The Isaaq Sultanate (,
Wadaad: , ) was a
Muslim
Muslims () are people who adhere to Islam, a Monotheism, monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God ...
sultanate that ruled parts of the
Horn of Africa
The Horn of Africa (HoA), also known as the Somali Peninsula, is a large peninsula and geopolitical region in East Africa.Robert Stock, ''Africa South of the Sahara, Second Edition: A Geographical Interpretation'', (The Guilford Press; 2004), ...
in the 18th and 19th centuries.
The kingdom spanned the territories of the
Isaaq
The Isaaq (, , ''Banu Ishaq'') is a major Somali clans, Somali clan. It is one of the largest Somali clan families in the Horn of Africa, with a large and densely populated traditional territory.
The Isaaq people claim in a traditional legend ...
clan in modern-day
Somaliland
Somaliland, officially the Republic of Somaliland, is an List of states with limited recognition, unrecognised country in the Horn of Africa. It is located in the southern coast of the Gulf of Aden and bordered by Djibouti to the northwest, E ...
and
Ethiopia
Ethiopia, officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, is a landlocked country located in the Horn of Africa region of East Africa. It shares borders with Eritrea to the north, Djibouti to the northeast, Somalia to the east, Ken ...
. It was governed by the
Rer Guled Eidagale branch of the
Garhajis
The Habr Garhajis also contemporarily known as the Garhajis (, , Full Nasab: ''Ismā'īl al Qadhi ibn ash-Shaykh Isḥāq ibn Aḥmad'') is a major Northern Somali clan of the wider Isaaq clan family. They are the traditional holders of the ...
clan
and is the pre-colonial predecessor to the Republic of Somaliland.
History
Origins
Somali genealogical tradition places the origin of the Isaaq tribe in the 12th or 13th century with the arrival of Sheikh
Ishaaq Bin Ahmed
Ishaaq bin Ahmad bin Muhammad , more commonly known as Sheikh Ishaaq or Sheikh Isaaq (, ) is a prominent figure in the oral traditions of the Somali Isaaq clan-family. According to these traditions, which were also preserved in several Arabic Ha ...
(Sheikh Ishaaq) was one of the scholars who crossed the sea from Arabia to the Horn of Africa.
[Rima Berns McGown, ''Muslims in the diaspora'', (University of Toronto Press: 1999), pp. 27–28][I.M. Lewis, ''A Modern History of the Somali'', fourth edition (Oxford: James Currey, 2002), p. 22] Sheikh Ishaaq settled in the coastal town of
Maydh
Maydh (also transliterated as Maedh, Mette, Mait or Meit) (, ) is an ancient port city in the eastern Sanaag region of Somaliland.
History
Antiquity
According to Augustus Henry Keane, Maydh represents an early center of dispersal of the Somali ...
in modern-day northeastern
Somaliland
Somaliland, officially the Republic of Somaliland, is an List of states with limited recognition, unrecognised country in the Horn of Africa. It is located in the southern coast of the Gulf of Aden and bordered by Djibouti to the northwest, E ...
. Hence, Sheikh Ishaaq married two local women in Somaliland that left him eight sons.
[I.M. Lewis, ''A Modern History of the Somali'', fourth edition (Oxford: James Currey, 2002), pp. 31 & 42]
By the 1300s the Isaaq clans united to defend their inhabited territories and resources during clan conflicts against migrating clans, and by the 1600s, after the fall of the
Adal Sultanate
The Adal Sultanate, also known as the Adal Empire or Barr Saʿad dīn (alt. spelling ''Adel Sultanate'', ''Adal Sultanate'') (), was a medieval Sunni Muslim empire which was located in the Horn of Africa. It was founded by Sabr ad-Din III on th ...
, the Somali lands split into numerous clan states, among them the Isaaq.
The earliest documented traditional leader of the Isaaq clan mentioned in Somali historical literature appears in ''Futuh Al-Habasha'' (The Conquest of Abyssinia) by the historian Shihab al-Din Ahmad al-Jizani.
The book records two Garaads from the Habar Magaadle sub-clan who played significant roles during the wars of Imam
Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi
Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi (, Harari: አሕመድ ኢብራሂም አል-ጋዚ, ; 21 July 1506 – 10 February 1543) was the Imam of the Adal Sultanate from 1527 to 1543. Commonly named Ahmed ''Gragn'' in Amharic and ''Gurey'' in Somali, ...
(Ahmed Gurey), Ahmad Gerri Xuseen and Garaad Daawad (or Dawit). The first Garaad participated in the early stages of the jihad, while the second Garaad was involved in the later battles.
I. M. Lewis states:
The Marrehan and the Habr Magadle agādialso play a very prominent role (...) The text refers to two Ahmads's with the nickname 'Left-handed'. One is regularly presented as 'Ahmad Guray, the Somali' (...) identified as Ahmad Guray Xuseyn, chief of the Habr Magadle.
According to oral tradition, prior to the
Guled Dynasty
House of Guled (, Wadaad's writing: ) was the ruling house of the Isaaq Sultanate from 1750 to 1884 and is also a subclan in its own right. The family are descendants of the Eidagale sub division of the wider Garhajis and in extension Isaaq cla ...
the
Isaaq
The Isaaq (, , ''Banu Ishaq'') is a major Somali clans, Somali clan. It is one of the largest Somali clan families in the Horn of Africa, with a large and densely populated traditional territory.
