, an individual must correctly answer more than a hundred questions about their own lifestyle and the denomination's beliefs. Individuals undergoing baptism are directed to affirm publicly that their dedication and baptism identifies each "as one of Jehovah's Witnesses in association with God's spirit-directed organization," though Witness publications say baptism symbolizes personal dedication to God and not "to a man, work or organization."


Worship

Meetings for worship and study are held at Kingdom Halls, which are typically functional in character, and do not contain religious symbols. Witnesses are assigned to a congregation in whose "territory" they usually reside and attend weekly services they call "meetings", scheduled by congregation elders. The meetings are largely devoted to study of Watch Tower Society literature and the Bible. Jehovah's Witnesses have "considerable worldwide uniformity", as all congregations study the same materials on a schedule. Outsiders are encouraged to attend. Historically, congregations met three times each week, but since 2009 meet for two sessions each week: one on a weekday and one on a weekend. Jehovah's Witnesses are expected to study the assigned material before attending. Children also attend meetings and do not have separate arrangements such as
Sunday School ] A Sunday school, sometimes known as a Sabbath school, is an educational institution, usually Christianity, Christian in character and intended for children or neophytes. Sunday school classes usually precede a Sunday church service and are u ...
. Gatherings are opened and closed with
hymns A hymn is a type of song, and partially synonymous with devotional song, specifically written for the purpose of adoration or prayer, and typically addressed to a deity or deities, or to a prominent figure or personification. The word ''hymn'' ...
called Kingdom songs and brief prayers. A Kingdom Hall may have multiple congregations that share the building. In 2014, decisions about which congregations would share a Kingdom Hall or whether additional Kingdom Halls should be built was transferred from individual congregations to the nearest branch office. After this change, many Kingdom Halls were sold. Twice each year, Jehovah's Witnesses from a number of congregations that form a "circuit" gather for a one-day assembly. Larger groups of congregations meet annually for a three-day "regional convention", usually at an Assembly Hall built for this purpose. Rented stadiums or auditoriums are sometimes used instead. New members are baptized at these conventions. Jehovah's Witnesses consider their most important annual event to be the
Memorial A memorial is an object or place which serves as a focus for the memory or the commemoration of something, usually an influential, deceased person or a historical, tragic event. Popular forms of memorials include landmark objects such as home ...
, which is observed on the fourteenth day of the Jewish month
Nisan Nisan (or Nissan; from ) in the Babylonian and Hebrew calendars is the month of the barley ripening and first month of spring. The name of the month is an Akkadian language borrowing, although it ultimately originates in Sumerian ''nisag' ...
during
Passover Passover, also called Pesach (; ), is a major Jewish holidays, Jewish holiday and one of the Three Pilgrimage Festivals. It celebrates the Exodus of the Israelites from slavery in Biblical Egypt, Egypt. According to the Book of Exodus, God in ...
, and members advertise the event to outsiders. Unleavened bread and red wine is passed between attendees, but only those who consider themselves to be anointed partake (often with no one in attendance partaking), and a talk is given about the event's significance.


Evangelism

Jehovah's Witnesses are known for their efforts to spread their beliefs, distributing Watch Tower Society literature. The objective is to start a regular "Bible study" with anyone who is not already a member, with the intention that the student be baptized as a member of the group; members are advised to consider discontinuing Bible study with students who show no interest in becoming members. While Jehovah's Witnesses are well known for visiting people's homes, they have a variety of preaching methods. Literature carts were introduced in 2012, where Jehovah's Witnesses stay in a public place and wait for other people to approach them. Methods usually undertaken by those physically unable to engage in the door-to-door ministry include calling people by phone and writing letters. Jehovah's Witnesses are sometimes confused with
Mormon missionaries Missionaries of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church)—often referred to as Mormon missionaries—are volunteer representatives of the church who engage variously in proselytizing, church service, humanitarian aid, and c ...
. Converts as a result of their door-to-door evangelism are rare and happen at a rate comparable with other denominations that practice similar preaching methods. Jehovah's Witnesses are taught that they are under a biblical command to engage in public preaching and often do so by working in pairs. They are instructed to devote as much time as possible to their ministry, and to submit a monthly "Field Service Report". Those who do not submit reports for six consecutive months are termed "inactive". Children also preach. Until 2023, every active Jehovah's Witness was expected to submit the amount of hours they spent preaching in their monthly field service report. In November 2023, this requirement was modified to only apply to members who have agreed to a specific hour requirement. As of 2025, auxiliary pioneers preach for 30 hours, regular pioneers preach for 50 hours per month; special pioneers preach for 100 hours each month, often in remote or under-represented areas, and receive a stipend to help pay for their living expenses. Other members are only required to indicate they engaged in some form of ministry during the month, along with any Bible studies they conducted. In , Jehovah's Witnesses conducted about Bible studies (including studies conducted with their own children), and approximately new members were baptized. The denomination produces a significant amount of literature as part of its evangelism activities. In 2010, ''
The Watchtower ''The Watchtower Announcing Jehovah's Kingdom'', or simply known as The Watchtower, is an illustrated religious magazine, published by the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania. Jehovah's Witnesses distribute ''The Watchtower� ...
'' and ''
Awake! ''Awake!'' is an illustrated religious magazine published by the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania. It is considered to be a companion magazine of '' The Watchtower'', and is distributed by Jehovah's Witnesses. The Watch Towe ...
'' were the world's most widely distributed magazines. Jehovah's Witnesses consider their literature to be "spiritual food" and provide it to interested parties for free. The group launched its first website in 1997: watchtower.org. In 2008, it was replaced with jw.org. Their website is often referenced in their evangelism, with its logo appearing in literature displays and outside Kingdom Halls. An increased reliance on electronic media has reduced their printing costs. The denomination archives most of its literature online, although certain entries have been changed after publication. It also offers a streaming service called JW Broadcasting. An animated series aimed at children has been produced called "Become Jehovah's Friend". An application, JW Language, has been designed to facilitate preaching with people who speak different languages. A specialized device for use in areas with limited internet access offers downloaded materials relevant to Jehovah's Witnesses.


