Ilocano people

The Ilocano people (), also referred to as Ilokáno, Iloko, Iloco, Iluku, or Samtoy, are an Austronesian ethnolinguistic group native to the Philippines. Originally from the Ilocos Region, located on the northwestern coast of Luzon, they have expanded throughout northern and central Luzon, particularly in Cagayan Valley, the Cordillera Administrative Region, and the northern and western parts of Central Luzon. The Ilocanos constitute the third-largest ethnolinguistic group in the Philippines. Their native language is called Iloco or Iloko.

Ilocano culture reflects a blend of Roman Catholic influences and pre-colonial animist-polytheistic traditions, shaped by their agricultural lifestyle and strong family-communal ties. Beyond the northern Luzon, large Ilocano populations are found in Metro Manila, Mindoro, Palawan, and Mindanao, as well as in the United States, particularly in Hawaii and California, owing to extensive Ilocano migration in the 19th and 20th centuries.

Etymology

Prior to the arrival of the Spaniards, the Ilocanos referred to themselves as ''“Samtoy,”'' a contraction of ''“sao mi ditoy”'' Ilocano words that mean “our language.”

The term "Ilocáno" (also spelled "Ilokáno") is the Hispanized plural form of "Ilóco" or "Ilóko," with the archaic Spanish rendering "Ylóco." It is derived from the combination of the prefix ''i-'' (meaning "of" or "from") and ''luék'', ''luëk'', or ''loóc'' (meaning "sea" or "bay") in the Ilocano language, translating to "from the bay." This reflects the geographical origin of the Ilocano people, whose early settlements were located near coastal regions and bays. Therefore, "Ilocano" denotes the people from the bay.

An alternative etymological explanation links the term to ''lúku'' or ''lúkung'', which refers to flatlands, valleys, or depressions in the land. This suggests that the term "Ilocano" originally denoted "people of the lowlands," referring to inhabitants of areas situated between the ''gúlot'' or ''gúlod'' (mountains) and the ''luék'' (sea or bay).

The name "Ylocano" or "Ilocano" is the Hispanized version of the native term "Ilúko." It follows the grammatical structure of Spanish by appending the suffix ''-ano'' to denote a people or group, as seen in terms like ''Americano'', ''Africano'', and ''Mexicano''. This adaptation signifies the race or identity of the Ilocano people according to the colonizer's linguistic conventions.

One effect of the Spanish language on the demonym is the introduction of grammatical gender. "Ilocano" or "Ilokano" typically refers to males, while "Ilocana" or "Ilokana" is used for females. However, "Ilocano" is generally considered gender-neutral and can be applied to individuals of either gender.

History

Pre-History

The Ilocano people are one of the Austronesian peoples of Northern Luzon who migrated southward through the Philippines thousands of years ago using wooden boats known as ''biray'' or ''bilog'' for trade and cargo. The prevailing theory regarding the dispersal of Austronesian peoples is the " Out of Taiwan" hypothesis, which suggests that Neolithic-era migrations from Taiwan led to the emergence of the ancestors of contemporary Austronesian populations.

A genetic study conducted in 2021 revealed that Austronesians, originating from either Southern China or Taiwan, arrived in the Philippines in at least two distinct waves. The first wave occurred approximately 10,000 to 7,000 years ago, bringing the ancestors of the indigenous groups residing around the Cordillera Central mountain range. Subsequent migrations introduced additional Austronesian groups along with agricultural practices, resulting in the effective replacement of the languages of the existing populations. The second wave brought the Ilocanos, who settled in the northern coastal areas of Luzon.

Early History

The early history of the Ilocanos is rooted in animistic and polytheistic religious practices, with a belief that ''anitos'' (spirits) resided in the natural environment. Key deities in the Ilocano belief system included ''Buni'', the god of the earth; ''Parsua'', the creator; and ''Apo Langit'', the lord of heaven. However, due to the dispersed nature of Ilocano settlements, distinct regional variations of these beliefs developed, each with its own set of deities and spiritual practices. The Ilocano religious tradition was also influenced by neighboring ethnolinguistic groups such as the Cordillerans (Igorot), Tagalogs, and external cultures, particularly the Chinese.

Ilocanos were both agriculturalists and seafarers, engaging in active trade and barter systems with neighboring groups, including the Cordillerans, who's emporium for their gold mines and rice from their terraces in the Cordillera Central, as well as the Pangasinans, Sambals, Tagalogs, Ibanags, and foreign traders from China, Japan, and other Maritime Southeast Asian countries. These interactions were part of a larger maritime trade network that spanned the Indian Ocean and South China Sea. Traded goods included porcelain, rice, silk, cotton, beeswax, gems, beads, and precious minerals, with gold being a significant commodity.

Ilocano settlements were referred to as ''íli'', a term similar to the Tagalog ''barangay'', with smaller groups of houses known as ''purók''. The social structure of Ilocano society was hierarchical, with leadership typically held by an ''agtúray'' or ''ári'' (chieftain), whose position was often inherited based on strength, wealth, and wisdom. The ''agtúray'' was supported by a council of elders in governance. Below the chief were the ''babaknáng'', wealthy individuals who controlled trade and could potentially rise to leadership roles. Beneath them were the ''kailianes'' (tenant farmers or ''katalonan''), while at the bottom of the social hierarchy were the ''ubíng'' (servants) and ''tagábu'' (slaves), who faced significant social and economic disadvantages.

Spanish Colonization

In June 1572, the Spanish colonization of Northern Luzon commenced under the leadership of conquistador Juan de Salcedo, the grandson of Miguel López de Legazpi. Salcedo, along with an expedition of eight armed boats and 70 to 80 men, ventured northward following the successful pacification of Pangasinan. The expedition encountered a cluster of native settlements collectively known as ''Samtoy'', derived from the Ilocano phrase ''“sao mi ditoy”'' (meaning "our language here"). The Spaniards subsequently named the region ''Ylocos'' and its inhabitants ''Ylocanos''.

The Ilocanos were primarily coastal and valley settlers living in sheltered coves (''luék, luëk,'' or ''loóc'') along the Ilocos coastline. They engaged in trade and barter with neighboring groups such as the Cordillerans (Igorots) and Pangasinenses, as well as with foreign merchants from China and Japan. Despite their peaceful and self-sufficient way of life, the Ilocanos faced demands for tribute from the Spaniards, who also sought to convert them to Christianity and incorporate them into the Spanish colonial framework. These impositions provoked various forms of Ilocano resistance.

One of the earliest recorded acts of defiance occurred in coastal settlement of Purao (modern-day Balaoan) literally means white in Ilocano due to pristine white beach of the area, where the Ilocanos refused to pay tribute. This rebellion escalated into violence, marking the first instance of bloodshed in the Ilocanos’ resistance against Spanish colonization called the Battle of Purao.

As Salcedo's forces advanced, they subjugated numerous Ilocano settlements, including Tagurín(now Tagudin), Kaog or Dumangague (now Santa Lucia), Nalbacán (now Narvacan), Kandong (now Candon), Bantay, Sinayt (now Sinait), and Bigan (now Vigan). Among these, Vigan emerged as a vibrant trading hub frequented by Chinese merchants and a focal point of Spanish activity.

Salcedo established ''Villa Fernandina de Vigan'' in honor of Prince Ferdinand, the late son of King Philip II. From this administrative center, Salcedo extended his influence to other Ilocano regions, including in the early settlements of Laoag, Currimao, and Badoc, solidifying the foundations of Spanish governance and religion in the area.

By 1574, Salcedo had returned to Vigan, which had become the epicenter of Spanish administration and Christianization efforts in Ilocos. The Augustinian missionaries accompanied the Spanish forces, initiating the systematic evangelization of the Ilocano people. This period saw the establishment of religious, cultural, and administrative institutions that defined Spanish colonial rule in Ilocos.

Fray Andres Carro later wrote in his 1792 manuscript, that when Juan de Salcedo conquered Ilocos in 1572,According to Carro, as a result of Spanish interactions, the Spaniards learned the Ilocano language. Through its use and the increased trade and traffic among the natives an activity Carro asserts was absent prior to the Spanish arrival the Ilocano language gained prominence and became widely spoken throughout the province of Ilocos, spanning from Bangui to Agoo.

Malong Revolt

In 1660, Andres Malong, a leader from Binalatongan (San Carlos), Pangasinan, initiated a rebellion against Spanish colonial rule, declaring himself ''"King of Pangasinan."'' Malong allied with Sambal and Negritos forces and sought the support of neighboring provinces of Pampanga, Cagayan and Ilocos, urging them to join his cause against the Spanish. However, the Ilocano leaders, deeply influenced by Spanish missionary and military presence, rejected Malong's demands.

In retaliation, Malong dispatched Don Pedro Gumapos a Zambales chieftain with a 6,000-strong force to invade the Ilocos and Cagayan. The initial Ilocano defense, composed of 1,500 Spanish loyalists under the command of the alcalde mayor and missionaries, was defeated, allowing Gumapos’ forces to sack Vigan and neighboring villages. Despite these losses, the Ilocanos organized resistance efforts. Communities in Narvacan and other areas employed guerrilla tactics, often in alliance with the Tinguians, a local indigenous group. These coordinated counterattacks inflicted significant casualties on Gumapos' forces, hindering their advance.

As Gumapos' army retreated south, they burned and looted towns, including Santa Maria, San Esteban, and Candon. However, their campaign ultimately faltered upon reaching Santa Cruz, where Spanish-led forces, bolstered by Ilocano fighters, confronted them after having defeated Malong in Battle of Agoo. Gumapos’ army suffered decisive defeats in two major battles, leading to his capture and subsequent execution by hanging in Vigan.

The Ilocano resistance during the war was characterized by their use of guerrilla tactics, strategic alliances, and unwavering defense of their communities. Their contributions significantly weakened Gumapos' forces and played a critical role in suppressing the rebellion. The Ilocos Region's ability to repel the invasion underscored its importance in the Spanish colonial structure and marked a turning point in the conflict.

Almazan Revolt

In 1661 a significant uprising of Ilocanos led by Don Pedro Almazan of San Nicolas and Laoag, Ilocos Norte. Inspired by the earlier Malong Revolt in Pangasinan, the rebellion sought to overthrow Spanish rule and restore Ilocano self-governance. Declaring himself ''"King of Ilocos,''" Almazan used the stolen Crown of Mary from the Laoag Cathedral as a symbol of his authority, rallying widespread support from Ilocano leaders and communities.

Key figures such as Don Juan Magsanop of Bangui and Don Gaspar Cristobal, the gobernadorcillo of Laoag, aligned with Almazan, forming a coalition known as the "trinity" of Ilocano leadership. Ilocano solidarity was further demonstrated through Almazan's establishment of a symbolic monarchy, including the marriage of his son to Cristobal's daughter, which became a unifying symbol for the people.

Among their grievances include abuses done by government officials and friars being sent to the Philippines, which regardless of their backgrounds took higher positions than locals could ever hope to achieve. Almazan pledged to make as many shackles as there were Spanish in Ilocos when opportunity permits.

On January 31, 1661, Magsanop declared independence in Bacarra and called on the Calanasanes of Apayao to join the cause. The rebels, consisting largely of Ilocano farmers, craftsmen, and local leaders, showcased their unity and resourcefulness by organizing forces, burning the church in Laoag, and advancing through Cabicungan and Pata into Cagayan. Despite their efforts, the rebels lacked reinforcements from other uprisings and faced logistical challenges.

By February 1661, Spanish forces with 300 soldiers under Alférez Lorenzo Arqueros and Maestre de Campo Juan Manalo launched a counteroffensive. The Ilocano rebels employed guerrilla tactics and utilized their knowledge of the region's terrain to resist Spanish advances, forcing prolonged skirmishes in the mountainous areas. Despite their resilience and strategic efforts, the rebels were eventually overwhelmed. Juan Magsanop was captured but chose suicide over imprisonment, while Don Pedro Almazan and sixteen other leaders were captured and executed in Vigan.

Silang Revolt

The first significant uprising against Spanish colonial rule in the Philippines, spearheaded by Diego Silang and, after his death, by his wife, Gabriela Silang. This revolt took place amidst the broader context of the Seven Years' War, during which Britain, retaliating against Spain's alliance with France, launched a military incursion into the Philippines. In September 1762, British forces occupied Manila, and their military operations aimed to seize control of other Philippine provinces. The weakening of Spanish power presented an opportunity for Diego Silang to lead a rebellion in Ilocos.

Diego Silang's motivations were deeply rooted in the hardships experienced by the Ilocanos under Spanish rule. The Ilocanos faced heavy taxation, forced labor for the construction of churches and government buildings, and the imposition of monopolies by the Spanish. These widespread grievances contributed to a strong local support base for the revolt. Silang's disillusionment began when, while serving as a courier for the parish priest in Vigan, he witnessed the injustices faced by the people of Ilocos and the rest of the Philippines. After unsuccessful negotiations with Spanish authorities for more autonomy for the Ilocanos, he resolved to take up arms in revolt.