The Isaaq people claim in a traditional legend ...
clan-family were ruled by a dynasty of the Tolje'lo branch starting from, descendants of Ahmed nicknamed Tol Je'lo, the eldest son of
Sheikh Ishaaq. There were eight Tolje'lo rulers in total who ruled for centuries starting from the 13th century. The last Tolje'lo ruler
Boqor
This is a list of Somali aristocratic and court titles that were historically used by the Somali people's various sultanates, kingdoms and empires. Also included are the honorifics reserved for Islamic notables as well as traditional leaders and o ...
Harun (), nicknamed Dhuh Barar () was overthrown by a coalition of Isaaq clans. The once strong Tolje'lo clan were scattered and took refuge amongst the
Habr Awal
The Habr Awal, alternately known as the Zubeyr Awal (, , Full Name: '' Abd al-Raḥmān ibn ash-Ishaaq bin Ahmed, Shaykh Isḥāq ibn Aḥmad)'' is one of the largest subclans of the wider Isaaq clan family, and is further divided into eight su ...
with whom they still mostly live. However, the names and lineages of the rulers before Dhuh remain uncertain, and it is unknown whether they all belonged to the same Tol Je'lo lineage.
It is likely that the Isaaq leadership structure evolved over time, shifting from the title of Garaad to Boqor (King) before eventually adopting the title of Sultan, particularly among the Tol Je'lo lineage, reflecting broader changes in Somali governance, influenced by historical, political, and external factors.
Establishment
The modern
Guled Dynasty
House of Guled (, Wadaad's writing: ) was the ruling house of the Isaaq Sultanate from 1750 to 1884 and is also a subclan in its own right. The family are descendants of the Eidagale sub division of the wider Garhajis and in extension Isaaq cla ...
of the Isaaq Sultanate was established in the middle of the 18th century by Sultan Guled of the
Eidagale
The Eidagalle (; ) is a major Somali clan of the Isaaq clan family. Members of this clan are concentrated in Somaliland and the Somali region. They are the traditional holders of the Isaaq Sultanate since the 18th century. As descendants of Is ...
clan of Isaaq clan family. His coronation took place after the victorious battle of
Lafaruug, in which Guled’s father,
Abdi Eissa (Leader)
Abdi Eissa Adan Dhamal, also known as Abdi Gahayr or simply Abdi Eissa was a prominent 18th-century leader, religious scholar, and military commander from the Isaaq clan-family, particularly associated with the House of Guled of the Garhajis, Ei ...
successfully led the Isaaq, After witnessing his leadership and courage, the
Isaaq
The Isaaq (, , ''Banu Ishaq'') is a major Somali clans, Somali clan. It is one of the largest Somali clan families in the Horn of Africa, with a large and densely populated traditional territory.
The Isaaq people claim in a traditional legend ...
chiefs recognized his father Abdi who refused the position instead relegating the title to his underage son Guled while the father acted as the regent until the son came of age. Guled was crowned the as the first Sultan of the Isaaq clan in July 1750. Sultan Guled thus ruled the Isaaq up until his death in 1808.
Succession dispute
Sultan Guled ruled over the Isaaq for over 50 years. When he ascended to the throne, he was still a young man. As he grew old and fell ill, a struggle for succession emerged among his 12 sons, who belonged to eight different
uterine
The uterus (from Latin ''uterus'', : uteri or uteruses) or womb () is the organ in the reproductive system of most female mammals, including humans, that accommodates the embryonic and fetal development of one or more fertilized eggs until bir ...
lineages. The term "Ba" encompasses all the sons born by one specific wife, and precedes the name of the mother’s tribe or subtribe. The eldest was Roble, while the youngest was Deria. The breakdown of Guled’s sons and their respective factions was as follows:
# Roble – The eldest (Ba-Cawrala)
# Duale "Aftaag", Farah, Ali, and Abdi (Ba-Canbaro)
# Jama, Yusuf, and Egal (Ba-Saleebaan)
# Warfa (Ba-Bartire)
# Magan "Gaabo" (Separate uterine lineage)
# Gatah (Separate uterine lineage)
# Deria (Ba-Musa 'Arre)
As soon as Sultan Guled's health declined, disputes arose over who would inherit the throne. Duale "Aftaag" (circa 1788–1877), a senior member of the Ba-Canbaro, quickly pushed for his faction’s control over the sultanate. Duale, a well-known elder, was the father of notable figures such as Qawdhan Duale (1858–1941), Nur Duale “Dhagacun” (1841–1890), and Mohamud Duale “Candho-eeg” (1839–1907).
Since Roble Guled from the Ba-Cawrala was the eldest son, he was the rightful heir. Duale from the Ba-Canbaro approached Rooble and advised his half-brother to raid and capture livestock belonging to the
Ogaden
Ogaden (pronounced and often spelled ''Ogadēn''; , ) is one of the historical names used for the modern Somali Region. It is also natively referred to as Soomaali Galbeed (). The region forms the eastern portion of Ethiopia and borders Somalia ...
so as to serve the Isaaq sultans and dignitaries who would attend his upcoming coronation, as part of a plot to discredit the would-be sultan and usurp the throne. Roble, unaware of the plot and without objection, agreed to the raid and carried it out.