Disciplinary action

Jehovah's Witnesses require individuals to be baptized by the denomination in order to be subject to their disciplinary procedures. The denomination does not tolerate dissent over doctrines and practices; members who openly disagree with the group's teachings are expelled, shunned, and condemned as apostates who are "mentally diseased". Some adherents "fade" and stop attending meetings without being formally subjected to the group's disciplinary procedures, although some former members have still experienced shunning through this method. Members accused of persistent wrongdoing are brought to the attention of the elders who will then evaluate possible consequences. Members that have violated the group's standards—for example, dating a non-member—but not otherwise committed a serious sin may be " marked". Congregation members who are aware of another member's errant behaviour are advised to limit social contact with the marked individual. Elders may decide to form a committee in cases involving serious sin, which may result in the member being reproved or shunned. This process requires three elders to meet with the accused. These cases usually involve sexual misconduct or apostasy. Other serious sins involve accepting blood transfusions (which does not require a judicial committee), smoking, using recreational drugs, divorce (unless a spouse committed adultery), celebration of holidays or birthdays, abortion (which is considered murder), and political activities such as voting in elections. Procedures related to congregational discipline are primarily described in the book, ''Shepherd the Flock of God'', provided only to elders. People who formally leave Jehovah's Witnesses are considered to be ''disassociated'' and are also shunned. Jehovah's Witnesses can also be disassociated for accepting a blood transfusion. The practice of shunning may serve to deter other members from dissident behavior. Shunning also helps maintain a "uniformity of belief". Shunned individuals may experience
suicide ideation Suicide is the act of intentionally causing one's own death. Risk factors for suicide include mental disorders, physical disorders, and substance abuse. Some suicides are impulsive acts driven by stress (such as from financial or ac ...
and often struggle with feelings of low self esteem, shame, and guilt. Former members may experience significant mental distress as a result of being shunned and some seek reinstatement to keep contact with their friends and family. Former members may also experience ambiguous loss or
panic attack Panic attacks are sudden periods of intense fear and Comfort, discomfort that may include palpitations, otherwise defined as a Tachycardia, rapid, Arrhythmia, irregular Heart rate, heartbeat, Hyperhidrosis, sweating, chest pain or discomfort, s ...
s. Expelled individuals may eventually be reinstated to the congregation if deemed repentant by congregation elders, and some seek reinstatement to maintain contact with their friends and family. Reinstatement can be a long process, which may be mentally and emotionally draining. Funerals for expelled members may not be performed at Kingdom Halls. Baptized children are also subject to the same moral standards and consequences for failing to comply. They are allowed to stay with their families until reaching the
age of majority The age of majority is the threshold of legal adulthood as recognized or declared in law. It is the moment when a person ceases to be considered a minor (law), minor, and assumes legal control over their person, actions, and decisions, thus te ...
. Jehovah's Witnesses lost state funding as a religious community in
Norway Norway, officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Nordic countries, Nordic country located on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. The remote Arctic island of Jan Mayen and the archipelago of Svalbard also form part of the Kingdom of ...
because of its shunning policy, with the country concluding that shunning, particularly of children, constitutes psychological violence. Subsequently, the group made some changes to its shunning policy in 2024; individuals may offer "simple greetings" to shunned members instead of completely avoiding them if the individual is not deemed to be an apostate. As of 2024, two elders may have a more informal meeting with a minor who is considered to have committed a "serious sin" along with his or her parents before deciding whether a formal committee meeting is required. Parents are also no longer prohibited from attending judicial committees with minors.