By December 1762, Diego Silang had successfully seized Vigan and declared the independence of Ilocandia, naming it “Free Ilocos” with Vigan as its capital. He was promised military support from the British, but this assistance never materialized, leaving him vulnerable. Despite this setback, Silang pressed on with the rebellion, determined to liberate Ilocos from Spanish control. The rebellion, however, was cut short when Diego Silang was assassinated in May 1763 by Miguel Vicos, a mestizo of Spanish and Ilocano descent, who had once been his ally. The assassination was orchestrated by Spanish authorities, both governmental and ecclesiastical, in an effort to eliminate Silang's challenge to their rule. Although Diego Silang's death marked a temporary setback for the revolt, his cause was carried forward by his wife, Gabriela Silang.

Gabriela Silang assumed leadership of the insurgents and continued to resist Spanish rule. Under her command, the Ilocano forces achieved their first victory in the town of Santa, where they defeated Spanish troops. This success startled the Spanish, who had not anticipated a woman leading a revolt. After the victory, Gabriela and her forces retreated to the rugged terrain of Pidigan, Abra, where they were joined by Diego Silang's uncle, Nicolas Cariño. Cariño temporarily assumed command and gathered around 2,000 men loyal to Diego Silang.

On September 10, 1763, Gabriela and her forces launched attacks on the Spanish in Vigan. While some skirmishes resulted in victories, others were defeats, and both sides suffered heavy casualties. Ultimately, Gabriela's forces were overwhelmed, and she was captured by Spanish forces led by Miguel Vicos, who had previously assassinated her husband. Gabriela was paraded through coastal towns as a public spectacle to instill fear among the Ilocanos. She was publicly hanged in September 1763, along with nearly ninety of her supporters, marking the end of the Silang Revolt. Despite her death, Gabriela Silang's legacy endured. She is often referred to as the "Joan of Arc of the Philippines" and is remembered as the first female leader in the country's history to actively fight for its liberation from colonial rule.

Basi Revolt

Historical records indicate that in 1786, discontent among the populace grew due to a monopoly on local basi wine, a sugarcane-based alcoholic beverage, enforced by the Spanish colonial government. This monopoly regulated the consumption of basi and mandated that producers sell it at a low official price. Basi held significant cultural and societal importance for the Ilocanos, being integral to rituals surrounding ''childbirth, marriage,'' and ''death''. Additionally, the production of basi was a vital industry in Ilocos, making the Spanish-imposed monopoly a substantial cultural and economic detriment.

The abuses of the Spanish authorities culminated in the Basi Revolt, also known as the ''Ambaristo Revolt'', which erupted on September 16, 1807, in present-day Piddig, and subsequently spread throughout the province. The revolt was led by ''Pedro Mateo'', a cabeza de barangay from Piddig, and ''Saralogo Ambaristo'', an Ilocano and Tinguian. Participants included disgruntled elements from various towns of Ilocos Norte and Ilocos Sur, including Piddig, Badoc, Sarrat, Laoag, Sinait, Cabugao, Magsingal, and others. They marched southward under their own flag of yellow and red horizontal bands toward the provincial capital of Vigan to protest the abuses of the Spanish colonial government.
In response to the revolt, the alcalde-mayor, ''Juan Ybañez'', mobilized the town mayors and the Vigan troops to confront the rebels. On September 28, while crossing the ''Bantaoay River'' in San Ildefonso en route to Vigan, the Ilocano forces were ambushed by Spanish troops, resulting in the deaths of hundreds. Survivors faced execution, and their leaders were publicly rounded up and executed, serving as a stark warning against further resistance.The Basi Revolt lasted for 13 days, prompting the colonial government to partition the Ilocos province into Ilocos Norte and Ilocos Sur. Although the revolt did not achieve its primary objective of liberation, it succeeded in galvanizing subsequent movements for justice and freedom in Northern Luzon. The division of the Ilocos Province into two distinct regions was a direct consequence of the unrest, highlighting the colonial government's efforts to manage and suppress the growing discontent among the Ilocano people. Ultimately, the Basi Revolt marked a significant chapter in the struggle against Spanish colonial rule, laying the groundwork for future movements advocating for justice and autonomy.

Philippine Revolution

The Ilocano revolutionaries made significant contributions to the Philippine Revolution, employing Ilocano fighting techniques and weapon styles, particularly through their leadership and military efforts under General Manuel Tinio, a central figure in the northern resistance against Spanish forces. His brigade garrisoned the entire western portion of Northern Luzon, which included Pangasinan and the four main Ilocano provinces: Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur, Abra, and La Union, as well as the comandancias of Amburayan, Lepanto-Bontoc, and Benguet. To manage this vast territory effectively, General Tinio divided it into three military zones:

* Zone 1, under ''Lt. Col. Casimiro Tinio'', covered La Union, Benguet, and Amburayan.
* Zone 2, led by ''Lt. Col. Blas Villamor'', encompassed Southern Ilocos Sur (from Tagudin to Bantay), Abra, and Lepanto-Bontoc.
* Zone 3, commanded by ''Lt. Col. Irineo de Guzman'', included Northern Ilocos Sur (from Sto. Domingo to Sinait) and Ilocos Norte.

The Villamor brothers, Blas and Juan, played crucial roles in leading the Ilocano resistance, particularly in Abra, where their guerrilla warfare tactics against Spanish forces were vital in securing key areas. Estanislao Reyes of Vigan, Ilocos Sur, was another significant leader who helped organize and defend against Spanish control in the region. Tinio and his generals resorted to guerrilla warfare to outmaneuver Spanish troops, utilizing the challenging terrain of northern Luzon to their advantage. The military campaigns were highly effective, especially in the Ilocos Sur area, where Blas Villamor defended towns such as Tagudin and Bantay. Juan Villamor focused on strategic operations in Abra, helping to weaken Spanish influence in the region.

In August 1898, the Ilocanos drove the Spanish forces out of several towns, including Laoag, Ilocos Norte, a significant victory that marked a turning point in the revolution. This enabled the revolutionaries to continue their push south and establish provisional governments aligned with Emilio Aguinaldo's revolutionary government.

Meanwhile, Father Gregorio Aglipay, the military vicar general of the Philippine Revolutionary Army, led a separate campaign in Ilocos Norte. Father Aglipay, who would later found the Philippine Independent Church, played a key role in rallying local support and organizing military operations in the region. His leadership was not only religious but also military, as he led several attacks on Spanish forces, contributing to the weakening of Spanish control in Ilocos Norte.

The ''Cry of Candon'' is recognized as one of the earliest uprisings that occurred during the second phase of the Philippine Revolution. On March 25, 1898, a force of Ilocano Katipuneros, led by Don Isabelo Abaya, launched an assault on the town of Candon and successfully captured the convent and the center of town from Spanish forces.

The ''Battle of Vigan'', fought in August 1898, stands as one of the most important Ilocano-led victories. Under Estanislao Reyes, the Ilocano fighters successfully defended the town of Vigan, Ilocos Sur, against the Spanish. This battle was crucial in demonstrating the Ilocano people's determination to resist foreign control.

In 1899, as the Philippine-American War intensified, the Ilocano revolutionaries, led by Tinio and his generals, continued to rely on guerrilla tactics to resist American forces. The Ilocanos, familiar with the mountainous terrain, conducted surprise attacks and ambushes, making it difficult for American forces to maintain control over the region.

By 1901, the region eventually fell under American control after prolonged resistance. However, the Ilocano revolutionaries, under the leadership of General Tinio, the Villamor brothers, and Estanislao Reyes, delayed American forces for months, buying valuable time for the rest of the nation's revolutionary efforts. Ilocano resistance ended in April 1901.

Philippine-American War

The Ilocano resistance during the Philippine-American War (1899–1901) was a period marked by intense conflict and defiance against American occupation in Northern Luzon. The war with the Ilocanos commenced in late November 1899, when General Samuel Baldwin Marks Young led an American offensive through La Union and Ilocos Sur, pushing back the forces of General Manuel Tinio. In response, Ilocano revolutionaries engaged in a combination of guerrilla warfare and conventional battles.

In November 1899, Young's forces captured key Ilocano towns, including San Fernando, Agoo, Balaoan, and Bangar, forcing Tinio's troops to retreat northward. Significant battles occurred in major towns such as Vigan, Laoag, Candon, Bangued, and Santa Maria, where Ilocano forces launched daring attacks on American garrisons.

On December 2, 1899, the Battle of Tirad Pass became a defining moment in the resistance, as General Gregorio del Pilar and his men fought to delay American forces pursuing President Emilio Aguinaldo.

Throughout 1900, Ilocano forces maintained strong resistance, engaging in battles and skirmishes in Narvacan, Batac, Piddig, San Nicolas, Sinait, and Santa Cruz. Guerrilla fighters disrupted American supply lines and launched ambushes in Tangadan Pass, Bangui, Badoc, and Pasuquin, targeting American patrols and military convoys. Prominent figures such as Colonels Joaquin Luna, Blas and Juan Villamor, Major Estanislao Reyes, Gregorio Aglipay and La Union governor Lucino Almieda and Ilocos Norte governor Ireneo Javier played pivotal roles in the conflict.

In January 1900, coordinated attacks in Namacpacan (now Luna), Santo Domingo, Lapog (now San Juan), and Cabugao included cutting telegraph lines and raiding American garrisons. Major confrontations also occurred in Piddig, Laoag, and Candon, where Filipino forces continued to resist despite increasing American military pressure.

Ilocano civilians were instrumental in sustaining the resistance by providing food, intelligence, and logistical support. Towns and villages served as supply points for guerrilla fighters, despite the threat of American retaliation. The region's harsh terrain, including mountains and forests, was effectively utilized to evade American pursuit and launch surprise attacks.

Religious leaders, particularly Gregorio Aglipay, supported the revolution by rallying local communities and maintaining morale among the fighters. Women, such as Eleuteria Florentino and Salome Reyes, were arrested and deported for their support of the resistance, illustrating widespread civilian involvement.

The American response to the Ilocano resistance was severe, involving brutal counterinsurgency measures such as village burnings, mass arrests, and the forced relocation of civilians to garrisoned town centers. General Samuel Young, a key figure in the American pacification campaign, led numerous operations against Ilocano strongholds and implemented harsh policies to suppress the resistance.

Later, General J. Franklin Bell adopted a strategy of concentrating civilians in town centers to cut off resources to the guerrillas. American forces also enlisted Igorot tribesmen, who captured Filipino fighters in exchange for rewards. Despite these aggressive tactics, Ilocano forces continued to resist, engaging in battles such as the skirmishes in Parparia and Mount Simminublan, where they inflicted significant casualties on American troops.

By 1901, the resistance began to wane as American counterinsurgency efforts intensified. The capture or surrender of key leaders, including Colonel Blas Villamor, Major Estanislao Reyes, and Colonel Joaquin Alejandrino, weakened the movement's operational capacity.

On April 29, 1901, General Tinio formally surrendered in Vigan, followed by the surrender of his remaining 350 men in May 1901, effectively marking the end of the Ilocano resistance. Despite their eventual defeat, the tactical ingenuity and resilience of the Ilocano revolutionaries played a crucial role in the broader struggle for Philippine independence, leaving a lasting legacy of defiance against colonial rule.

American Colonization

By 1901, the US had fully established control over Ilocandia, implementing a military government to suppress local resistance and manage growing insurgencies among the Ilocano population. This military rule was eventually replaced by a civil government, marking a significant shift in the region's governance. Under the civil administration, Ilocano society began to transition into a more organized and democratic structure, influenced by American political and social models.

Key priorities included the expansion of education, suffrage, civil rights, and political participation, which empowered the Ilocano people to actively engage in the democratic processes introduced by the Americans. However, tensions persisted as U.S. military officials, including Colonel William Duvall, resisted relinquishing their control, resulting in frequent conflicts with the Philippine Commission, led by Civil Governor William Howard Taft.

One of the most significant initiatives of the American colonial government was the establishment of public schools, spanning Ilocano provinces such as Abra, La Union, Pangasinan, Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur, and Cagayan. A group of American teachers known as the Thomasites were tasked with promoting ''"Americanization"'' through education. English became the primary medium of instruction, and students were taught American ideals and values. A notable product of this educational initiative was Camilo Osias, an Ilocano student from Balaoan, who later pursued further studies in the United States and became a prominent educator and public servant.

Public health also saw significant improvements during American rule. To combat widespread diseases such as cholera, the U.S. introduced public health initiatives, establishing hospitals and other medical services across Ilocandia. These efforts contributed to the overall improvement of the population's health and well-being.

Ilocano Migration

The American colonial period also marked a significant chapter in the larger history of Filipino migration. In 1906, the first group of Ilocano migrants, known as the ''"Sakadas,"'' were recruited by Albert F. Judd of the Hawaiian Sugar Planters Association (HSPA) to work on sugarcane plantations in Hawaii. This migration wave continued until 1919 and was a defining moment in the history of Ilocano emigration.