After the dignitaries were made aware of this fact by Duale they removed Roble from the line of succession and offered to crown Jama from the Ba-Saleban, his half brother. Magan, who was close in age to Jama, strongly pushed Jama to take the throne and prevent the powerful Ba-Canbaro from gaining too much power, however Jama promptly declined the offer and suggested that
Farah from the Ba-Canbaro, Duale's full brother and son of Guled's fourth wife Ambaro Me'ad Gadid be crowned.
The Isaaq subsequently crowned Farah.
Feeling betrayed, Magan left in anger.
Sultan Farah's death
After Farah’s coronation, Magan attacked Duale from the Ba-Canbaro (Farah's full brother), stabbing him with a spear and leaving him wounded. Angered by the betrayal, Magan left his clan and sought refuge among the Ishaq 'Arre, a subclan of the Habr Yunis. He and his followers settled near the Hamas (Xamaas) well, along with four descendants of the Ishaq 'Arre.
Years later, Sultan Farah remained on the throne. During this time, he married an Ogaden woman, who later gave birth to Hure Suldan and Warfaa Suldaan—future leaders of the Ba-Ogaadeen subclan. While traveling with an Ogaden caravan near Berbera, Sultan Farah was spotted by Magan, who still held a grudge. Magan alerted the Ishaq 'Arre warriors and urged them to attack the caravan. During the raid, the Ishaq 'Arre fighters discovered that Sultan Fatah was among the travelers. Initially, they hesitated, but Magan taunted their leader Dul-Guduud, accusing him of cowardice. Enraged, Dul-Guduud threw a spear that fatally struck Sultan Farah, killing him on the spot, with his grave remaining in Hamas to this day.
Early European Conflict
With the new European incursion into the
Gulf of Aden
The Gulf of Aden (; ) is a deepwater gulf of the Indian Ocean between Yemen to the north, the Arabian Sea to the east, Djibouti to the west, and the Guardafui Channel, the Socotra Archipelago, Puntland in Somalia and Somaliland to the south. ...
and Horn of Africa contact between Somalis and Europeans on African soil would happen again for the first time since the
Ethiopian–Adal war. When a British vessel named the ''Mary Anne'' attempted to dock in Berbera's port in 1825 it was attacked and multiple members of the crew were massacred by the Garhajis. In response the
Royal Navy
The Royal Navy (RN) is the naval warfare force of the United Kingdom. It is a component of His Majesty's Naval Service, and its officers hold their commissions from the King of the United Kingdom, King. Although warships were used by Kingdom ...
enforced a blockade and some accounts narrate a bombardment of the city.
In 1827 two years later the British arrived and extended an offer to relieve the blockade which had halted Berbera's lucrative trade in exchange for indemnity. Following this initial suggestion the
Battle of Berbera 1827 would break out.
After the Isaaq defeat, 15,000
Spanish dollars was to be paid by the Isaaq Sultanate leaders for the destruction of the ship and loss of life.
In the 1820s Sultan Farah Sultan Guled of the Isaaq Sultanate penned a letter to
Sultan bin Saqr Al Qasimi
Sheikh Sultan bin Saqr Al Qasimi (1781–1866) was the Sheikh of the Qawasim and ruled the towns of Sharjah, Ras Al Khaimah, Jazirah Al Hamra and Rams; all within the then Trucial States and now part of the United Arab Emirates. Briefly a ...
of
Ras Al Khaimah
Ras Al Khaimah (; ), often referred to its initials RAK, is the largest city and capital of the Emirate of Ras Al Khaimah in the U.A.E. The city had a population of 191,753 in 2025, and is the sixth-most populous city in UAE after Dubai, Abu ...
requesting military assistance and joint religious war against the British. This would not materialize as Sultan Saqr was incapacitated by prior
Persian Gulf campaign of 1819
The Persian Gulf campaign of 1819 was a British punitive expedition, principally against the Arab maritime force of the Qawasim in the Persian Gulf, which embarked from Bombay, India in November 1819 to attack Ras Al Khaimah. The campaign wa ...
and was unable to send aid to Berbera. Alongside their stronghold in the Persian Gulf & Gulf of Oman the Qasimi were very active both militarily and economically in the
Gulf of Aden
The Gulf of Aden (; ) is a deepwater gulf of the Indian Ocean between Yemen to the north, the Arabian Sea to the east, Djibouti to the west, and the Guardafui Channel, the Socotra Archipelago, Puntland in Somalia and Somaliland to the south. ...
and were given to plunder and attack ships as far west as the
Mocha on the
Red Sea
The Red Sea is a sea inlet of the Indian Ocean, lying between Africa and Asia. Its connection to the ocean is in the south, through the Bab-el-Mandeb Strait and the Gulf of Aden. To its north lie the Sinai Peninsula, the Gulf of Aqaba, and th ...
. They had numerous commercial ties with the
Somalis
The Somali people (, Wadaad's writing, Wadaad: , Arabic: ) are a Cushitic peoples, Cushitic ethnic group and nation native to the Somali Peninsula. who share a common ancestry, culture and history.
The Lowland East Cushitic languages, East ...