Separateness

Jehovah's Witnesses believe that the Bible condemns mixing religions, on the basis that there can only be one truth from God, and therefore reject interfaith and ecumenical movements. They believe that only Jehovah's Witnesses represent true Christianity and that other denominations do not meet God's requirements; all other Christian denominations (collectively referred to as "Christendom") along with all other religions are considered "false religion". Jehovah's Witnesses are taught that it is vital to remain "separate from the world." Their literature defines the "world" as "the mass of mankind apart from Jehovah's approved servants" and teach that it is morally contaminated and ruled by Satan. Jehovah's Witnesses are taught that association with "worldly" people presents a danger to their faith. Attending
university A university () is an educational institution, institution of tertiary education and research which awards academic degrees in several Discipline (academia), academic disciplines. ''University'' is derived from the Latin phrase , which roughly ...
is discouraged and trade schools are suggested as an alternative. Post-secondary education is considered "spiritually dangerous". Jehovah's Witnesses do not celebrate religious holidays such as Christmas and Easter, nor do they observe birthdays, national holidays, or other celebrations they consider to honor people other than Jesus. They believe that these and many other customs have pagan origins or reflect nationalistic spirit. Members are told that spontaneous giving at other times can help their children to not feel deprived of birthdays or other celebrations. Wedding anniversaries are allowed. Jehovah's Witnesses are not permitted to work in industries associated with the military and refuse national military service, which in some countries may result in their arrest and imprisonment. They also refuse to salute flags or participate in patriotic activities. Adherents see themselves as a worldwide brotherhood that transcends national boundaries and ethnic loyalties. Jehovah's Witnesses are often viewed as being without agency or brainwashed by the anti-cult movement. Andrew Holden believes that most members who join millenarian movements such as Jehovah's Witnesses have made an informed choice, but that defectors "are seldom allowed a dignified exit", and describes the administration as
autocratic Autocracy is a form of government in which absolute power is held by the head of state and Head of government, government, known as an autocrat. It includes some forms of monarchy and all forms of dictatorship, while it is contrasted with demo ...
. Rodney Stark believes that Jehovah's Witness leaders are "not always very democratic" and that members "are expected to conform to rather strict standards," but adds that "enforcement tends to be very informal, sustained by the close bonds of friendship within the group", and that members see themselves as "part of the power structure rather than subject to it." After the publication of '' The Elementary Forms of New Religious Life'', academics began to describe various new religious movements as either ''world-affirming'', ''world-accommodating'', or ''world-rejecting''. Jehovah's Witnesses were labelled as ''world-rejecting''. Bryan R. Wilson believed that Jehovah's Witnesses conflict with society at large, impose "tests of merit on would-be members", have strict disciplinary procedures, and expect absolute commitment. Sociologist Ronald Lawson has suggested that the group's intellectual and organizational isolation, coupled with the intense indoctrination of adherents, rigid internal discipline, and considerable persecution, has contributed to the consistency of its sense of urgency in its apocalyptic message. Alan Rogerson describes the group's leadership as
totalitarian Totalitarianism is a political system and a form of government that prohibits opposition from political parties, disregards and outlaws the political claims of individual and group opposition to the state, and completely controls the public sph ...
, while historian rejects this interpretation. James A. Beckford classified the group's organizational structure as ''totalizing'', with assertive leadership, specific and narrow objectives, control over competing demands on members' time and energy, and control over the quality of new members. Other characteristics of the classification include likelihood of friction with secular authorities, reluctance to cooperate with other religious organizations, a high rate of membership turnover, a low rate of doctrinal change, and strict uniformity of beliefs among members. Beckford also identified the group's chief characteristics as ''historicism'' (identifying historical events as relating to the outworking of God's purpose), ''absolutism'' (conviction that Jehovah's Witness leaders dispense absolute truth), ''activism'' (capacity to motivate members to perform missionary tasks), ''rationalism'' (conviction that Witness doctrines have a rational basis devoid of mystery), ''authoritarianism'' (rigid presentation of regulations without the opportunity for criticism) and ''world indifference'' (rejection of certain secular requirements and medical treatments). Former members Heather Botting and
Gary Botting Gary Norman Arthur Botting (born 19 July 1943) is a Canadian legal scholar and criminal defense lawyer (now retired) as well as a poet, playwright, novelist, and critic of literature and religion, in particular Jehovah's Witnesses. The author o ...
compare the cultural paradigms of the denomination to
George Orwell Eric Arthur Blair (25 June 1903 – 21 January 1950) was an English novelist, poet, essayist, journalist, and critic who wrote under the pen name of George Orwell. His work is characterised by lucid prose, social criticism, opposition to a ...
's ''
Nineteen Eighty-Four ''Nineteen Eighty-Four'' (also published as ''1984'') is a dystopian novel and cautionary tale by the English writer George Orwell. It was published on 8 June 1949 by Secker & Warburg as Orwell's ninth and final completed book. Thematically ...
''. Critics believe that by disparaging individual decision-making, the group's leaders cultivate a system of unquestioning obedience in which members abrogate all responsibility and rights over their personal lives. Critics also accuse the group's leaders of exercising "intellectual dominance" over adherents, controlling information, and creating "mental isolation", which former Governing Body member Raymond Franz argued were all elements of mind control. Some Jehovah's Witnesses describe themselves to academics as "Physically In, Mentally Out" (PIMO); these individuals privately question certain doctrine but remain inside the organization to maintain contact with their friends and family.