Between 1906 and 1930, over 30,000 Ilocanos migrated to Hawaii and California in search of better economic opportunities, particularly in agricultural work. The Ilocano community played a central role in shaping the Filipino workforce in Hawaii and the broader U.S. agricultural economy. As a result, according to the U.S. Census Bureau, about 85% of the Filipinos in Hawaii are Ilocano and the largest Asian ancestry group in Hawaii.

World War II

In 1901, the region came under American colonial rule, and in 1941, under Japanese occupation.

During the Second World War, in 1945, the combined American and Philippine Commonwealth troops, including the Ilocano and Pangasinan guerrillas, liberated the Ilocos Region from Japanese forces.

Modern history

Post-independence period

Three modern presidents of the Republic of the Philippines hailed from the Ilocos Region: Elpidio Quirino, Ferdinand Marcos, and Fidel Ramos. Marcos expanded the original Ilocos Region by transferring the province of Pangasinan from Region III into Region I in 1973, and imposed a migration policy for Ilocanos into Pangasinan. He also expanded Ilocano influence among the ethnic peoples of the Cordilleras by including Abra, Mountain Province, and Benguet in the Ilocos region in 1973, although these were later integrated into the Cordillera Administrative Region in 1987. A third "Ilocano" President, Fidel V. Ramos, hailed from Pangasinan.

Martial Law era

Ilocanos were also among the victims of human rights violations during the martial law era which began in September 1972, despite public perception that the region was supportive of Marcos' administration. According to the Solidarity of Peasants Against Exploitation (STOP-Exploitation), various farmers from the Ilocos Norte towns of Vintar, Dumalneg, Solsona, Marcos, and Piddig were documented to have been tortured, and eight farmers in Bangui and three indigenous community members in Vintar were forcibly disappeared (euphemistically, "salvaged") in 1984.

Ilocanos who were critical of Marcos' authoritarian rule included Roman Catholic Archbishop and Agoo native Antonio L. Mabutas, who spoke actively against the torture and killings of church workers. Another prominent opponent of the martial law regime was human rights advocate and Bombo Radyo Laoag program host David Bueno, who worked with the Free Legal Assistance Group in Ilocos Norte during the later part of the Marcos administration and the early part of the succeeding Corazon Aquino administration. Bueno was assassinated by motorcycle-riding men in fatigue uniforms on October 22, 1987 – part of a wave of assassinations which coincided with the 1986–87 coup d'état which tried to unseat the democratic government set up after the 1986 People Power Revolution.

Others critics included student activists Romulo and Armando Palabay of San Fernando, La Union, who were tortured and killed in a Philippine military camp in Pampanga; and Purificacion Pedro, a Catholic lay social worker who tried to help the indigenous peoples in the resistance against the Chico River Dam Project, but was caught in the crossfire of a military operation, and was later murdered in the hospital by a soldier who claimed she was a rebel sympathizer.

Bueno, Pedro, and the Palabay brothers would later be honored as martyrs of the fight against the dictatorship at the Philippines' Bantayog ng mga Bayani memorial.

Demographics

According to the Philippine Statistics Authority's 2020 report on Ethnicity in the Philippines, the Ilocano people represent the third largest ethnolinguistic group in the country, totaling ''8,746,169'' individuals, which constitutes 8.0% of the national population. They follow the Tagalog and Bisayan groups in size. While Ilocanos have dispersed widely both within the Philippines and abroad, the highest concentration of Ilocano people remains in their home provinces, where they number approximately three million. Specifically, they account for 58.3% or 3,083,391 of the population in the Ilocos Region, with Pangasinan hosting the largest number at 1,258,746, followed by La Union with 673,312, Ilocos Sur with 580,484, and Ilocos Norte with 570,849.

In Northern Luzon, particularly in neighboring provinces where Ilocanos have migrated, they have also become the predominant ethnic group. In Region II (Cagayan Valley), there are ''2,274,435 Ilocanos'', representing 61.8% of the region's population. In Isabela, 1,074,212 Ilocanos were recorded, followed by Cagayan with 820,546, Nueva Vizcaya with 261,901, Quirino with 117,360, and Batanes with 416. The Cordillera Administrative Region (CAR) recorded a total of ''396,713 Ilocanos'', making up 22.1% of its population. Abra had the highest number with 145,492, followed by Benguet (including Baguio City) with 138,022, Apayao with 47,547, Kalinga with 31,812, Ifugao with 26,677, and Mt. Province with 7,163 Ilocanos.

Beyond Northern Luzon, in Region III (Central Luzon), Ilocanos comprise 10.8% or ''1,335,283'' of the region's population, making them the third most common ethnic group there. Tarlac registered 555,000 Ilocanos, followed by Nueva Ecija with 369,864, Zambales (including Olongapo City) with 183,629, Bulacan with 97,603, Aurora with 65,204, Pampanga (including Angeles City) with 40,862, and Bataan with 29,121. In the National Capital Region (NCR), ''762,629 Ilocanos'' were recorded. The highest number was in Quezon City with 213,602, followed by Manila City with 112,016, Caloocan City with 97,212, Taguig City with 54,668, Makati City with 44,733, Valenzuela City with 36,774, and Pasig City with 35,671 Ilocanos.

In Southern Luzon, specifically in Region IV-A ( CALABARZON), there were ''330,774 Ilocanos'', with the majority residing in Rizal (141,134) and Cavite (126,349), followed by Laguna with 44,173, Batangas with 10,402, and Quezon (including Lucena City) with 8,716. Region IV-B (MIMAROPA) had 117,635 Ilocanos, with Occidental Mindoro hosting 53,851 and Palawan 33,573. In the Bicol Region (Region V), there were ''15,434 Ilocanos'', the majority of whom lived in Camarines Sur (5,826) and Albay (3,236).

In the Visayas, Region VI (Western Visayas) recorded ''3,952 Ilocanos'', the majority residing in Aklan (1,061). In Region VII (Central Visayas), there were ''4,330 Ilocanos'', with the largest number in Bohol (1,651). In Region VIII (Eastern Visayas), ''4,797 Ilocanos'' were recorded, with Leyte hosting the majority (1,840).

In Mindanao, Region IX (Zamboanga Peninsula) had ''20,232 Ilocanos'', with the largest population in Zamboanga del Sur (7,996). In Region X (Northern Mindanao), there were ''30,845 Ilocanos'', most of whom lived in Bukidnon (23,957). Region XI (Davao Region) recorded ''75,907 Ilocanos'', with Davao del Norte hosting the largest population (31,333). In Region XII (SOCCSKSARGEN), ''248,033 Ilocanos'' were recorded, with the majority in Sultan Kudarat (97,983). Region XIII (CARAGA) had ''24,211 Ilocanos'', most of whom resided in Agusan del Sur (13,588). Finally, in the Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao ( BARMM), there were ''17,568 Ilocanos,'' with the majority in Maguindanao (including Cotabato City), where 11,262 Ilocanos were recorded.

Diaspora

The Ilocano diaspora is a complex blend of both forced and voluntary migration. It represents the broader narrative of ''“leaving the homeland”'' driven by economic necessity, social upheaval, and the quest for better opportunities. Ilocanos, primarily from the Ilocos Region in the Philippines, have historically migrated to escape oppressive conditions imposed by Spanish colonizers and to seek new opportunities.

Ilocano diaspora dates back to the 19th century when Ilocanos began migrating to various parts of the country to seek employment and cultivate land. As early as 1903, they moved and settled in nearby provinces in Luzon. A study conducted on the diaspora of Ilocanos in Cagayan stated, “the reasons for Ilocano migration can be associated with economic factors which have deeper roots in the forced labor imposed by Spanish colonizers and the climatic conditions in the region that make growing crops difficult”. This initial wave of migration was spurred by mounting population pressures and high density during the mid-19th century, causing many Ilocanos to leave their traditional homeland.

By 1903, over 290,000 Ilocanos had migrated to regions such as Central Luzon, Cagayan Valley, and Metro Manila. More than 180,000 relocated to the provinces of Pangasinan, Tarlac, and Nueva Ecija. There has historically been a sizable Ilocano population in Aurora and Quezon province, dating back to when these areas were part of Southern Tagalog and one whole province. Almost 50,000 Ilocanos moved to Cagayan Valley, with half of them residing in Isabela. Other provinces that attracted Ilocano migrants included Zambales, which housed around 47,000 migrants, and Sultan Kudarat, where more than 11,000 settled.

In subsequent years, further migrations brought Ilocanos to the Cordilleras, Mindoro, and Palawan. Between 1948 and 1960, around 15% of Ilocano migrants moved to Mindanao, establishing communities in provinces such as Sultan Kudarat, North Cotabato, South Cotabato, Bukidnon, Misamis Oriental, Caraga, and the Davao Region. Notably, Ilocanos even form a minority in Cebu City, where they organized associations for Ilocano residents and their descendants.

The Ilocano diaspora extended beyond the Philippines when, in 1906, many Ilocanos began migrating to the United States. This migration primarily aimed at finding work in agricultural plantations in Hawaii and California. The first wave of Filipino migrants to the United States consisted of the '' manongs'' and '' sakadas''. In Ilocano, the term ''manong'' is loosely used to refer to an elderly gentleman, originally meaning "older brother," derived from the Spanish term ''hermano'', which translates to "brother" or "sibling." Meanwhile, ''sakadas'' roughly translates to "imported ones," "lower-paid workers recruited out of the area," or "migrant workers," and denotes manual agricultural laborers who work outside their provinces.

During the early 20th century, the Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Association recruited Filipino men to work as skilled laborers in the sugarcane and pineapple fields of Hawaii. Most of these men hailed from the Ilocos region, motivated by the hope of ''gasat'', or ''"fate"'' in Ilocano. In April 1906, the Association approved a plan to recruit labor from the Philippines and tasked Albert F. Judd with the recruitment effort. The first Filipino farm laborers in Hawaii arrived in December 1906, specifically from Candon, Ilocos Sur, aboard the '. About 200 Ilocano sugar plantation workers arrived in Hawaii in 1906 and 1907. By 1929, Ilocano immigrants to Hawaii had reached 71,594. Most of the 175,000 Filipinos who went to Hawaii between 1906 and 1935 were single Ilocano men.

The Ilocano community in the United States has continued to grow, making them one of the largest groups of Filipino expatriates in the country. Many are bilingual, speaking both Ilocano and Tagalog. In Hawaii, Ilocanos constitute more than 85% of the Filipino population, maintaining their cultural identity while also integrating into the broader American society.

Today, Ilocanos can be found all over the world as migrants or Overseas Filipino Workers (OFWs), contributing to various sectors and economies in countries across the globe.

Languages

The native language of the Ilocanos is Iloco or Iloko with 8.7 million native speaker and about 2 million as second language, classified under its own branch within the Northern Philippine subgroup of the Austronesian language family. Closely related to other Austronesian languages in Northern Luzon, it exhibits slight mutual intelligibility with the Balangao language and the eastern dialects of the Bontoc language.

Ilocano has no official dialectology . A general accepted one is the Amianan (North) and Abagatan distinction, however they have no official basis other than the sound of schwa /ə/. Other distinctions like the so-called "Cordilleran" dialect (mainly talking about Baguio-Benguet) have no formal studies as of now. In 2012, it was declared the official language of the province of La Union.Ilocanos are predominantly trilingual, with Iloco as their first language and Filipino ( Tagalog) and English as their second languages. Due to migration and interactions with other ethnolinguistic groups, some Ilocanos have also become multilingual, acquiring proficiency in various regional languages.

In Pangasinan, some Ilocanos can understand or speak Pangasinan and Bolinao. In the Cagayan Valley, Ilocanos may have varying degrees of familiarity with Ibanag, Itawis, Ivatan, Gaddang, Yogad, Isinai, and Bugkalot. In Central Luzon, particularly in the provinces of Zambales and Tarlac, Ilocanos may also have knowledge of Sambal and Kapampangan.

In the Cordillera Administrative Region, Iloco serves as a lingua franca among different Cordilleran (Igorot) ethnolinguistic groups where it is spoken as a secondary language by over two million people. Some Ilocanos in Abra speak Itneg, while those in Benguet and Baguio may know Kankanaey and Ibaloi. In Apayao and Kalinga, they may also speak Isnag and Kalinga languages.

In Hawaii, 17% of those who speak a non-English language at home speak Iloco, making it the most spoken non-English language in the state.

Ilocanos who have migrated to Mindanao, particularly in the Soccsksargen and Caraga region, often adopt Hiligaynon, Cebuano, or other indigenous languages, such as Butuanon and Surigaonon, due to cultural integration with local ethnic groups. Over time, many Ilocanos in Mindanao have assimilated into the Cebuano-speaking majority (Hiligaynon-speaking in case of Soccsksargen), often identifying as Visayans.