, leading vessels from Ras Al Khaimah and the
Persian Gulf
The Persian Gulf, sometimes called the Arabian Gulf, is a Mediterranean seas, mediterranean sea in West Asia. The body of water is an extension of the Arabian Sea and the larger Indian Ocean located between Iran and the Arabian Peninsula.Un ...
to regularly attend trade fairs in the large ports of
Berbera
Berbera (; , ) is the capital of the Sahil, Somaliland, Sahil region of Somaliland and is the main sea port of the country, located approximately 160 km from the national capital, Hargeisa. Berbera is a coastal city and was the former capital of t ...
and
Zeila
Zeila (, ), also known as Zaila or Zayla, is a historical port town in the western Awdal region of Somaliland.
In the Middle Ages, the Jewish traveller Benjamin of Tudela identified Zeila with the Biblical location of Havilah. Most modern schola ...
and were very familiar with the Isaaq Sultanate respectively.
Atack on Lieutenant Richard Burton
Richard Burton (; born Richard Walter Jenkins Jr.; 10 November 1925 – 5 August 1984) was a Welsh actor.
Noted for his mellifluous baritone voice, Burton established himself as a formidable Shakespearean actor in the 1950s and gave a memor ...
and The Blockade of Berbera
In April 1855, explorer Lieutenant
Richard Burton
Richard Burton (; born Richard Walter Jenkins Jr.; 10 November 1925 – 5 August 1984) was a Welsh actor.
Noted for his mellifluous baritone voice, Burton established himself as a formidable Shakespearean actor in the 1950s and gave a memor ...
had set out on his
search for the source of the Nile and was encamped near Berbera. On 19 April,
his camp was attacked and plundered. In response, British forces
blockaded the port city of
Berbera
Berbera (; , ) is the capital of the Sahil, Somaliland, Sahil region of Somaliland and is the main sea port of the country, located approximately 160 km from the national capital, Hargeisa. Berbera is a coastal city and was the former capital of t ...
in the Isaaq Sultanate from 1855 to 1856. It was the second British military action against the city after the 1827
attack on Berbera.
The blockade ceased on 9 November 1856 following a treaty that was signed between the
British East India Company
The East India Company (EIC) was an English, and later British, joint-stock company that was founded in 1600 and dissolved in 1874. It was formed to Indian Ocean trade, trade in the Indian Ocean region, initially with the East Indies (South A ...
and the Sheikhs of the
Habr Awal, Ishaaq. This was signed in the presence of Captain H. L. Playfair, the assistant political resident in
Aden
Aden () is a port city located in Yemen in the southern part of the Arabian peninsula, on the north coast of the Gulf of Aden, positioned near the eastern approach to the Red Sea. It is situated approximately 170 km (110 mi) east of ...
. This treaty's six articles secured the economic and commercial interests of both parties. However, it debarred the 'Isa Musa clan family and their goods from Aden due to their refusal to hand over the main assailant of the attack, Ou Ali. The 'Isa Musa did not engage in the treaty themselves.
Berbera Civil War
One of the most important settlements of the Sultanate was the city of Berbera which was one of the key ports of the Gulf of Aden. Caravans would pass through
Hargeisa
Hargeisa ( ; ; ) is the capital and largest city of the Republic of Somaliland, a ''List of states with limited recognition, de facto'' sovereign state in the Horn of Africa, still considered internationally to be part of Somalia. It is also th ...
and the Sultan would collect tribute and taxes from traders before they would be allowed to continue onwards to the coast. Following a massive conflict between the Ayal Ahmed and Ayal Yunis branches of the
Habr Awal
The Habr Awal, alternately known as the Zubeyr Awal (, , Full Name: '' Abd al-Raḥmān ibn ash-Ishaaq bin Ahmed, Shaykh Isḥāq ibn Aḥmad)'' is one of the largest subclans of the wider Isaaq clan family, and is further divided into eight su ...
over who would control
Berbera
Berbera (; , ) is the capital of the Sahil, Somaliland, Sahil region of Somaliland and is the main sea port of the country, located approximately 160 km from the national capital, Hargeisa. Berbera is a coastal city and was the former capital of t ...
in the mid-1840s, Sultan
Hassan brought both subclans before a holy relic from the tomb of
Aw Barkhadle
Yusuf bin Ahmad al-Kawneyn () (b. 10th century), popularly known as Aw Barkhadle ("Blessed Father")Abdullahi, p.13 or Yusuf Al Kownayn, was an Islamic scholar and traveler based in Zeila, Somaliland. According to Dr. Enrico Cerulli, Yusuf Al K ...
. An item that is said to have belonged to
Bilal Ibn Rabah
Bilal ibn Rabah (; ), also known as Bilāl al-Ḥabashī or simply Bilal, was a sahabah, close companion of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Born in Mecca, he was of Abyssinian people, Abyssinian (modern-day Ethiopia) descent and was formerly ensl ...
.
When any grave question arises affecting the interests of the Isaakh tribe in general. On a paper yet carefully preserved in the tomb, and bearing the sign-manual of Belat ilal the slave of one fthe early khaleefehs, fresh oaths of lasting friendship and lasting alliances are made...In the season of 1846 this relic was brought to Berbera in charge of the Haber Gerhajis, and on it the rival tribes of Aial Ahmed and Aial Yunus swore to bury all animosity and live as brethren.
Despite this resolution, control of Berbera later passed to the ambitious Isaaq merchant and politician Sharmarke Ali Saleh, who would eventually become governor and emir of Zeila
Zeila (, ), also known as Zaila or Zayla, is a historical port town in the western Awdal region of Somaliland.