Rejection of blood transfusions

Jehovah's Witnesses typically refuse
blood transfusion Blood transfusion is the process of transferring blood products into a person's Circulatory system, circulation intravenously. Transfusions are used for various medical conditions to replace lost components of the blood. Early transfusions used ...
s, which they consider a violation of God's law based on their interpretation of Acts 15:28, 29 and other scriptures. This prohibition has existed since 1945. They also do not eat blood-based foods, such as blood sausage. Since 1961, acceptance of a blood transfusion without subsequent repentance has been grounds for expulsion from the group. Members are directed to refuse blood transfusions, even in "a life-or-death situation". Their literature implies that there is a blood alternative for every medical situation and "emphasizes the danger of blood transfusions". Jehovah's Witnesses do not accept the transfusion of "whole blood, packed red cells, platelets, white cells or plasma". Autologous blood donation, where one's blood is stored for later use, is also considered unacceptable. Members may accept some blood plasma fractions at their own discretion. Some Jehovah's Witnesses may accept prohibited blood products if medical confidentiality is upheld, although Jehovah's Witnesses who work in a hospital may break such confidentiality. Jehovah's Witness patients are generally open to non-blood alternative treatments, even if they are less effective. Courts have intervened in life-threatening situations involving children that require blood transfusions to allow the treatment to take place. Courts may allow mature minors to reject blood transfusions based on their beliefs. The May 22, 1994 issue of ''Awake!'' entitled ''Youths Who Put God First'' featured children who died from refusing blood transfusions. The Watch Tower Society provides pre-formatted durable power of attorney documents prohibiting major blood components, in which members can specify which allowable fractions and treatments they will accept. The denomination has established Hospital Liaison Committees as a cooperative arrangement between individual Jehovah's Witness members and medical professionals and hospitals to provide information about bloodless treatment options. Patients who accept certain blood products in the committee's presence are deemed to have disassociated and are shunned. The National Secular Society advocates against hospitals partnering with hospital liaison committees due to medical
coercion Coercion involves compelling a party to act in an involuntary manner through the use of threats, including threats to use force against that party. It involves a set of forceful actions which violate the free will of an individual in order to i ...
.


Handling of sexual abuse cases

Jehovah's Witnesses have been accused of having policies and culture that help to conceal cases of sexual abuse within the organization. When investigating cases of child abuse, elders are instructed to immediately call the organization's headquarters or branch office. The group states that this requirement is to ensure compliance with the law. An investigation by the
Canadian Broadcasting Corporation The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (), branded as CBC/Radio-Canada, is the Canadian Public broadcasting, public broadcaster for both radio and television. It is a Crown corporation that serves as the national public broadcaster, with its E ...
determined that elders were asked questions such as, "How many elders believe the victim is to blame or willingly participated in the act?" Jehovah's Witnesses have been criticized for the "two witness rule" for congregational discipline, based on an application of scriptures in Deuteronomy 19:15 and Matthew 18:15–17, which requires sexual abuse to be substantiated by secondary evidence if the accused person denies wrongdoing. In cases where corroboration is lacking, the Watch Tower Society's instruction is that "the elders will leave the matter in Jehovah's hands". A former member has said that the policy effectively requires that there be third-party witness to an act of molestation, "which is an impossibility". Jehovah's Witnesses maintain a database of confidential files in regards to child abuse, which are marked as "Do Not Destroy". An elder in New Zealand was tasked with destroying "personal notes" in their database when the organization was under investigation for child abuse. In the United States, the group was fined four thousand dollars daily (accruing a total of two million dollars) for delaying an order to provide its documentation. The group's failure to report abuse allegations to authorities has also been criticized. The Watch Tower Society's policy is that elders inform authorities when required by law to do so, but otherwise leave that up to the victim and their family. In jursidictions with priest–penitent privilege, confessions of abuse may be considered confidential. William Bowen, a former Jehovah's Witness elder who established the Silentlambs organization to assist sex abuse victims in the denomination, has claimed that Witness leaders discourage followers from reporting incidents of sexual misconduct to authorities. Other critics have alleged that the organization is reluctant to alert authorities to protect its "crime-free" reputation. However, in response to the charge that their policies "protect pedophiles rather than protect the children", the organization has maintained that the best way to protect children is to educate parents; they also say they do not sponsor activities that separate children from parents. In court cases in the United Kingdom and the United States, the Watch Tower Society has been found negligent in its protection of children from known sex offenders within the congregation. The Society has
settled A settler or a colonist is a person who establishes or joins a permanent presence that is separate to existing communities. The entity that a settler establishes is a settlement. A settler is called a pioneer if they are among the first settli ...
other child abuse lawsuits out of court, paying $780,000 in one case. In 2015, the Australian
Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse The Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse was a royal commission announced in November 2012 and established in 2013 by the Australian government pursuant to the Royal Commissions Act 1902 to inquire into and repo ...
found that "there was no evidence before the Royal Commission of the Jehovah's Witness organisation having or not having reported to police any of the 1,006 alleged perpetrators of child sexual abuse identified by the organisation since 1950." The Royal Commission also found that the Watch Tower Society legal department routinely provided incorrect information to elders based on an incorrect understanding of what constitutes a legal obligation to report crimes in Australia. In 2017, the
Charity Commission for England and Wales The Charity Commission for England and Wales is a non-ministerial government department, non-ministerial department of Government of the United Kingdom, His Majesty's Government that regulates Charitable organization, registered charities in En ...
began an inquiry into Jehovah's Witnesses' handling of allegations of child sexual abuse in the United Kingdom. In 2021, Jehovah's Witnesses in Australia agreed to join the nation's redress scheme for sexual assault survivors to maintain its charity status there.