While some retain Ilocano as a second or third language, younger generations in Mindanao primarily speak Cebuano or Hiligaynon, with limited knowledge of Ilocano. In Zamboanga City and Basilan, Ilocanos and their descendants commonly speak Chavacano, reflecting the region's distinct linguistic landscape and cultural diversity.

The pre-colonial writing system of the Ilocano people, known as ''kur-itan'' or ''kurdita'', has garnered interest in recent years, with proposals to revive the script through educational initiatives in Ilocano-majority areas such as Ilocos Norte and Ilocos Sur.

Religion

The religious landscape of the Ilocano people is largely shaped by Roman Catholicism, a lasting influence of Spanish colonization, which began in the mid-16th century. This introduction of Christianity deeply impacted the spiritual customs and beliefs of the Ilocanos. However, indigenous traditions and practices continue to persist. This fusion of faiths has created a distinct religious identity, reflecting both the historical impact of colonization and the resilient spirit of Ilocano culture. Today, Ilocano religious identity continues to evolve, influenced by both traditional customs and modern developments, while remaining closely connected to their cultural heritage."Ilokanos."
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cultures. The Gale Group, Inc. 1999. Retrieved December 10, 2009.

Christianity

Roman Catholicism

When the Spaniards arrived in the Philippines in the 1500s, they introduced Roman Catholicism, which quickly became the dominant religion among Ilocanos. Spanish missionaries, particularly the Augustinian friars, played a pivotal role in converting the local population to Christianity. This conversion significantly reshaped the spiritual and cultural landscape of Ilocano society, and today, Catholicism remains central to their way of life, influencing everything from personal faith to communal activities.

One of the most prominent expressions of Catholicism in Ilocano culture is through religious Festivals in the Philippines, ''festivals'', or ''fiestas''. These celebrations are held in honor of a town or barangay's (village) patron saint. Each community has its own patron, and the fiesta is a time of thanksgiving, celebration, and social gathering. The fiestas are marked by processions, masses, and street parades where religious images are carried through the streets, accompanied by music, dance, and feasting. These celebrations serve as a fusion of religious devotion and cultural identity, bringing together families and communities in shared faith and festivities. Some well-known fiestas in the Ilocos region include the Paoay Church Fiesta in honor of Saint Augustine and various celebrations dedicated to the Virgin Mary.

The Ilocano people also observe major Christian celebrations with great reverence. One of the most significant is Semana santa, Semána Santa or ''Nasantuan a Lawas'' (Holy Week), which commemorates the passion, death, and resurrection of Jesus, Jesus Christ. During this time, Ilocanos participate in various rituals, including processions and reenactments of the Stations of the Cross. One traditional practice is the ''carroza'', ''Pabasa (ritual), pabása'' or ''novena'', where the Passion of Christ is chanted or recited in a communal gathering. The ''leccio'' is a form of lamentation expressed by Mary, the mother of Jesus, reflecting on the suffering and crucifixion of Jesus Christ. This lament is comparable to the ''dung-aw'', a traditional Ilokano mourning ritual typically performed by elder women.

''Todos los Santos'' (All Saints' Day) and ''Pista Natay'' or ''Aldaw Dagiti Kararua'' (All Souls' Day) are also significant, observed every November 1 and 2. These days are dedicated to honoring the saints and remembering deceased loved ones. Families visit cemeteries to offer prayers, flowers, and food (Atang (food offering), atang) at the graves of their relatives, demonstrating the Catholic tradition of reverence for the souls of the departed.

The Christmas season, or ''Paskua'', is another highly anticipated time for Ilocanos. The celebration begins with the Misa de Gallo or Simbang Gabi, a series of nine dawn masses leading up to Christmas Day. This tradition is deeply rooted in Ilocano Catholic life, where families wake up early to attend these masses in preparation for the birth of Christ. Christmas in Ilocano communities is also marked by feasts, the exchange of gifts, and the display of parols (traditional star-shaped lanterns) that symbolize the star of Bethlehem.

Other Denominations
While Roman Catholicism remains the dominant faith among the Ilocano people, other religious groups have made significant inroads, particularly the Philippine Independent Church, commonly known as the ''Iglesia Filipina Independiente'' (Aglipayan Church). Founded in 1902 by Father Gregorio Aglipay from Ilocos Norte, this church emerged as a nationalist response to Spanish colonial control over the Catholic Church in the Philippines. Its establishment was rooted in the desire for a church that reflected Filipino identity and sovereignty, free from foreign influence. Although the Aglipayan Church shares many rituals and practices with Roman Catholicism, it distinguishes itself through its emphasis on nationalism, appealing to those who resonate with the country's struggle for independence.In addition to the Aglipayan Church, various Protestantism, Protestant denominations have been introduced to the Ilocano community, largely through American missionaries during the colonial period. Denominations such as the United Church of Christ in the Philippines and Iglesia ni Cristo have established congregations throughout the region, offering alternatives to the predominant Catholic faith. These Protestant churches focus on fostering personal relationships with God, upholding the authority of the Bible, and engaging in active community service, which has resonated with many Ilocanos seeking a different expression of their faith.

Indigenous belief

The early Ilocano people held animistic beliefs with Angalo a giant and the first man, and son of the god of building. Their world was populated by deities and spiritual beings who controlled everything from the weather to the harvest, and who required respect, offerings, and rituals in exchange for their favor and protection. These indigenous beliefs evolved over time, influenced by the Ilocano people's interactions with neighboring cultures and through trade with other civilizations, such as the Igorot, Chinese in the Philippines, Chinese and Tagalog communities.

Deities

In Teodoro A. Llamzon's ''Handbook of Philippine Language Groups'' (1978), the Ilocano belief system is described as having several key deities who governed the natural world. Among them was ''Buni'', the supreme god, and ''Parsua'', the creator. Other significant deities included ''Apo Langit'', the lord of the heavens; ''Apo Angin'', the god of the wind; ''Apo Init'', the god of the sun; and ''Apo Tudo'', the god of rain. These gods were believed to be ever-present, shaping the daily lives of the Ilocano people through the natural forces they controlled.

However, due to the geographic distribution of Ilocano settlements, variations in their religious practices emerged. Each region developed its own distinct versions of the Ilocano deities, often blending indigenous beliefs with those of neighboring ethnic groups like the Igorot, Tagalog, and Chinese traders. For instance, a myth from Vigan, Ilocos Sur, recorded in 1952, features an entirely different set of deities. In this myth, ''Abra'', the god of weather, fathered ''Caburayan'', the goddess of healing, while other gods like ''Anianihan'' (god of harvests), ''Saguday'' (god of the wind), and ''Revenador'' (god of thunder and lightning) play prominent roles. This shows how the Ilocano cosmology was shaped by both internal diversity and external cultural influences.

The influence of trade is evident in some of these myths. The presence of ''Maria Makiling'', a figure also found in Tagalog myths, suggests that the Ilocano mythology absorbed elements from neighboring Tagalog regions, while other symbols, like the use of ''"lobo"'' (Spanish for wolf) in the mythological pantheon, show the influence of Spanish colonization. Vigan, a bustling trade hub long before the Spanish arrived, saw extensive interactions with Chinese merchants, whose myths and stories likely influenced Ilocano lore. In fact, some scholars suggest that Ilocano epics, like the famous tale of Lam Ang, Lam-ang, bear traces of Hindu and Southeast Asian mythology, a reflection of the Majapahit Empire, Majapahit Empire's influence on precolonial trade routes.

Spirits
At the heart of Ilocano religion was the belief in anito—spirits that governed all aspects of the natural and spiritual worlds. These spirits could be benevolent or malevolent, depending on how they were treated by the living. Specific spirits governed different aspects of the environment, such as the ''litao'', spirits of the waters, the ''kaibáan'', spirits of the forest undergrowth, and the ''mangmangkik'', spirits of trees. The Ilocano people believed that cutting down trees or disposing of hot water without proper appeasement of these spirits could result in illness or misfortune.To avoid angering these spirits, the Ilocanos performed rituals, including chanting specific incantations. For example, before cutting down a tree, they would recite a chant that called upon the mangmangkik, asking for forgiveness and protection. Similar practices were performed for the kaibáan and other spirits, showing a deep respect for the natural world. To appease the mangmangkik before cutting down a tree, the following chant was made:

Offerings, called Atang (food offering), atang, were another key aspect of Ilocano spiritual life. These offerings, which included food, were placed on platforms called simbaan or in caves where spirits were believed to dwell. The atang served as a form of tribute to ensure that the spirits remained peaceful and benevolent toward the living.

Cosmology

Ilocano cosmology is centered around the concepts of ''suróng'' (upstream, symbolizing creation and life) and ''puyupoyán'' (downstream, representing death and the afterlife), which shaped their understanding of the universe. Offerings to the dead were often floated downstream to symbolize the soul's journey to the afterlife. The Milky Way, known as ''ariwanás'' or ''Rimmuok dagiti Bitbituén'', was viewed as a celestial river, reinforcing the Ilocano connection between water and the cosmos.

A creation myth describes Aran, who created the sky and hung the sun, moon, and stars, and his companion Angalo, who shaped the land and, through spitting on the ground, brought forth the first humans. These humans, carried in a bamboo tube, washed ashore in the Ilocos region, establishing a link between the Ilocano people and their divine ancestors.

The Ilocanos also associate shooting stars, known as ''layáp'', with love, believing they carry mystical ''babató'' (miraculous stones of love) that can be captured by tying a knot in a handkerchief when one falls. One tale recounts lovers who mysteriously drowned in a shallow marsh. Furthermore, the goddess ''Sehal'', meaning beauty, may have been an Ilocano counterpart to Venus, invoked in love letters and symbolizing a deep reverence for love and beauty.

Soul and afterlife

The Ilocano people believed in a multi-soul system, with four distinct types of souls, each serving different functions. The ''kararúa'' was the equivalent of the Christian soul, which left the body only upon death. The ''karkarma'' could leave the body during moments of extreme fear or trauma, while the ''aniwaas'' wandered during sleep, visiting familiar places. The ''araria'' was the soul of the dead, which could return to the world of the living, often manifesting as a poltergeist or through omens like the howling of dogs or the breaking of glass.

Ilocanos held elaborate death rites, believing that the souls of the deceased required offerings during their transition to the afterlife. These offerings included food and money to help the soul pay the toll to the ''agrakrakit'', the spirit who ferried souls across rivers to the afterlife. This belief in the river as a pathway to the afterlife reflects a larger theme in Ilocano religion: ''water as both a source of life and a passageway to death.''

Water beliefs

Water played an essential role in Ilocano spirituality, with Apo Litao, the god of the sea and rivers, being one of the most important deities. One myth tells of a girl who was swept away by the river and taken by Apo Litao, eventually becoming his wife and the queen of the waters. This figure, described as a mermaid or sirena, had the power to kill those who disrespected her but granted gifts to those who honored her.

In addition to Apo Litao, water was seen as a cosmic force that connected the living with the dead. The deceased were often buried with offerings to ensure safe passage across the river to the afterlife, a concept shared by many indigenous groups across the Philippines.

Food offerings

The Ilocano ritual of "Atang (food offering), Atang" aims to appease malevolent spirits, or anitos, and drive away evil influences. In Ilocano culture, there is a strong belief that spirits—whether of the deceased or from other realms—coexist with the living and must be honored whenever they are disturbed or offended. The ritual is performed during wakes and on ''Pista ti Natay'' (All Souls' Day).

During an Atang ritual, plates of food are meticulously prepared, featuring delicacies such as ''kankanen'' (sticky rice cakes), ''bagas'' (Rice, uncooked rice), boiled eggs, ''búa'' (betel nut), ''gawéd'' or ''paan'' (piper leaf), ''apóg'' (lime powder), ''basi'' (fermented sugarcane wine), and tabako (tobacco). Traditionally, offerings to the anitos were placed on platforms called ''simbaan'' or in trees, caves believed to be inhabited by spirits.

However, due to the influence of Christianity, these offerings are now typically placed in front of a photo of the departed or an image of Jesus, Mary, or the Holy Family, either in homes or at gravesites. Following this, family members and mourners engage in prayers to honor the deceased and seek protection from malevolent spirits, ensuring that these spirits remain peaceful and benevolent toward the living. The Ilocano belief in spirits extends to supernatural beings such as the ''katawtaw-an'', spirits of infants who died unbaptized and were thought to pose a danger to newborns.

Crocodiles (''bukarot''), once abundant in the Philippines, were deeply respected by the Ilocanos, who regarded them as divine creatures and symbols of their ancestors. As a sign of respect, Ilocanos would offer their first catch to crocodiles (''panagyatang'') to avoid misfortune.

Human Sacrifice

''Sibróng'' was a significant ritual in early Ilocano belief, deeply tied to headhunting and human sacrifice. This practice was typically performed during the death of community leaders or members of the principalía to ensure their safe passage to the afterlife. The ritual involved a figure called the ''mannibróng'', who was responsible for carrying out the executions.