In the Middle Ages, the Jewish traveller Benjamin of Tudela identified Zeila with the Biblical location of Havilah. Most modern schola ...
and berbera
Berbera (; , ) is the capital of the Sahil, Somaliland, Sahil region of Somaliland and is the main sea port of the country, located approximately 160 km from the national capital, Hargeisa. Berbera is a coastal city and was the former capital of t ...
on behalf of Sultan Hassan Sultan Farah.
Sharmarke Ali Sale h 1845–1852 (
Berbera
Berbera (; , ) is the capital of the Sahil, Somaliland, Sahil region of Somaliland and is the main sea port of the country, located approximately 160 km from the national capital, Hargeisa. Berbera is a coastal city and was the former capital of t ...
rule) 1841–1855 (
Zeila
Zeila (, ), also known as Zaila or Zayla, is a historical port town in the western Awdal region of Somaliland.
In the Middle Ages, the Jewish traveller Benjamin of Tudela identified Zeila with the Biblical location of Havilah. Most modern schola ...
rule), 1857–1861 (2nd term rule of
Zeila
Zeila (, ), also known as Zaila or Zayla, is a historical port town in the western Awdal region of Somaliland.
In the Middle Ages, the Jewish traveller Benjamin of Tudela identified Zeila with the Biblical location of Havilah. Most modern schola ...
)
Sharmarke Ali Saleh controlled Berbera for several years from 1845–1852.
In 1841
Sharmarke took controll of
Ottoman Zeila with fifty
Matchlock
A matchlock or firelock is a historical type of firearm wherein the gunpowder is ignited by a burning piece of flammable cord or twine that is in contact with the gunpowder through a mechanism that the musketeer activates by pulling a lever or Tri ...
men, two
cannons
A cannon is a large-caliber gun classified as a type of artillery, which usually launches a projectile using explosive chemical propellant. Gunpowder ("black powder") was the primary propellant before the invention of smokeless powder during t ...
and an army of mounted spearmen managed to invade Zeila and depose its Arab Governor, Mohammed Al Barr. Sharmarke used the canons to fire at the city walls which frightened Al Barr's followers and caused them to flee. Sharmarke succeeded Al Barr as the ruler of Zeila and its dependencies.

Sharmarke's influence was not limited to the coast as he had many allies in the interior of the Somali country and even further in Abyssinia. Among his allies were the Kings of Shewa. When there was tension between the Amir of Harar
Abu Bakr II ibn `Abd al-Munan and Sharmarke, as a result of the Amir arresting one of his agents in
Harar
Harar (; Harari language, Harari: ሀረር / ; ; ; ), known historically by the indigenous as Harar-Gey or simply Gey (Harari: ጌይ, ݘٛىيْ, ''Gēy'', ), is a List of cities with defensive walls, walled city in eastern Ethiopia. It is al ...
, Sharmarke persuaded the son of
Sahle Selassie
Sahle Selassie (Amharic: ሣህለ ሥላሴ, 1795 – 22 October 1847) was the Negus, King of Shewa from 1813 to 1847. An important Amhara people, Amhara noble of Ethiopia, he was a younger son of Wossen Seged. Sahle Selassie was the father of ...
, the King of
Shewa
Shewa (; ; Somali: Shawa; , ), formerly romanized as Shua, Shoa, Showa, Shuwa, is a historical region of Ethiopia which was formerly an autonomous kingdom within the Ethiopian Empire. The modern Ethiopian capital Addis Ababa is located at it ...
, to imprison on his behalf about 300 citizens of Harar then resident in Shewa, for a length of two years.
[Burton, ''First Footsteps'', pp. 176 and note] In 1855, in an act seen as defiant of foreign powers, Sharmarke refused to sell to M. Richet, the French agent at
Jeddah
Jeddah ( ), alternatively transliterated as Jedda, Jiddah or Jidda ( ; , ), is a List of governorates of Saudi Arabia, governorate and the largest city in Mecca Province, Saudi Arabia, and the country's second largest city after Riyadh, located ...
, a house in Zeila, citing "how easily an Agency becomes a fort", and preferring "a considerable loss to the presence of dangerous friends".
[First footsteps in East Africa : or, An exploration of Harar by Burton, Richard Francis, Sir, 1821–1890; Burton, Isabel, Lady, Published 1894]
fracture and Decline
Habr Yunis Sultanate
During the reign of Sultan
Farah Guled
Farah Guled (, ) was a Somali ruler. He was the second Grand Sultan of the Isaaq Sultanate and also a Hajji having completed pilgrimage to Mecca.
Biography
Son of Sultan Guled, he was amongst the first generation of the Ba Ambaro branch of the e ...
the
Habr Yunis
The Habar Yoonis (, full Nasab: '' Said ibn Al-Qādhī Ismā'īl ibn ash-Shaykh Isḥāq ibn Aḥmad'') alternatively spelled as Habr Yunis is a major clan part of the Garhajis . As descendants of Ismail bin Ishaaq bin Ahmed, Sheikh Isaaq, it ...
would break from his rule and form the
Habr Yunis Sultanate
The Habr Yunis Sultanate (, ) was a Somali kingdom that ruled parts of the Horn of Africa during the 18th century. It spanned the territories of the Habr Yunis clan which is part of the wider Isaaq in modern day Somaliland and Ethiopia. The su ...