Government interactions

Controversy about various beliefs, doctrines and practices of Jehovah's Witnesses has led to opposition from governments, communities, and other religious groups. Religious commentator Ken Jubber wrote, "Viewed globally, this persecution has been so persistent and of such intensity that it would not be inaccurate to regard Jehovah's Witnesses as the most persecuted group of Christians of the twentieth century." Several cases involving Jehovah's Witnesses have been heard by Supreme Courts worldwide. They generally relate to the right to practice their religion, displays of patriotism and military service, and blood transfusions. Cases in their favor have been heard in the United States, Canada and many European countries. Political and religious animosity toward Jehovah's Witnesses has at times led to mob action and
government A government is the system or group of people governing an organized community, generally a State (polity), state. In the case of its broad associative definition, government normally consists of legislature, executive (government), execu ...
oppression in various countries. Their political neutrality and refusal to serve in the military has led to imprisonment of members who refused conscription during
World War II World War II or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War II, Allies and the Axis powers. World War II by country, Nearly all of the wo ...
and other periods of compulsory
national service National service is a system of compulsory or voluntary government service, usually military service. Conscription is mandatory national service. The term ''national service'' comes from the United Kingdom's National Service (Armed Forces) Act ...
, especially in countries that do not provide religious exemptions. Their religious activities are banned or restricted in some countries, including
China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. With population of China, a population exceeding 1.4 billion, it is the list of countries by population (United Nations), second-most populous country after ...
,
Russia Russia, or the Russian Federation, is a country spanning Eastern Europe and North Asia. It is the list of countries and dependencies by area, largest country in the world, and extends across Time in Russia, eleven time zones, sharing Borders ...
,
Vietnam Vietnam, officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam (SRV), is a country at the eastern edge of mainland Southeast Asia, with an area of about and a population of over 100 million, making it the world's List of countries and depende ...
, and many Muslim-majority countries.


Australia

In 1931, the Australian government monitored radio broadcasts of Rutherford's sermons as they had received complaints about anti-Catholic rhetoric. The religious group became especially unpopular after 1940 due to their political neutrality in the second world war, prompting people to write to government officials about the names and addresses of known members. In 1941, Jehovah's Witnesses became an illegal organization. Various groups supported the ban, which caused political pressure to enforce it; Member of Parliament Maurice Blackburn opposed a ban, believing it to be caused by
religious intolerance Religious intolerance or religious bigotry is intolerance of another's religious beliefs, practices, faith or lack thereof. Statements which are contrary to one's religious beliefs do not constitute intolerance. Religious intolerance, rather, ...
. Once the ban was enacted, the assets of the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society were seized by the government. Witness homes were raided to confiscate their religious literature. Despite these measures, Jehovah's Witnesses continued their activities. The ban was overturned in 1943 when the High Court concluded that these restrictions violated the
constitution A constitution is the aggregate of fundamental principles or established precedents that constitute the legal basis of a polity, organization or other type of entity, and commonly determines how that entity is to be governed. When these pri ...
.