There were two primary types of ''sibróng''. The first type required the taking of a victim's head, which was placed in the foundation of a bridge, symbolizing strength and protection. The second, known as ''panagtutuyo'', involved the dying person raising a certain number of fingers, which signified how many individuals needed to be sacrificed to accompany their soul to the afterlife. In some instances, instead of actual death, those chosen for sacrifice would have their fingers severed as a symbolic offering.

Another aspect of sibróng involved placing human heads in the foundations of buildings to provide spiritual protection and prevent damage.

Culture

Literature

Ilocano literature draws on traditional Ilocano mythology, folklore, and superstition.

Epiko

At the heart of Ilocano literature lies its epic poetry, with Biag ni Lam-ang (The Life of Lam-ang) being the most notable example. Composed by Pedro Bucaneg, a 17th-century author often referred to as the ''"Father of Ilocano Poetry,"'' this epic narrates the extraordinary adventures of its titular hero, Lam-ang.

The poem embodies core Ilocano values such as courage, loyalty, and respect for familial and ancestral ties, making it a crucial cultural artifact that has survived colonial influences.

Dandániw

Poem or dandániw Ilocano poetry has a rich tradition that has evolved over centuries. Ancient Ilocano poets expressed their thoughts and emotions through various forms, including folk and war poems and songs (''dállot''), which are improvised long poems delivered in a melodic fashion. These poetic forms not only served as artistic expressions but also as vehicles for cultural transmission.

Pagsasao

Proverbs, or ''pagsasao'', are an essential aspect of Ilocano literature. These succinct sayings encapsulate moral lessons, cultural values, and practical advice, serving as guiding principles in daily life. They are often shared during conversations, gatherings, and even formal occasions, reinforcing social bonds and community cohesion.

Bucanegan

Literary Duels ''or Búcanégan'' represents the unique literary duel tradition of the Ilocanos, akin to the Tagalog Balagtasan. Named after Pedro Bucaneg, these verbal jousts involve participants engaging in ''poetic debates'', showcasing their wit, creativity, and linguistic prowess. Bucanegan not only entertains but also serves as a platform for social commentary, allowing the community to address relevant issues through the lens of ''humor'' and ''poetry''.

Burburtia

Riddles, known as ''burburtia'', are another important form of Ilocano literature. These clever wordplay challenges test the intellect of both the speaker and the audience, fostering critical thinking and community engagement. Riddles often draw from nature, everyday life, and cultural references, making them a delightful and educational part of Ilocano oral tradition.

PublicationsIlocano literature began to flourish during the Spanish colonial period, with the publication of the Doctrina Christiana, ''Doctrina Cristiana'' in 1621 by Francisco Lopez. This was the first printed book in Ilocano, marking a significant milestone in the written tradition of the Ilocano people. Such works, including ''Sumario de las Indulgencias de la Santa Correa'', played a pivotal role in the spread of literacy and education among the Ilocano-speaking population, contributing to the cultural and intellectual development of the region.

In the late 19th century, Ilocano literature gained further recognition through the efforts of Isabelo de los Reyes, a prominent Ilocano scholar and writer. He published works like ''Ilocandias'' (1887), ''Articulos Varios'' (1887), and ''Historia de Filipinas'' (1889). His two-volume ''Historia de Ilocos'' (1890) became a cornerstone in documenting the history of Ilocos. Another significant literary achievement during this period was ''Matilde de Sinapangan'', the first Ilocano novel, written by Fr. Rufino Redondo in 1892.

20th century

The 19th and 20th centuries saw the emergence of prominent Ilocano authors. Leona Florentino, often referred to as the "National Poetess of the Philippines," became a prominent figure in the literary landscape despite mixed critical reception of her sentimental poetry. Other notable authors include Manuel Arguilla, whose works capture the essence of Ilocano culture during the early 20th century, and Carlos Bulosan, whose novel ''America Is in the Heart, America is in the Heart'' resonates deeply with the Filipino-American experience. Additionally, Isabelo de los Reyes played a pivotal role in preserving Ilocano literary heritage, contributing to the publication of essential works like the earliest known text of ''Biag ni Lam-ang.''

The 20th century marked a significant turning point in Ilocano literature, characterized by a growing recognition of its cultural importance. Authors like F. Sionil José, F. Sionil Jose and Elizabeth Medina emerged as influential voices. GUMIL Filipinas, or ''"Gunglo dagiti Mannurat nga Ilokano iti Filipinas"'', is an association of Ilocano writers in the Philippines. It's also known as the Ilokano Writers Association of the Philippines.

GUMIL's goals include providing a forum for Ilocano writers to work together to improve their writing, enriching Ilocano literature and cultural heritage, publishing books and other writings, and helping members pursue their writing careers. GUMIL has many active members in provincial and municipal chapters, as well as in overseas chapters in the U.S., Hawaii, and Greece. GUMIL was once the first website to focus on Philippine literature.

First published in 1934, ''Bannawag'' is widely regarded as the "Bible of the North." It reaches the heart of Northern Luzon, as well as Visayas, Mindanao, and Ilocano communities in Hawaii and America's West Coast. ''Bannawag'' highlights family values in its stories and articles and through the years has continued to inspire, entertain, and empower its readers. ''Bannawag'' (Iloko word meaning ''"dawn"'') is a Philippine weekly magazine published in the Philippines by Liwayway, Liwayway Publications Inc. It contains serialized novels/comics, short stories, poetry, essays, news features, entertainment news and articles, among others, that are written in Ilokano, a language common in the northern regions of the Philippines.

''Bannawag'' has been acknowledged as one foundation of the existence of contemporary Iloko literature. It is through the ''Bannawag'' that every Ilokano writer has proved his mettle by publishing his first Iloko short story, poetry, or essay, and thereafter his succeeding works, in its pages. The magazine is also instrumental in the establishment of GUMIL Filipinas, the umbrella organization of Ilocano writers in the Philippines and in other countries.

Music and Performing Arts

Music

Ilocano music is deeply embedded in the cultural traditions and way of life of the Ilocano people, reflecting the various stages of their life cycle—from ''birth'' through ''love,'' ''courtship, and marriage,'' to ''death''. It emphasizes significant life events, showcasing the emotions and experiences associated with them. Traditional forms of Ilocano music include ''duayya'' (lullabies), ''dállot'' (improvised chants for weddings and courtships), and ''dung-aw'' (lamentations for the deceased). These musical expressions not only convey heartfelt emotions but also serve as a lens through which one can understand Ilocano values, history, and social interactions.

Dung-áw

A solemn form of ''lamentation'' performed during funerals. It serves as a poetic expression of grief, where the reciter's genuine sorrow is conveyed through wailing and verse. The mournful tones and rhythm of the dung-aw stir emotions in both the performer and listeners, fostering a collective sense of loss and remembrance for the deceased.

Dállot

An improvised, versified poem delivered in a chant or singing, often performed during joyful occasions such as ''weddings'', ''courtships'', and ''betrothals''. An example of this is "''Dardarepdep''," (dream) which is a Harana (serenade), harana (serenade) in Tagalog, where love songs are sung to woo a woman. The term dállot originates from the Ilocano words for poem (''dániw'') and cockfight (''pallót''), blending heart and mind into poetic expressions of love, commitment, and community. Its performance is a creative showcase of spontaneous poetic artistry, celebrating unity and harmony in social gatherings.

A notable Manlilikha ng Bayan, ''Adelita Bagcal, Adelita Romualdo Bagcal'', has dedicated her life to preserving and promoting the Ilocano oral tradition of dallot since childhood. She is the last remaining expert in this art form, which focuses on courtship and marriage. Through her performances at social events, she demonstrates her mastery of the Ilocano language and its intricate literary devices.

Duayya

A traditional Ilocano ''lullaby sung'' by mothers to soothe and rock their babies to sleep.

Folk music
Ilocano folk music can be categorized into ''duwayya, dállot'', and ''dung-áw''. These musical forms reflect themes revolving around love, family, nature, and community. The melodies are simple yet powerful, serving as both a form of entertainment and a means of passing down stories, traditions, and moral lessons through generations. Here are some notable Ilocano folk songs:
* Ayat ti Ina (Love of a Mother) – Expresses a mother's unconditional love and care for her child, reinforcing the value of family in Ilocano life.
* Bannatiran – Refers to a native bird from Ilocos, using it as a metaphor for a woman's sought-after brown complexion.
* Dinak Kad Dildilawen (Do Not Criticize Me) – A patriotic song expressing pride in one's identity and origins.
* Duayya ni Ayat (Love's Lullaby) – A man expresses his love for a woman, asking her to stay loyal and not change her heart.
* Dungdungwen Kanto (Lullaby of Love) – A romantic song typically sung at weddings, symbolizing love and care between partners; can also be a lullaby.
* Kasasaad ti Kinabalasang (The Life of a Maiden) – Advises young women to carefully consider their decisions before marriage, highlighting responsibilities and challenges.
* Manang Biday – A song about the traditional courtship of a maiden named Biday, emphasizing Ilocano courtship rituals and modesty.
* Napateg a Bin-i (Cherished Seed) – Compares a woman to a cherished seed, illustrating her value and importance.
* No Duaduaem Pay (If You Still Doubt) – A reassurance song where a lover asks his beloved to trust in the sincerity of his love despite her doubts.
* O Naraniag a Bulan (O Bright Moon) – A fast-paced love song expressing sadness and desperation for enlightenment while contemplating tragic love.
* Osi-osi – A folk song depicting playful yet respectful courtship practices in Ilocano society.
* Pamulinawen (folk song), Pamulinawen – A song about a woman with a "hardened heart" who disregards her lover's pleas, reflecting unrequited love and resilience.
* Siasin ti Agayat Kenka? (Who is in Love with You?) – A song of persistent love where the singer passionately declares devotion and hopes his beloved accepts his feelings.
* Teng-nga ti Rabii (Midnight) – A lover's song about being awakened by the image and voice of his beloved at midnight, emphasizing longing and desire.
* Ti Ayat ti Maysa a Ubing (The Love of a Child) – Portrays the pure, unbiased, and unconditional love of a child, highlighting innocence and sincerity.

Dances

Ilocano dances are performed during rituals, celebrations, and social gatherings. They draw influences from Cordilleran (Igorot), Spanish, and American dance movements.

Kumintang

A traditional dance step associated with Ilocano values, especially the idea of saving for the future. While variations of the kumintang exist in other parts of the Philippines, the Ilocano version involves inward arm movements and half-closed hands. This reflects the practical, forward-thinking nature of the Ilocano people.The Ilocano Dance Heritage: Living Movements, Moving Lives

A special celebration of Tan-ok ni Ilocano Festival & Guling-Guling 2021 via Ilocos Norte Tourism https://www.facebook.com/TourIlocosNorte/videos/796368917900099

Korriti

A dance step showcases the energetic and hardworking spirit of the Ilocanos. It symbolizes the fast and lively movements needed to work in the fields or search for opportunities. The quick footwork represents their determination and resilience in earning a living.

Sagamantika

A gentle, flowing dance step that involves moving forward and backward. It symbolizes an important Ilocano belief: no matter where you go, you will always return to your roots. This step reflects the importance of home and the lasting connection to where one was born and raised.

Folk Dance

Ilocano folk dances vary across the region, with dances often being tied to specific locations and communities. They are performed for a variety of occasions, including courtship, community events, and rituals.
* Agabel – Weaving dance.
* Agdamdamili – Traditional pot dance.
* Ba-Ingles – A dance from Cabugao, brought by early English tradesmen.
* Binatbatan – Depicts cotton-beating to separate fibers.
* Binigan-bigat – Courtship dance where a boy pleads for a girl's love.
* Chotis Dingreña – Social dance performed as an intermission.
* Dinaklisan – Fishing dance showing fisherfolk's labor.
* Habanera – Traditional Spanish-influenced dance.
* Ilocana a Nasudi – Symbolizes the purity and modesty of Ilocana women.
* Innalisen – Traditional Ilocano dance.
* Jota Aragoneza – Ilocano Jota dance from Paoay, Ilocos Norte.
* Jota Moncadeña – Ilocano Jota dance from Moncada, Tarlac.
* Kinnalogong – Traditional Ilocano dance.
* Kinoton – Humorous dance mimicking someone bitten by ants.
* Kutsara Pasuquiña – Festive party dance.
* Pandanggo Laoagueña – Lively Ilocano courtship dance.
* Rabong – Celebrates bamboo shoots, a delicacy.
* Sabunganay – Represents a young girl not yet ready for courtship.
* Saimita – Traditional Ilocano dance.
* Sakuting – Theatrical dance from Abra province.
* Sileledda-ang – Courtship dance expressing deep affection.
* Surtido Banna (Espiritu) – Ilocano waltz variation.
* Surtido Norte – Mix of Ilocano dance steps symbolizing thriftiness.
* Vintareña – Dance for social events like weddings and baptisms.

Drama

Ilocano drama, or theater, includes the genres of ''zarzuela'' and ''comedia'' (or ''moro-moro''), which have been performed for generations. Other local performances include the dállot, a sung exchange about love between a man and a woman, and ''búcanégan'', a tribute performance honoring someone.