. Sultan
Deria Sugulle would have established his own capital at Wadhan and his own taxes. The Habr Yunis Sultanate inherited the profitable trade routes leading into the Sheikh mountains and
Burao
Burao, also spelt Bur'o or Bur'ao (; , , ), is the capital of the Togdheer region and the second largest city in Somaliland. Burao was the site of the Somaliland Declaration of Independence, declaration of an independent Somaliland on 18 May 19 ...
from the Isaaq Sultanate and reached a pinnacle under Sultan
Hersi Aman before being engulfed in civil wars after his considerable power caused a rebellion to break out in the late 1870s.
The split was noticeable and Lieutenant C.P Rigby in the year 1848 writes about the two Sultans and the capital of the Isaaq at Toon.
The Hubr Gajis tribe and its different branches are governed by two Sultans, named Sultan Deriah abr Yunis Sultanand Sultan Farah: the residence of the latter is at Toro.[The Transactions of the Bombay Geographical Society 1850, Volume 9, p.133]
Internal Eidagale Conflicts
During the reign of the last ruler of the Isaaq Sultanate
Deria Hassan tensions were high between his Rer Guled and another subclan of Eidagale. The legendary Eidagale warrior and poet
Hussein Hasan () who hailed from the Rer Guled was prideful and urged them to continue the conflict. Standing against him was a similarly skilled poet and warrior Hersi Absiyeh (), a prominent member of the closely related Rer Abdi Bari who were warring with the Rer Guled. He called for the regular ''
shir'' or meeting of subclans where he would take council and advise on what decisions to make next. Sultan Deria ruled that blood payment or ''
mag'' was sufficient for both parties to exchange at the ''shir'' with the Rer Guled losing six and the Abdi Bari six as well. Hussein Hasan was boastful and urged for continued conflict with a rousing gabay rejecting the decision.
Sultan Deria responded by sending Hussein away to Berbera and then resuming the ''shir''. Absiyeh was made to swear a solemn oath not to recite a gabay following the Sultan's decision but he could not resist, especially since Hussein was away. Hussein returned and lamented that he missed the occasion and the two other men (Deria and Absiyeh) prevailed that day.
Egyptian occupation
In 1870 The Egyptians occupied
Hargeisa
Hargeisa ( ; ; ) is the capital and largest city of the Republic of Somaliland, a ''List of states with limited recognition, de facto'' sovereign state in the Horn of Africa, still considered internationally to be part of Somalia. It is also th ...
after failing to take over
Aussa. They continued on to invade
Berbera
Berbera (; , ) is the capital of the Sahil, Somaliland, Sahil region of Somaliland and is the main sea port of the country, located approximately 160 km from the national capital, Hargeisa. Berbera is a coastal city and was the former capital of t ...
,
Zeila
Zeila (, ), also known as Zaila or Zayla, is a historical port town in the western Awdal region of Somaliland.
In the Middle Ages, the Jewish traveller Benjamin of Tudela identified Zeila with the Biblical location of Havilah. Most modern schola ...
,
Sagallo
Sagallo (; ; ; ) is a village situated on the Gulf of Tadjoura, in the country of Djibouti, famous for having been occupied by a Russian monk and adventurer in 1889.
Name
Whether a coincidence or not, "Sagallo" (or "Sakaro") is one of the luna ...
, and
Bulhar. They helped rebuild a dying Berbera economy, and established Berbera as the capital of the Khedive in east Africa. Although they did not control northern Somaliland for long they did build lighthouses, piers, improved coastal ports, and promoted Islam.
In 1883 the Egyptians who were being pressured by the British decided to evacuate the Somali, and Oromo cities. During the Egyptian rule the Somalis controlled the Zeila-Harar trade route, and the Oromos shared the Berbera-Harar trade route. British officer Hunters carried a number of surveys in the Somali coast. He described the
Habr Awal
The Habr Awal, alternately known as the Zubeyr Awal (, , Full Name: '' Abd al-Raḥmān ibn ash-Ishaaq bin Ahmed, Shaykh Isḥāq ibn Aḥmad)'' is one of the largest subclans of the wider Isaaq clan family, and is further divided into eight su ...
as a friendly people who lived between Harar, and Berbera, and that they supported the Egyptian capture of many towns. In 1884 the Egyptians, and Habr Awal burnt down a number of
Bursuuk villages, in retaliation the Bursuuk attacked Habr Awal caravans on their way to Berbera. During the withdrawal period officer Hunters was more concerned on Berbera as rumour spread about the Mahdiyya of Sudan. He worried about Berbera more than Harar, because the Habr Awal Somalis had murdered the Governor of Berbera Abd- Al Rahman Bey. They did this because Abd Al Rahman had murdered a Somali in an attempt to rob a caravan. He also feared the
Issa Somali would invade Berbera so he ordered a British warship be anchored at Berbera so the British could detect any Somali movement in the area. Hunter also writes that the Emir of Zeila, Abu Bakr was possibly planning an invasion of Berbera. Hinter describes Abu Bakr as a
Afar businessmen, and Emir who held great influence over the Afar, and Somalis. He also describes him as a slave master, and that he controlled slave trade in the read sea. Hunters describes the Governor of Berbera as a man who was ready to take any command, but like all his friends was thuggish, and rude. In 1884 the British signed a deal with the Habr Awal which allowed British presence in Berbera for a while.
in October 1884 the Egyptians left Berbera.