Canada

In the early 1900s, radio stations were operated by congregations in
Saskatoon Saskatoon () is the largest city in the Provinces and territories of Canada, Canadian province of Saskatchewan. It straddles a bend in the South Saskatchewan River in the central region of the province. It is located along the Trans-Canada Hig ...
,
Edmonton Edmonton is the capital city of the Provinces and territories of Canada, Canadian province of Alberta. It is situated on the North Saskatchewan River and is the centre of the Edmonton Metropolitan Region, which is surrounded by Central Alberta ...
,
Vancouver Vancouver is a major city in Western Canada, located in the Lower Mainland region of British Columbia. As the List of cities in British Columbia, most populous city in the province, the 2021 Canadian census recorded 662,248 people in the cit ...
, and
Toronto Toronto ( , locally pronounced or ) is the List of the largest municipalities in Canada by population, most populous city in Canada. It is the capital city of the Provinces and territories of Canada, Canadian province of Ontario. With a p ...
. In 1927, the federal government minister responsible for radio licensing, Arthur Cardin, revoked the licenses for these radio stations because they shared airspace with the Ku Klux Klan in Canada. According to
Gary Botting Gary Norman Arthur Botting (born 19 July 1943) is a Canadian legal scholar and criminal defense lawyer (now retired) as well as a poet, playwright, novelist, and critic of literature and religion, in particular Jehovah's Witnesses. The author o ...
, this "strange alliance" was formed due to a mutual opposition against the Roman Catholic church. In response, Rutherford bought airtime from other radio stations. When Hector Charlesworth banned this activity as well, he was "indirectly attacked" in an issue of the ''Golden Age'' and Jehovah's Witnesses launched a petition to regain their licenses that resulted in 406,270 signatures. Charlesworth's actions were debated by the House of Commons in 1933. While multiple members expressed concern that this prohibition was censorship of
free speech Freedom of speech is a principle that supports the freedom of an individual or a community to articulate their opinions and ideas without fear of retaliation, censorship, or legal sanction. The right to freedom of expression has been recognise ...
, the ban was not lifted. In 1940, a year after Canada entered World War II, the denomination itself was banned under the War Measures Act as a subversive organization. This ban continued until 1943. A separate ban on the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society was not lifted until 1945. More than 100,000 dollars in assets were seized by the Canadian government and
tonne The tonne ( or ; symbol: t) is a unit of mass equal to 1,000  kilograms. It is a non-SI unit accepted for use with SI. It is also referred to as a metric ton in the United States to distinguish it from the non-metric units of the s ...
s of literature produced by the group were confiscated. Hundreds of adherents were prosecuted as members of an illegal organization. Jehovah's Witnesses were interned in camps along with political dissidents and people of Chinese and Japanese descent. During this period, many Jehovah's Witness children were expelled from school, while others were placed in foster homes or juvenile detention. After the ban was lifted, men who had been jailed tried to apply for the ordained minister exemption of the '' National Selective Service Mobilization Regulations'' without success. This led to a legal case being filed, '' R. v. Stewart'', which ruled that Jehovah's Witnesses were participants in a "commercial undertaking" and did not qualify as ministers. A similar outcome was reached in '' Greenlees v. A.G. Canada'', where the judge decided that Jehovah's Witnesses could not be ministers because they considered every member to be one and that they did not have an organizational structure independent of the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society. Jehovah's Witnesses faced discrimination in
Quebec Quebec is Canada's List of Canadian provinces and territories by area, largest province by area. Located in Central Canada, the province shares borders with the provinces of Ontario to the west, Newfoundland and Labrador to the northeast, ...
until the
Quiet Revolution The Quiet Revolution () was a period of socio-political and socio-cultural transformation in French Canada, particularly in Quebec, following the 1960 Quebec general election. This period was marked by the secularization of the government, the ...
, including bans on distributing literature or holding meetings. '' Roncarelli v Duplessis'' was a 1959 legal case heard by the Supreme Court of Canada. The court held that in 1946 Maurice Duplessis,
Premier Premier is a title for the head of government in central governments, state governments and local governments of some countries. A second in command to a premier is designated as a deputy premier. A premier will normally be a head of govern ...
and
Attorney General In most common law jurisdictions, the attorney general (: attorneys general) or attorney-general (AG or Atty.-Gen) is the main legal advisor to the government. In some jurisdictions, attorneys general also have executive responsibility for law enf ...
of Quebec, had overstepped his authority by ordering the manager of the Liquor Commission to revoke the liquor licence of Frank Roncarelli, a Montreal restaurant owner and Jehovah's Witness who was an outspoken critic of the Roman Catholic Church in Quebec. Roncarelli provided bail for Jehovah's Witnesses arrested for distributing pamphlets attacking the Roman Catholic Church. The Supreme Court found Duplessis liable for $33,000 in damages plus Roncarelli's court costs. Another legal case heard that year was '' Lamb v Benoit'', where a Jehovah's Witness woman was arrested for distributing religious pamphlets.


China

Jehovah's Witnesses are banned in China. Missionaries like Amber Scorah were sent there to preach clandestinely.