Zarzuelas

A type of musical theater that blends singing, dancing, and spoken dialogue. Introduced from Spain in the 19th century, it quickly became popular in the Ilocos region. Often centered on love stories with “boy-meets-girl” themes, zarzuela offers a mix of melodrama, comedy, and romance that appeals to audiences. One well-known Ilocano zarzuela, ''Tres Patrimoño'', tells the life stories of three important people from Vigan, Diego Silang, Diego and Gabriela Silang, Leona Florentino, and José Burgos, Padre Burgos, who all played significant roles in Philippine history.

Moro-Moro

Also known as ''comedia'', Moros y cristianos, moro moro a theatrical form that gained popularity in the 19th century through Marcelino Crisólogo, particularly during fiestas in Vigan. It centers on the conflicts between Christians and Muslims, in contrast to zarzuela, which addresses social issues through music and dance. Moro-moro incorporates traditional elements such as battle scenes and religious themes, and it places a strong emphasis on costumes and elaborate staging to convey its historical narratives.

Clothing and appearances

Pre-colonial

Before the arrival of the Spanish, Ilocanos, like many other indigenous groups in the Philippines, dressed simply yet stylishly, with both men and women paying attention to their appearances. Their practices were a reflection of their social norms, available resources, and interactions with neighboring Cordilleran groups such as the Tinguians.

Clothing

Both Ilocano men and women wore an upper garment called ''bádo'' or ''báru''. These garments were made similarly to the ''koton'' of the Itneg people and fine red "''chininas''" crepe from India, with silk reserved for the upper class. Men wore a collarless, waist-length fitted jacket with short, wide blue or black sleeves. Women's upper garments were also fitted but extended to the waist. To complete their attire, women often used a multicolored shawl, which was either draped over the shoulder or tied below the arm. Upper-class Ilocanas wore rich materials such as ''crimson silk'' woven with gold (''songket''), adorned with thick fringes for decoration.

For the lower garment, Ilocano men wore a long, narrow loincloth called ''baág'', ''anúngo'', or ''bayakát'', which was richly colored and often featured gold stripes. It was wrapped around the waist and passed between the legs, covering the mid-thigh area. Alternatively, they sometimes wore trousers similar to those of the Tagalogs. Women's lower garments included a type of overskirt called ''salupingping'', worn over a white Undershirt, underskirt. The skirt was gathered at the waist, with pleats placed on one side.

Hair Care

Both men and women in Ilocano society took great care of their hair. They used natural shampooing decoctions made from the bark of certain trees, ''coconut oil'' mixed with musk and other perfumes, and ''gogo'' or entada phaseoloides (a kind of herbal shampoo) to keep their hair shiny and black. Lye made from rice husk was also used, and it continues to be used in some areas of Ilocos today. Women twisted their hair into charming buns on the crowns of their heads, while men often pulled out their facial hair using clam-shell tweezers, leaving them clean-shaven.

Jewelry and Adornments

Jewelry was an integral part of traditional Ilocano attire, with both men and women wearing gold and precious stones as adornments. Members of the upper class adorned themselves with gold chains around their necks, similar to the gold-spun jewelry of the Itneg people. They also wore necklaces made of strings of precious stones, gold jewelry, and various trinkets.

A type of bracelet called ''kalombigas'', made of gold or ivory, was worn as arm bangles extending from the wrist to the elbow. Rings crafted from gold or Gemstone, gemstones were commonly worn, along with anklets and strings of colored stones such as carnelian, agate, and blue and white stones, some of which were dyed black. Thick gold rings were also worn in their pierced earlobes. The Ilocanos had two primary methods of ear piercing: one technique, similar to that of the Igorots, created a larger hole, while the other involved a smaller piercing. Larger piercings were often preferred as a display of wealth and status.

Men often wore multiple gold chains, linked in a style reminiscent of European chains. Women adorned their fingers with rings made of gold and stone, and earrings were also common. However, historical records suggest some debate regarding whether older Ilocano women wore earrings in the same manner as modern women.

Dental Care

From childhood, both men and women polished and sharpened their teeth using Areca nut, ''betel nut'' husks and stones. Some made their teeth even or ''serrated like saws''. To preserve their teeth, they colored them red or black, similar to the Cordillerans (Igorot people, Igorots). Wealthy individuals, especially women, decorated or inlaid their teeth with gold, which served both as a form of ornamentation and to strengthen the teeth.

Headdress

The ''bangal'' was a significant headdress for Ilocano men. It was a long cloth wrapped around the head like a turban, or in some cases draped over the shoulder with the embroidered ends touching the back of the knees. The color of the ''bangal'' indicated the wearer's achievements, with red signifying that the wearer had killed someone, while only those who had killed seven or more could wear a striped ''bangal''. Over time, men began wearing hats, particularly after the arrival of the Spanish.

Tattoos

Tattoos were also a part of Ilocano appearance called ''batek'', ''butak'', or ''burik'', Ilocanos only tattooed their arms or hands though not as prevalent as among the Cordillerans (Igorot people, Igorots) and Visayans. Tattoos were made by pricking the skin and rubbing black pitch powder or smoke into the pricked area. While tattoos were not as widely practiced among the Ilocanos as among other groups, they still served as a form of body art and status symbol for those who had them.

Colonial clothing

With the arrival of the Spanish colonizers, Ilocano clothing and appearances underwent significant changes. While some traditional practices remained, new styles of dress were introduced. The clothing of the Principalía, principalia class, in particular, reflected this fusion of cultures.

Traje de MestizaThe ''Maria Clara gown, traje de mestiza'' was worn by the Ilocano principalia class during the colonial period. It consisted of a long gown with voluminous sleeves and intricate embroidery, blending indigenous and European styles. This attire was often worn during important ceremonies and fiestas, symbolizing the wearer's high social status. The black, floor-length cloak with long sleeves worn by Ilocano women during ceremonies also reflects this European influence.

Pandilíng and Kimona

The traditional Ilocano dress for women during the colonial period consisted of the ''pandilíng'' (skirt) and ''kimona'' (blouse), which were made from ''inabel'', a hand-loomed textile. The ''inabel'' fabric was intricately woven by the women themselves, featuring designs inspired by nature, such as diamonds, shells, and stripes. The colors chosen reflected the modesty and simplicity that were considered admirable traits of Ilocana women.

The blouse, called ''kimona'', was typically plain white or pastel and had a cowl neckline. The skirt, called ''pandilíng'', was full-length and cone-shaped, gathered at the waist with a drawstring. Women also wore a full slip called ''kamison'' underneath the ensemble. The dress was often paired with a colorful wrap-around cloth called ''Tapis (Philippine clothing), tapis'', dyed in colors that complemented the skirt. Everyday footwear included ''tsinelas'' made of leather, while more formal occasions called for ''kutso'', beaded felt and leather slippers worn during Sundays and fiestas.

Kattukong or Tabúngaw Hat

One of the most iconic pieces of Ilocano headgear is the ''kattukong'', or ''tabúngaw'' hat, made from a hollowed-out and dried calabash gourd. The interior of the hat was woven from materials like ''anahaw'', ''nipa'', ''bamboo'', or ''rattan''. This hat was practical and weatherproof, protecting the wearer from both the sun and rain.

The ''kattukong'' was traditionally worn by farmers and fishermen, and it remains an important cultural symbol today. One notable craftsman, Teofilo Garcia from San Quintin, Abra, was recognized as a National Living Treasures Award (Philippines), National Living Treasure for his craftsmanship in making these hats, continuing the practice from planting the seeds of the gourd to varnishing the finished product.

Cuisine

Ilocano cuisine reflects the resourcefulness and traditions of the Ilocano people, shaped by their coastal, agricultural, and mountainous homeland. Influenced by Chinese cuisine, Chinese, Spanish cuisine, Spanish, and American cuisine, American cuisines, it is defined by a love for ''Bugguong, bugguóng'' (anchovy paste), which shapes the Ilocano palate, and a strong emphasis on ''naténg'' (vegetables), earning them the nickname “''weed-eaters''” for their preference for wild and cultivated greens such as ''Corchorus olitorius, salúyot'', ''sabidukong'', Bamboo shoot, ''rabóng'' and ''alukón (broussonetia luzonica)''.

Dishes

Ilocano dishes distinguish themselves from those of other ethnolinguistic groups in the Philippines through their significant use of a variety of vegetables and edible flora. Central to the Ilocano diet are ''dinengdeng'' or ''inabraw'', which refers to boiled vegetables and legumes, often accompanied by freshwater fish, pork, and salt, and seasoned with bugguóng. The distinct flavors of Ilocano cuisine are primarily derived from bugguóng, which defines the Ilocano palate.

''Bagoong, Bugguóng'' is a common flavoring agent in many Ilocano dishes, from ''dinengdeng'' (a vegetable soup) to ''pinakbet'' (a mixed vegetable dish), as well as in the popular Ilocano Salsa (food), salsa known as KBL (''kamátis-bugguóng-lasoná''). Prominent ingredients in Ilocano cuisine include ''sukáng Iloko'' (sugarcane vinegar), which is used in ''inartém'' or pickling various vegetables and seasonal fruits such as ''balayang (Musa errans)'', ''Santol (fruit), santol'', ''Areca nut, buatsina'', ''Mango, manga,'' ''Chili pepper, sili'', ''Garlic, bawang'', and others.

The Ilocano belief that food with a bitter taste is both better and medicinal further influences their culinary preferences. This cultural perspective fosters an appreciation for bitter flavors, leading to the enjoyment of dishes featuring ''pariá'' (Momordica charantia, bitter melon) and ''Pinapaitan, pinapaítan'', a stew made from cow or goat innards that includes bile.

In Ilocano culture, meat holds significant importance, particularly during festive occasions. Meat dishes are often associated with celebrations such as weddings, fiestas, and family reunions, symbolizing abundance and communal unity. Some other notable Ilocano dishes include:

* Pinakbet: Made with a variety of mixed vegetables flavored with bugguóng.
* Dinengdeng (''Inabraw''): A bugguóng soup-based dish with fewer vegetables.
* Buridibod: A simple mix of moringa fruit, sweet potato, bugguóng, and fried/grilled fish.
* Dinakdakan: A dish made from grilled parts of a pig's head combined with onions, vinegar, chili and pig's brain.
* Insarabasab: Consisting of chopped flame-grilled pork mixed with chilis and sukang Iloko.
* Igado: Pork and liver stew cooked in vinegar and spices.
* Pinapaitan: Stew composed of cow or goat innards, steak pieces, and bile
* Sinanglao: With beef and beef offal flavoured with Averrhoa bilimbi, kamias, ginger and bile, nearly similar to pinapaitan.
* Bagnet: Pork belly boiled and deep fried until crispy.

* Ilocos Empanada: Deep-fried, orange-tinged glutinous rice flour stuffed with longganisa, egg, green papaya or Chayote, sayote, and mung beans.
* Vigan longganisa, Longganisa: A savory, garlicky, and slightly sour sausage made from pork, garlic and seasonings.
* Kinilnat: A salad made with a variety of blanched vegetables such as leafy greens, shoots, blossoms, immature fruits, or other vegetable parts and dressed with bugguóng, calamansi, tomato, and lasona.
* Kilawin, Kilawen: A raw meat or seafood dish marinated in sukang Iloko and citrus juices with onion or with ginger.
* Poqui poqui, Poqui Poqui: Made from grilled eggplant, sautéed with bugguóng, onion, tomato, and scrambled egg.
* Dinuguan, Dinardaraan: A dry pork blood stew.
* Lauya: Meat soup like tinola, but made with pork or beef knuckles instead of chicken.

Another essential vegetable ingredient in Ilocano cuisine is ''marúnggáy'' (Moringa oleifera, moringa). The leaves are commonly used as a condiment in the meat soup ''lauya'', while the fruit pods and flower can be added to ''buridibod'' or ''dinengdeng''. Most households in Ilocos grow ''marúnggáy'' in their backyards and often share it with neighbors, highlighting its importance in the community. It is particularly popular among Ilocanos in Hawaii. Ilocano people have gained recognition as the first ethnic group in the Philippines to consume the larvae and eggs of ''abuós'' (weaver ants), ''abal-abál'' (june beetle) and ''araráwan'' (Cricket (insect), crickets). This practice has since been adopted by other ethnic groups in northern Luzon, showcasing the Ilocanos' connection to their environment and the innovative ways they utilize local resources.