Incorporation into British Somaliland

By the early 1880s the Isaaq Sultanate had been reduced to the ''Ciidangale'' confederation with the Eidagale, and Ishaaq Arreh subclan of the Habr Yunis remaining, although the sultan still enjoyed widespread prestige among the Isaaq. In 1884–1886 the British signed treaties with the coastal subclans and had not yet penetrated the interior in any significant way. Sultan
Deria Hassan remained de facto master of Hargeisa and its environs. Working in conjunction with
Mohammed Abdullah Hassan
Muhammad (8 June 632 CE) was an Arab religious and political leader and the founder of Islam. According to Islam, he was a prophet who was divinely inspired to preach and confirm the monotheistic teachings of Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, ...
and the
Dervish Movement he would exchange letters with Hassan in the first year of the movement's foundation and incited an insurrection in Hargeisa in 1900.
They were unable to break from Eidagale tutelage and decided to stand and change this situation. Led by their famed warrior and poet the crowned him as Sultan and raised arms against the Eidagale and Sultan Deria Hassan.
Composing this poem entitled ''The Limits of Submission'' Farah speaks of the conflict and intolerance to the subordinate status to the Sultan.
[''War and Peace: An Anthology of Somali literature, p.74'']
Although the odds were not in their favor, they were victorious in their campaign for independence.
Economy
The Sultanate had a robust economy and trade was significant at the main port of Berbera but also eastwards along the coast. The Berbera trade fair was the major commercial event of the year with tens of thousands descending on the town.
Berbera held an annual fair during the cool rain-free months between October and April. This long drawn out market handled immense quantities of coffee, gum Arabic, myrrh and other commodities. These goods in the early nineteenth century were almost exclusively handled by Somalis who, Salt says, had "a kind of navigation act by which they exclude the Arab vessels from their ports and bring the produce of their country either to Aden or Mocha in their own dows."
Eidagale and Habr Yunis traders held the southerly trade routes into the
Haud
The Haud (also Hawd) (, ), formerly known as the Hawd Reserve Area, is a plateau situated in the Horn of Africa consisting of thorn-bush and grasslands. The region includes the southern part of Somaliland as well as the northern and eastern part ...
region and the Habr Awal the westerly ones, with the Habr Je'lo maintaining the easterly routes towards Berbera and their substantial
frankincense
Frankincense, also known as olibanum (), is an Aroma compound, aromatic resin used in incense and perfumes, obtained from trees of the genus ''Boswellia'' in the family (biology), family Burseraceae. The word is from Old French ('high-quality in ...
trade exporting from
Heis,
Karin
Karin may refer to:
*Karin (given name), a feminine name
Fiction
* ''Karin'' (manga) or ''Chibi Vampire'', a Japanese media franchise
* Karin Hanazono, title character of the manga and anime ''Kamichama Karin''
*Karin Kokubu, a main character in ...
, and
Ceel Daraad. The western and southern routes would merge at Hargeisa. The Isaaq were also the predominant Somali traders in the Yemeni ports of
Mukalla
Mukalla, officially the Mukalla City District, is a seaport and the capital city district of Yemen's largest governorate, Hadhramaut Governorate, Hadhramaut. The city is in the South Arabia, southern part of the Arabian Peninsula on the Gulf of A ...
,
Mocha and
Aden
Aden () is a port city located in Yemen in the southern part of the Arabian peninsula, on the north coast of the Gulf of Aden, positioned near the eastern approach to the Red Sea. It is situated approximately 170 km (110 mi) east of ...
. In addition the sultanate produced
ghee
Ghee is a type of clarified butter, originating from South Asia. It is commonly used for cooking, as a Traditional medicine of India, traditional medicine, and for Hinduism, Hindu religious rituals.
Description
Ghee is typically prepared by ...
,
myrrh
Myrrh (; from an unidentified ancient Semitic language, see '' § Etymology'') is a gum-resin extracted from a few small, thorny tree species of the '' Commiphora'' genus, belonging to the Burseraceae family. Myrrh resin has been used ...
,
ivory
Ivory is a hard, white material from the tusks (traditionally from elephants) and Tooth, teeth of animals, that consists mainly of dentine, one of the physical structures of teeth and tusks. The chemical structure of the teeth and tusks of mamm ...
and
gum arabic
Gum arabic (gum acacia, gum sudani, Senegal gum and by other names) () is a tree gum exuded by two species of '' Acacia sensu lato:'' '' Senegalia senegal,'' and '' Vachellia seyal.'' However, the term "gum arabic" does not indicate a partic ...
, which would then be exported to Yemen.
Administration

The Sultan of the Isaaq often called for ''shirs'' or regular meetings where he would be informed and advised by leading elders or religious figures on what decisions to make. In the case of the
Dervish movement Sultan
Deria Hassan had chosen not to join after receiving counsel from
Sheikh Madar
Madar Ahmed Shirwac, better known as Sheikh Madar (; 1825–1918) was a 19th-century Somalis, Somali political/religious leader, a social reformer, merchant and a jurist who is known as the founder of Hargeisa. He hailed from the Yunis Nuh divisio ...