Eritrea

Religious groups must be registered in order to legally worship in
Eritrea Eritrea, officially the State of Eritrea, is a country in the Horn of Africa region of East Africa, with its capital and largest city being Asmara. It is bordered by Ethiopia in the Eritrea–Ethiopia border, south, Sudan in the west, and Dj ...
. Jehovah's Witnesses, as well as other Christian and Muslim groups, have been refused this legal recognition. Jehovah's Witnesses have been imprisoned for their refusal to perform military service and for attending religious services.


France

Jehovah's Witnesses were officially registered as a religious group in France in 1947. In 1995, they were designated as a "dangerous sect" by French law. In 1999, the country demanded back taxes on donations to the religious group's organization from 1993 and 1996, which would have been €57.5 million. This tax ruling was overturned by the
European Court of Human Rights The European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR), also known as the Strasbourg Court, is an international court of the Council of Europe which interprets the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR). The court hears applications alleging that a co ...
on June 30, 2011.


Germany

In 1933, there were approximately 20,000 Jehovah's Witnesses in
Nazi Germany Nazi Germany, officially known as the German Reich and later the Greater German Reich, was the German Reich, German state between 1933 and 1945, when Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party controlled the country, transforming it into a Totalit ...
, of whom about 10,000 were imprisoned. Jehovah's Witnesses suffered
religious persecution Religious persecution is the systematic oppression of an individual or a group of individuals as a response to their religion, religious beliefs or affiliations or their irreligion, lack thereof. The tendency of societies or groups within socie ...
by the
Nazis Nazism (), formally named National Socialism (NS; , ), is the far-right politics, far-right Totalitarianism, totalitarian socio-political ideology and practices associated with Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party (NSDAP) in Germany. During H ...
because they refused military service and allegiance to Hitler's National Socialist Party. Of those, 2,000 were sent to
Nazi concentration camps From 1933 to 1945, Nazi Germany operated more than a thousand concentration camps (), including subcamp (SS), subcamps on its own territory and in parts of German-occupied Europe. The first camps were established in March 1933 immediately af ...
, where they were identified by purple triangles; as many as 1,200 died, including 250 who were executed. They were hanged, beheaded, beaten to death, or shot dead. Conditions for Jehovah's Witnesses improved in 1942, when they were increasingly given work details that required little supervision, such as farming, gardening, transportation and unloading goods, while others worked in civilian clothing in a health resort, as housekeepers for Nazi officials, or were given construction and craft tasks at military buildings. Unlike
Jews Jews (, , ), or the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group and nation, originating from the Israelites of History of ancient Israel and Judah, ancient Israel and Judah. They also traditionally adhere to Judaism. Jewish ethnicity, rel ...
and Romani, who were persecuted on the basis of their ethnicity, Jehovah's Witnesses could escape persecution and personal harm by signing a document indicating renunciation of their faith, submission to state authority, and support of the German military. Historian Sybil Milton writes, "their courage and defiance in the face of torture and death punctures the myth of a monolithic Nazi state ruling over docile and submissive subjects." Jehovah's Witnesses would preach inside the concentration camps, hold meetings, and smuggle in their religious literature. Approximately 800 children of Jehovah's Witnesses were taken away from their families. Witness children typically expressed defiance to the Nazi regime's attempts to make them act against their beliefs. They were often expelled from public schools due to their refusal to say " Heil Hitler". Some children were sent to reeducation centers, while others were adopted by families in good standing with the Nazi regime. In
East Germany East Germany, officially known as the German Democratic Republic (GDR), was a country in Central Europe from Foundation of East Germany, its formation on 7 October 1949 until German reunification, its reunification with West Germany (FRG) on ...
, from the 1950s to the 1980s, Jehovah's Witnesses were persecuted extensively by the
Stasi The Ministry for State Security (, ; abbreviated MfS), commonly known as the (, an abbreviation of ), was the Intelligence agency, state security service and secret police of East Germany from 1950 to 1990. It was one of the most repressive pol ...
, which frequently used decomposition methods against them. Jehovah's Witnesses were considered a threat because their beliefs did not conform to
socialist Socialism is an economic ideology, economic and political philosophy encompassing diverse Economic system, economic and social systems characterised by social ownership of the means of production, as opposed to private ownership. It describes ...
standards and their members sometimes had contact with the West. In 2023, there was a
mass shooting A mass shooting is a violent crime in which one or more attackers use a firearm to Gun violence, kill or injure multiple individuals in rapid succession. There is no widely accepted specific definition, and different organizations tracking su ...
in
Hamburg Hamburg (, ; ), officially the Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg,. is the List of cities in Germany by population, second-largest city in Germany after Berlin and List of cities in the European Union by population within city limits, 7th-lar ...
that targeted Jehovah's Witnesses, killing six people. Police were warned about the shooter ahead of time, but failed to take action.


Greece

Greece had a ban on public evangelism in the 1930s. Approximately 60 Jehovah's Witnesses were imprisoned for violating this law. The case was eventually appealed to the European Court of Human Rights, who ruled in favour of Jehovah's Witnesses in 1993. This decision also benefited other religious groups in the country.