Desserts

Ilocano desserts, often based on ''glutinous rice'', ''coconut'', ''Jaggery, sinacob, root crops'' and Sugarcane, ''sugarcane juice'', blend local ingredients and colonial influences. ''Kankanen'', a dense and chewy sticky rice cake, is a beloved treat among Ilocanos. Some other notable Ilocano desserts include:

* Tupig: An all-time favorite rice cake snack wrapped in banana leaves, made from ground glutinous rice with buko strips, coconut milk, sugar, and sesame seeds, cooked over a live charcoal grill.
* Tinubong:The more traditional version of tupig, cooked in bamboo tubes, making it moister, stickier, and sweeter.
* Patupat: Made from woven buri leaves, containing sticky rice cooked in sugarcane juice, particularly popular during summer when sugarcane is harvested.
* Dudol: Made from rice flour, coconut milk, sugarcane juice, and anise, serving as a perfect snack.
* Balikutsa: A very sweet, candy-like delicacy made from sugarcane molasses stretched and curled into shape.
* Biko (food), Inkiwar: A sweet rice cake made from glutinous rice with a rich amount of coconut milk.
* Bukayo, Bucayo: Sweetened coconut strips, traditionally made by simmering young, gelatinous coconut in water and ''sinuklob''.
* Baduya: A pan-fried snack made with saba bananas, glutinous rice flour, coconut milk, sugar, and grated coconut.
* Ampaw, Busi: Caramelized popped rice made from puffed rice and molasses.
* Dudumen: Made with burned young glutinous rice, cooked with coconut milk and ''panutsa''.
* Linapet: A sticky rice bread traditionally filled with sweetened ground peanuts and wrapped in banana leaves.
* Balisongsong: Made from sticky rice or rice flour and coconut milk, wrapped banana leaves in a triangular shape, and boiled or steamed until cooked.
* Lubi-Lubi (Lunubian): Made of boiled and mashed cassava and bananas, topped with grated coconut and margarine.

Social structure

Pre-colonial social structure

In the Pre-colonial Philippines, pre-colonial period, the Spanish applied the term "barangay" to the settlements they encountered in the Ilocos region, but the Ilocano people had their own terms. They referred to their towns as ''íli'' and smaller groups of houses as ''purók''. The residents of the ''íli'' were organized into a structured class society, where every individual had a role based on their status, lineage, and contributions to the community.

At the top of this class system was the ''agtúray'' or ''ári'' (Tribal chief, chief) and his family. The ''ári'' earned his position due to his strength, wealth, and wisdom. The role of the ''ári'' was crucial in the ''íli'', as he governed the community, administered justice, and led his people in times of war if necessary. This leadership position was typically hereditary and passed down to a male heir. However, in situations where no male heir was available, a strong female could inherit the position. If the heir was deemed weak or unfit by the community, the ''ári'' family could lose their status, and a new ruling family might rise to power. The ''ári'' ruled alongside a council of elders, known as ''amáen'' or ''panglakáyen íli'', who helped with the administration of justice and governance of the ''íli''.

Below the ''ári'' were the ''babaknáng'', the wealthy class. Some members of this class could ascend to the role of ''ári'', given their wealth and influence. The ''babaknáng'' were engaged in trade with other groups, including the Chinese in the Philippines, Chinese, Japanese in the Philippines, Japanese, Igorot people, Igorots, and Tagalogs. The goods they traded included rice, cotton, gold, wax, iron, glass beads, honey, and stoneware jars called ''burnáy''. This trade network helped the ''babaknáng'' maintain and grow their wealth, ensuring their continued influence in the ''íli''.

Below the ''babaknáng'' were the ''kailianes'', a class that played a supportive role to the ''ári''. The ''kailianes'' assisted the ''ári'' with tasks such as sailing, working in the fields, and preparing for community celebrations. In exchange for their service, they received gifts directly from the ''ári''. This relationship fostered a sense of reciprocity and mutual benefit between the classes.

Further down the social ladder were the ''katalonan'', tenant farmers who formed the majority of the population. These farmers cultivated wet-rice fields, growing crops such as rice and taro, while also practicing dry agriculture for cotton. They were essential to the economic stability of the ''íli'' as they provided the necessary agricultural products for trade and sustenance.

At the bottom of pre-colonial Ilocano society were the ''ubíng'' (servants) and below them, the ''tagábu'' (slaves, also called ''adípen''). The ''tagábu'' often became slaves due to unresolved debt, insults to a member of the ''babaknáng'' or ''ári'', being prisoners of war, or even inheriting the debt of their ancestors. Slavery was not always permanent, but it represented the lowest rung of the social ladder, with limited opportunities for upward mobility.

Colonial social structure

During the colonial era, Ilocano society underwent significant changes, but much of its pre-colonial social structure remained intact, with the Spanish adding their own layers of influence and control. Ilocano society became even more clearly defined by a hierarchical system, where social status and economic power determined one's role and opportunities within the community.

At the top of colonial Ilocano society were the ''babaknang'' or ''agtuturay'' (leaders), who had transformed into the ''Principalía, principalia'', the ruling class under Spanish rule. These powerful families held the highest positions in local governance, such as ''gobernadorcillo'' (town mayor) and ''cabeza de barangay'' (barangay head). Their responsibilities included managing the community, ensuring the collection of taxes, and maintaining order on behalf of the Spanish crown.

The ''principales'' enjoyed numerous privileges, including tax exemptions and the right to hold public office. They were also granted honorary titles such as “''Don''” and “''Doña'',” further distinguishing them from the rest of the population. The ''principalia'' were considered the local aristocracy, and their power extended beyond wealth. They wielded immense political and social influence within their communities, often acting as intermediaries between the Spanish authorities and the local population.

The status of the ''principales'' was typically passed down through generations, ensuring the continued dominance of elite families. However, in certain cases, the title could be granted by royal decree. For instance, on December 20, 1863, a decree by José de la Concha, the Minister of the Colonies under Queen Isabella II, granted the title to individuals who had contributed significantly to the local community. The ''principales'' were known as “''de privilegio y gratis''” because they were exempt from paying taxes, unlike the rest of the population, who were required to pay tribute to the colonial government.

Beneath the ''babaknang'' were the ''cailianes'', free individuals who typically owned small home lots but worked the farmlands of the ''babaknang''. These tenant farmers cultivated the land in exchange for a share of the harvest. In addition to farming, the ''cailianes'' also served as artisans and specialists, such as healers, salt makers, stem cutters, and wood gatherers, whose skills were indispensable to the community.

The relationship between the ''babaknang'' and the ''cailianes'' was characterized by a system of mutual exchange. During the agricultural season or community gatherings, the ''cailianes'' provided labor and assistance to the ''babaknang''. In return, the ''babaknang'' compensated them with food or other goods, maintaining a bond of reciprocity that was essential for social cohesion.

At the lowest level of the colonial social structure were the ''adipen'' or slaves. These individuals became slaves either through birth, as a result of debt, or due to their inability to meet obligations. The ''adipen'' were entirely dependent on their masters for their livelihood and performed a variety of tasks, including agricultural labor and domestic duties.

Unlike the ''cailianes'', who retained some degree of independence, the ''adipen'' had very limited autonomy. However, the concept of slavery in Ilocano society was not entirely rigid; it was possible for ''adipen'' to gain freedom through various means, such as paying off debts or being granted manumission by their masters.

Arts and crafts

The Ilocano people have long been known for their skill and creativity in various traditional arts and crafts, passed down through generations. These crafts, which include weaving, woodcarving, pottery, and more, have shaped the culture and daily life of Ilocanos for centuries. While these art forms were once essential for practical purposes such as food storage, cooking, and clothing, they now hold both cultural and economic significance, with many modern artisans creating innovative products for local and global markets. These ancient crafts continue to thrive in the small towns of Ilocos.

Weaving

Abél

''Abél'' is the Iloco term for weaving, while ''panagabél'' refers to the traditional process of weaving handspun cotton fabric using wooden pedal looms. This practice is deeply ingrained in Ilocano culture, with the resulting fabric, Inabel, inabél, celebrated for its softness, durability, and intricate patterns.

Each province in the Ilocos Region showcases unique designs, including the ''binakul'' pattern, which is believed to ward off evil spirits, as well as ''pinilian'' (brocade weave), ''suk-suk'' (discontinuous supplementary weft), and the ikat tie-dye technique. Common motifs include cat's paws, fans, stars, and windows.

The production of inabél begins with the preparation of ''kápas'' (cotton), which involves picking bolls, removing seeds, beating the cotton, and spinning it into yarn. The yarn is brushed, wound onto spools, and transferred to a warping reel. It is then threaded through the heddle and reed before the loom is dressed, allowing the weaving process, or agabel, to commence.

Historically, inabél was used in Ilocano households for items such as hand towels, bed linens, mosquito nets, and other functional textiles. During the galleon trade, inabél was bartered for gold and gained prominence in Philippine culture, even being mentioned in the Ilocano epic Biag ni Lam-ang.

One of the most notable weavers of inabél is Magdalena Gamayo of Pinili, Ilocos Norte. Born in 1924, she began weaving at the age of 15 and mastered various traditional patterns, including ''binakol'', ''inuritan'' (geometric designs), ''sinan-sábong'' (floral patterns), and ''kusikós'' (spirals). With over eight decades of experience, she received the National Living Treasures Award (Philippines), National Living Treasures Award in 2012 for her exceptional skill and dedication to preserving this important aspect of Ilocano heritage.

Lága

Lága, or ''panaglága'', is the Ilocano term for the traditional art of Basketry, basketry weaving, which involves the skillful braiding and interlacing of flexible materials such as palm leaves, bamboo, and rattan to create functional and decorative three-dimensional objects. This craft has been a fundamental part of Ilocano culture for centuries and remains significant both culturally and practically.

The products of this craft fulfill essential roles in daily life, particularly in agriculture and fishing. Commonly made from ''kawáyan'' (common bamboo) and Bambusa vulgaris, boló (a bamboo species with thinner culms), these items include Winnowing basket, ''bigaó'', used for winnowing rice, and ''labbá'', a vine basket used for storing rice, beans, corn, root crops, and fish. Other examples of Ilocano craftsmanship include ''álat'', a fish basket with a funnel-shaped cover known as ''serrég''; ''búbo'', a bottle-shaped fish trap; ''barekbék'', a small basket for catching freshwater lobsters; ''ikamén'', woven mats; ''kallugóng'', traditional hats; and ''palaspas'', decorative weavings made from palm. These basketry products highlight the resourcefulness and creativity of Ilocano artisans, preserving a traditional craft that seamlessly blends utility and artistry.

Pottery

''Damili'' is the Ilocano term for molding. ''Panagdamili'' or ''damdamili'' (pottery) is one of the oldest art forms among Ilocanos, dating back to pre-colonial times. It is an ancient craft of terra-cotta pottery and remains a prominent industry in the region. The process involves the use of wooden paddles, and the clay must be kept away from sunlight.

The process begins by soaking clay in water overnight and mixing it with sand the next morning. The mixture is then shaped into pots using the ''lupisak'' or potter's wheel, a stage known as ''agbibir''. The pots are air-dried and enlarged using various wooden paddles and a stone anvil. The ''banar'' (a large wooden paddle) is used to shape the pot's body, while the ''rigay'' (a square-shaped paddle with ridges) is used to refine the shoulder and neck against the ''tuknu'' (stone anvil). Once the desired size and shape are achieved, the pots are air-dried again before being smoothened with ''idiid'' (a shell).

This process produces traditional items such as ''dalikán'' (firewood-fed stoves), ''Banga (pottery), banga'' (cooking pots), ''dongdóng'' (larger cooking pots), ''kelléb'' (covers), ''paso'' (plant pots), ''burnáy'' (water vessels), as well as animal feed containers, pipes for wells, decorative pottery, and roof tiles.

Burnáy

One of the prominent forms of Ilocano pottery is the ''burnáy'', a traditional craft in Ilocano culture that dates back to pre-colonial times. The term "burnáy" refers to unglazed earthenware jars made from locally sourced clay, with the craft being especially prominent in Vigan, Ilocos Sur. This pottery tradition was influenced by Chinese merchants who traded with the inhabitants of northwestern Luzon before European colonization. Burnáy jars have historically been used in Ilocano households for storing rice, water, salt, brown sugar, and fermented products such as ''Basi, basí'' (sugarcane wine) and ''Bugguong, bugguóng'' (fermented fish). Ilocano folklore holds that the flavor of ''basí'' and ''bugguóng'' improves when stored in burnáy jars.

The production of burnáy jars is labor-intensive, requiring significant skill. Artisans knead and mold clay by hand, shape the jars on a potter's wheel, and fire them in traditional kilns fueled by rice husks or other natural materials. These jars are renowned for their durability, as they can withstand high temperatures and heavy use. Beyond their practical applications, burnáy jars hold cultural significance in Ilocano rituals and celebrations, often used for fermenting foods and beverages, including ''basi''. The enduring craftsmanship of burnáy pottery reflects its integral role in preserving Ilocano heritage.

Winery

Basí

A native Ilocano wine made from fermented sugarcane juice. This iconic drink holds significant cultural and societal importance for Ilocanos and has been an integral part of rituals surrounding ''childbirth, marriage'', and ''death.'' The production of basi begins with boiling sugarcane juice in large vats. Once the juice is boiled, it is poured into burnay jars, where it is flavored with a combination of ground glutinous rice and tree barks such as Parasol leaf tree, ''samak'' or ''lomboy'' (Java plum). After sealing the jars with banana leaves, the mixture is left to ferment for several years.