. He addressed early tensions between the Saad Musa and Eidagale upon the former's settlement into the growing town of Hargeisa in the late 19th century.
The Sultan would also be responsible for organizing grazing rights and in the late 19th century new agricultural spaces. The allocation of resources and sustainable use of them was also a matter that Sultans concerned themselves with and was crucial in an arid region. In the 1870s there was a famous meeting between
Sheikh Madar
Madar Ahmed Shirwac, better known as Sheikh Madar (; 1825–1918) was a 19th-century Somalis, Somali political/religious leader, a social reformer, merchant and a jurist who is known as the founder of Hargeisa. He hailed from the Yunis Nuh divisio ...
and Sultan Deria proclaimed that hunting and tree cutting in the vicinity of Hargeisa would be banned
The holy relics from
Aw Barkhadle
Yusuf bin Ahmad al-Kawneyn () (b. 10th century), popularly known as Aw Barkhadle ("Blessed Father")Abdullahi, p.13 or Yusuf Al Kownayn, was an Islamic scholar and traveler based in Zeila, Somaliland. According to Dr. Enrico Cerulli, Yusuf Al K ...
would be brought and the Isaaqs would swear oaths upon it in presence of the Sultan whenever fierce internal combat broke out.
Aside from the leading Sultan of Isaaq there were numerous Akils, Garaads and subordinate Sultans alongside religious authorities that constituted the Sultanate before some would declare their own independence or simply break from his authority.
Legacy

Amongst the Isaaq the traditional institution and leadership of the clan survived the
British Somaliland
British Somaliland, officially the Somaliland Protectorate (), was a protectorate of the United Kingdom in modern Somaliland. It was bordered by Italian Somalia, French Somali Coast and Ethiopian Empire, Abyssinia (Italian Ethiopia from 1936 ...
period into present times. The Rer Guled Sultans, although no longer ruling vast territory, and with separate Isaaq subclans having their own Sultans, still enjoy ''
primus inter pares
is a Latin phrase meaning first among equals. It is typically used as an honorary title for someone who is formally equal to other members of their group but is accorded unofficial respect, traditionally owing to their seniority in office.
H ...
'' status and retain the title of ''Suldaanka Guud ee Isaaq'' (Grand Sultan of the Isaaq). Sultan Deria Hassan continued in his role until his death in 1939, with his son and successor Sultan
Abdillahi Deria
Abdillahi Deria (, ; died January 1967) was the fifth Grand Sultan of the Isaaq Sultanate and a notable Somali anti-colonial figure.
Biography
Abdillahi was the son of Sultan Deria Hassan whom he succeeded in 1943 after his death. Abdillahi was ...
strongly involved in the independence movement of British Somaliland, having led a delegation of politicians and Sultans to the United Kingdom in order to petition and pressure the government to return the
Haud
The Haud (also Hawd) (, ), formerly known as the Hawd Reserve Area, is a plateau situated in the Horn of Africa consisting of thorn-bush and grasslands. The region includes the southern part of Somaliland as well as the northern and eastern part ...
Reserved Area that had been ceded to Ethiopia by the British. Sultan
Rashid Abdillahi likewise was also active in independence and post-independence politics, being elected as the Vice President of the
National Assembly
In politics, a national assembly is either a unicameral legislature, the lower house of a bicameral legislature, or both houses of a bicameral legislature together. In the English language it generally means "an assembly composed of the repr ...
of
Somalia
Somalia, officially the Federal Republic of Somalia, is the easternmost country in continental Africa. The country is located in the Horn of Africa and is bordered by Ethiopia to the west, Djibouti to the northwest, Kenya to the southwest, th ...
in 1966,
and representing Somalia at the world parliamentary conference in 1967.
With the collapse of the
Somali Republic
The Somali Republic (; ; ) was formed by the union of the Trust Territory of Somaliland (formerly Italian Somaliland) and the State of Somaliland (formerly British Somaliland). A government was formed by Abdullahi Issa Mohamud and Muhammad ...
, and the subsequent
Somaliland war of independence
The Somaliland War of Independence () was a rebellion waged by the Somali National Movement (SNM) against the ruling military junta in Somali Democratic Republic, Somalia led by General Siad Barre lasting from its founding on 6 April 1981 and en ...
in the 80s and 90s, Sultan
Mahamed Abdiqadir would be heavily involved in the
peace process
A peace process is the set of political sociology, sociopolitical negotiations, agreements and actions that aim to solve a specific armed conflict.
Definitions
Prior to an armed conflict occurring, peace processes can include the prevention of ...
and reconciliation of the rebirthed
Somaliland
Somaliland, officially the Republic of Somaliland, is an List of states with limited recognition, unrecognised country in the Horn of Africa. It is located in the southern coast of the Gulf of Aden and bordered by Djibouti to the northwest, E ...
. With Somaliland's independence in 1991 the Isaaq sultans assumed the title of ''Grand Sultan of Somaliland'' (Suldaanka Guud ee Soomaaliland).
See also
*
Somalia–Somaliland border
*
Ethiopia–Somaliland border
References
{{Somaliland topics
Former empires in Africa
Former countries in Africa
Somali empires
States and territories established in 1750
Early modern history of Somaliland
Modern history of Somaliland
Former sultanates
States and territories established in the 18th century
States and territories disestablished in the 19th century
States and territories disestablished in the 1880s
Former countries