Japan

In Japan, following the publication of '' Shūkyō nisei''-related guidelines, a survey was conducted about child abuse within Jehovah's Witnesses, the results of which were forwarded to the government. Ninety-two percent of 583 respondents reported that they had experienced
physical abuse Physical abuse is any intentional act causing injury or trauma to another person or animal by way of bodily contact. In most cases, children are the victims of physical abuse, but adults can also be victims, as in cases of domestic violence or ...
as children. The lawyer's group conducting the survey believed this to be evidence of systemic religious abuse.


Norway

Norway Norway, officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Nordic countries, Nordic country located on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. The remote Arctic island of Jan Mayen and the archipelago of Svalbard also form part of the Kingdom of ...
provides state subsidies to religious communities, with some restrictions. Although Jehovah's Witnesses qualified for more than thirty years, they did not receive this funding in
Oslo Oslo ( or ; ) is the capital and most populous city of Norway. It constitutes both a county and a municipality. The municipality of Oslo had a population of in 2022, while the city's greater urban area had a population of 1,064,235 in 2022 ...
and Viken in 2022. The decision was appealed and upheld by the Ministry of Children and Families. In 2023, Jehovah's Witnesses were fully deregistered as a religious community in Norway as a result of their shunning practice. The Supreme Court ruled that religious communities can determine who can be members but that restrictions on additional funding are acceptable. Therefore, the organization no longer receives 1.3 million euros each year in state subsidies. The denomination's deregistration also means that they lost the right to perform civil marriages. The director of Human Rights Without Frontiers believes that by deregistering Jehovah's Witnesses, Norway is interfering with the group's religious freedom.


Russia

In April 1951, about 9,300 Jehovah's Witnesses in the
Soviet Union The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR), commonly known as the Soviet Union, was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 until Dissolution of the Soviet ...
were deported to
Siberia Siberia ( ; , ) is an extensive geographical region comprising all of North Asia, from the Ural Mountains in the west to the Pacific Ocean in the east. It has formed a part of the sovereign territory of Russia and its predecessor states ...
as part of Operation North. In April 2017, the Supreme Court of Russia labeled Jehovah's Witnesses an extremist organization, banned its activities in
Russia Russia, or the Russian Federation, is a country spanning Eastern Europe and North Asia. It is the list of countries and dependencies by area, largest country in the world, and extends across Time in Russia, eleven time zones, sharing Borders ...
, and issued an order to confiscate its assets.


Singapore

In 1941, all publications by the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania were banned, as a result of Jehovah's Witnesses' persistent refusal to enlist in the Allied Forces in World War II. In 1960, Jehovah's Witnesses were officially registered as a society under the Societies Ordinance Act of 1890. In 1972, Jehovah's Witnesses were deregistered for being "prejudicial to public welfare and order", with their refusal to take part in mandatory military service being cited as an aggravating factor. Since their deregistration, all Witnesses who refuse to serve in the military—around six men annually—have faced imprisonment under the Enlistment Act 1970, but none of these men have incurred permanent criminal records .


South Korea

South Korea did not have a religious exemption for military service until 2018, which led to more than 19,000 Jehovah's Witnesses being imprisoned there.


United States

In the United States, legal challenges by Jehovah's Witnesses prompted a series of state and federal court rulings that reinforced judicial protections for civil liberties. Among the rights strengthened by Witness court victories in the US are the protection of religious conduct from federal and state interference, the right to abstain from patriotic rituals and military service, the right of patients to refuse medical treatment, and the right to engage in public discourse. Authors including William Whalen, Shawn Francis Peters and former members Barbara Grizzuti Harrison, Alan Rogerson, and William Schnell have claimed the arrests and mob violence in the 1930s and 1940s were the consequence of what appeared to be a deliberate course of provocation of authorities and other religious groups by Jehovah's Witnesses. Harrison, Schnell, and Whalen have suggested Rutherford invited and cultivated opposition for publicity purposes in a bid to attract dispossessed members of society, and to convince members that persecution by the outside world was evidence of the truth of their struggle to serve God. In 1943, the Supreme Court ruled in '' West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette'' that requiring students to salute the flag was a violation of their First Amendment rights.


See also

* Bibliography of works on Jehovah's Witnesses * Criticism of Jehovah's Witnesses * List of Supreme Court cases involving Jehovah's Witnesses


Explanatory notes


References


Sources

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *


External links

*
BBC Religions: Jehovah's Witnesses

Jehovah's Witnesses new method
- ''BBC News Magazine'' article {{Authority control Apocalyptic groups Bible Student movement Christian groups with annihilationist beliefs Christian organizations established in 1931 Nontrinitarian denominations Premillennialism Christian denominations founded in the United States Religious identity Restorationism (Christianity) Organizations designated as extremist by Russia New religious movements established in the 1930s