The resulting wine is pale red in color and has a sweet, tangy flavor. If fermented for a longer period, basi turns into ''suka'' (vinegar), which is also a staple in Ilocano households. Basi's unique flavor and deep-rooted cultural significance make it an essential part of Ilocano traditions, with some families passing down recipes and fermentation techniques from one generation to the next.

Binubudan

Binubudan, also known as tapuy, is the Ilocano term for fermented rice wine, a clear, full-bodied beverage with a strong alcoholic flavor, moderate sweetness, and a lingering aftertaste. It is traditionally made by cooking rice or glutinous rice, which is then mixed with ''bubod'' (rice yeast) and allowed to ferment for 2 to 4 days in a ''burnáy'' (earthenware jar). During fermentation, the rice becomes moist, and juice accumulates, which can be consumed as is or further fermented to produce the rice wine known as tapuy. This rice wine is also common among the Igorot people, Cordilleran people (Igorot), who refer to it as ''tapuy'' or ''tapuey''. As neighbors of the Ilocanos, the Cordillerans share similar methods of preparation and cultural significance for this beverage, underscoring the shared traditions of the region.''Tapuy Cookbook & Cocktails'', Philippine Rice Research Institute (2011)

Traditional games

Kukudisi

A traditional Ilocano game that combines strategy, agility, and precision. It is often played by children in rural areas and reflects the resourcefulness and creativity of Ilocano culture, where simple objects like sticks and scratched lines on the ground are used for fun and recreation. The game starts with the placement of the ''"an-anak,"'' a short stick, on a baseline scratched into the ground. This baseline serves as the starting point and is crucial for scoring. One player, often the one on offense, uses a second, longer stick called the ''"in-ina"'' to launch the an-anak into the air. The other player, acting as the defender, must try to catch the an-anak before it hits the ground.

If the defender fails to catch the an-anak, the next phase of the game begins. The in-ina is placed horizontally across the baseline, and the offensive player attempts to hit the an-anak as hard as possible to send it flying far away from the baseline. The game involves several rounds, where both players take turns trying to hit the an-anak the farthest with the in-ina. In later stages, players also compete to see how far they can hit the an-anak after it has been thrown into the air and stuck back into the baseline.

Kukudisi not only hones physical skills like hand-eye coordination and strength but also encourages creativity and social interaction among the players, fostering a sense of community and friendly competition.

Other crafts

Other traditional crafts of the Ilocanos include:

* – a tool used for crushing sugarcane
* – a native loom
* – a low table
* – a mortar
* products – e.g., rope, fiber
* – Metalsmith, smithing products
* – cotton yarn

Notable Ilocanos

Religious figures

*Edmundo Abaya, Archbishop Emeritus Edmundo M. Abaya (born 1929, in Candon, Ilocos Sur – 2018) – During his active years in the ministry, Abaya served as chairman of the CBCP's Commission on Ecumenical and Inter-religious Affairs from 1988 to 1989. The first appointee of Pope John Paul II as bishop in the Philippines.
*Zacarias Agatep, Zacarias "Apo Kari" Agatep (1936–1982) – parish priest of Our Lady of Hope Parish in Caoayan, Ilocos Sur; jailed for four months in 1980 for speaking against foreign and local monopolies in the tobacco industry and released as a publicity stunt before the visit of Pope John Paul II. Honored at the Bantayog ng mga Bayani memorial for his resistance to the excesses of the Marcos dictatorship.
*Gregorio Aglipay – first Supreme Bishop of the Philippine Independent Church, Aglipayan Church
*Jeremias Aquino (1949–1981) – priest of the Iglesia Filipina Independiente; jailed in 1979 as a political prisoner, and famously staged a hunger strike to protest prison conditions until he was released in 1980. Honored at the Bantayog ng mga Bayani memorial for protesting the abuses of the Martial Law administration.
*José Burgos (1837–1872) – Filipino priest and martyr
*Isabelo de los Reyes – founder of the Philippine Independent Church, Aglipayan Church and prominent writer and politician
*Antonio Mabutas – first Bishop of the Diocese of Laoag and the second Archbishop of the Archdiocese of Davao. Historically notable as the first Roman Catholic Archbishop to write a pastoral letter to criticize human rights violations under the Marcos dictatorship.

Leaders and politicians

*Philippine revolts against Spain#Almazan Revolt (January 1661), Pedro Almazan – leader from Laoag; proclaimed and crowned King of Ilocos; led the First Ilocos Revolt in January 1661
*Magnolia Antonino (1915–2010) – Senate of the Philippines, senator of the Philippines; married to Gaudencio Antonino, also a senator
*Rodolfo "Pong" Gaspar Biazon (1935–2023) – former General and Chief of Staff (military), Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces of the Philippines, Philippine Marine Corps, Philippine Marines officer, and politician in the Philippines. He was elected Senator in the 1992 Philippine general election, 1992 election for a term of three years. He was elected to his first six-year term in the 1998 Philippine general election, 1998 election and was re-elected in the 2004 Philippine general election, 2004 election.
* Conchita Carpio-Morales – former Ombudsman of the Philippines and Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines
*Erlinda Fadera-Basilio – ambassador and permanent representative of the Philippines to the United Nations and other international organizations in Geneva, Switzerland; the first woman Vice President of the UN Human Rights Council; founding member of the English Speaking Union (ESU), Philippines Chapter
*Antonio Luna, General Antonio Luna – general of Emilio Aguinaldo's era
*Ferdinand Marcos – 10th President of the Philippines, known for Unexplained wealth of the Marcos family, amassing wealth and for the Human rights abuses of the Marcos dictatorship, human rights abuses under Martial law under Ferdinand Marcos, his dictatorship of the country
*Bongbong Marcos – 17th president of the Philippines and the only son of former president and dictator Ferdinand Marcos. He served as governor of Ilocos Norte from 1998 to 2007. He also served as a representative of Ilocos Norte's 2nd District. He was formerly a Senator of the Philippines.
*Imee Marcos, Maria Imelda Josefa Romualdez Marcos (also known as Imee Marcos) – daughter of former president Ferdinand Marcos, is a former representative of the Legislative districts of Ilocos Norte#2nd District, 2nd District of Ilocos Norte in the House of Representatives of the Philippines, Philippine House of Representatives (1998 to 2007) and governor of Ilocos Norte since 2010
*Mariano Marcos – lawyer and a politician; father of Ferdinand Marcos
*Ernesto Maceda (also known as "Manong Ernie") – Filipino politician, lawyer, and columnist who first gained national prominence in Ferdinand Marcos' cabinet as the Presidential Assistant on Community Development, but resigned in protest upon the declaration of Martial law under Ferdinand Marcos, martial law in 1972. He later became as a senator of the Philippines from 1971 to 1972 and again from 1987 to 1998, servings as Senate President from 1996 to 1998.
*Quintín Paredes (1884–1973) – a Filipino lawyer, politician, and statesman
*Juan Ponce Enrile – a former senator who served as Senate President from 2008 to 2013
*Camilo Osías (1889–1976) – Filipino politician and twice briefly President of the Senate of the Philippines
*Elpidio Quirino – 6th President of the Philippines (1948–1953) and native of Caoayan, Ilocos Sur
*Artemio Ricarte (1866–1945) – Filipino general during the Philippine Revolution and the Philippine–American War; considered by the Armed Forces of the Philippines as the "Father of the Philippine Army". Ricarte is also notable for never having taken an oath of allegiance to the United States government, which History of the Philippines#American period (1898–1946), occupied the Philippines from 1898 to 1946.
*Benito Soliven – studied law at the University of the Philippines Manila, University of the Philippines, graduated summa cum laude, placed third in the 1921 Philippine Bar Examination, Bar Examinations, the first lawyer of Santo Domingo, Ilocos Sur, an intellectual, a linguist, a successful political leader, an Outstanding House of Representatives of the Philippines, Congressman, a three-termer in the House of Representatives of the Philippines, House of Representatives acclaimed as "Valedictorian" in House of Representatives of the Philippines, Congress having the greatest number of bills most of which were passed/approved by his colleagues, a hero of Military history of the Philippines during World War II, World War II, he helped his needy clients free of charge. He is the father of the late Max Soliven, Maximo Villaflor Soliven, a prominent Filipino journalist and newspaper publisher, and realtor Victorio V. Soliven. The Benito Soliven Academy, located in Santo Domingo, Ilocos Sur, and the town of Benito Soliven in the province of Isabela are both named after him.
*Fabian Ver – former General and Chief of the Armed Forces of the Philippines

Activists

* David Bueno – Filipino human rights lawyer and radio show host from Ilocos Norte during the Martial Law under Ferdinand Marcos, Marcos Martial Law era. Assassinated during the early part of the succeeding Aquino administration and later honored at the Bantayog ng mga Bayani memorial. http://www.bantayog.org/bueno-david-triunfante/
* Niña Corpuz – Inabel, indigenous textiles advocate, businesswoman, and former Filipino journalist from Batac, Ilocos Norte
* Armando Palabay, Armando "Mandrake" Ducusin Palabay – Filipino student leader and activist; honored at the Bantayog ng mga Bayani memorial as a martyr of the resistance against the Marcos dictatorship
* Josefa Llanes Escoda – women's rights activist, founder of the Girl Scouts of the Philippines

Artists, actors, athletes, and writers

*Leona Florentino (1849 –1884) - Ilokano foundational poet, dramatist, satirist, and playwright who is also known as the Mother of Philippine Women's Literature and honored in France, Spain, the Philippines, and the United States. Her son is the revolutionary Isabelo de los Reyes, who became senator and championed his mother's causes after her death.The History of Filipino Women's Writings
, an article from Firefly - Filipino Short Stories (Tulikärpänen - filippiiniläisiä novelleja), 2001/2007
*Manuel Arguilla (1911–1944) – Ilokano writer, resistance fighter, and martyr. Widely recognized as a leading author in Philippine literature before World War II. He is best remembered for the literary collection ''How My Brother Leon Brought Home a Wife and Other Short Stories'', which won first prize in the Commonwealth Literary Contest in 1940. He joined the resistance against the Japanese occupation during World War II, and was beheaded among a group of other guerillas at the Manila Chinese Cemetery on August 30, 1944.
*Sonny Cabatu (born October 10, 1960) – semi-retired Filipino professional basketball player in the Philippine Basketball Association who was the very first draft pick of the league in 1985. He is also the father of current Barangay Ginebra Kings player Junjun Cabatu.
*Marcelino Crisologo – writer, playwright, and first governor of Ilocos Sur
*Lilia Cuntapay – Filipina horror actress
*Gloria Diaz – Miss Universe 1969 from Aringay, La Union
*Francisco Sionil José – prominent English-language novelist
*Japoy Lizardo – Filipino actor and athlete
*Juan Luna – famous Filipino painter, older brother of Antonio Luna
*Guji Lorenzana – Filipino actor and singer
*Lucrecia Kasilag (1918 –2008) – National Artist of the Philippines for Music as a composer and pianist; known for incorporating indigenous Filipino instruments into orchestral productions
*Jimboy Martin – Filipino actor originally from Nueva Vizcaya
*Bienvenido Nebres – longest-serving university president of Ateneo de Manila University; member of the board of trustees of Georgetown University, Regis University, the Asian Institute of Management (where he sits as vice-chair), and other colleges and universities in the Philippines
*Jane Oineza – Filipina actress
*Robin Padilla – Filipino actor and politician, from Nueva Ecija
*Markus Paterson – Filipino actor
*Glennifer Perido – beauty pageant titleholder from Tabuk, Kalinga
*Jericho Rosales – Filipino actor
*Maja Salvador – Filipina actress
* Gabriela Silang – leader of the Ilocano independence movement from Spain after death of her husband, the revolutionary Diego Silang
*Luis "Chavit" Singson (born June 21, 1941) – Filipino politician from Vigan City and former governor of Ilocos Sur. He is the owner of the Partas Bus Company. Singson is said to have started EDSA II, when in October 2000 he alleged he gave President Joseph Estrada PHP400 million as payoff from illegal gambling profits.
*Jessica Soho (born March 27, 1964) – Filipino broadcast journalist, documentarian, and news director who received a George Foster Peabody Award and was the first Filipino to win the British Fleet Journalism Award in 1998
*Vaness del Moral, Martha Vanessa Antonio del Moral (born May 23, 1988) – Filipina actress better known by her screen name 'Vaness del Moral', and a talent at the GMA Artist Center
*Máximo Villaflor Solivén (1929–2006) – prominent Filipino journalist and newspaper publisher; co-founder and publisher of the Philippine Star. His daily column published in the Star, titled "By The Way", was one of the most widely read newspaper columns in the Philippines.
*Nova Villa – Filipino actress
*Teófilo Yldefonso (1903–1943) – Filipino swimmer known as "the Ilocano Shark" who specialized in the breaststroke. He was the first Filipino to win an Olympic medal, and the only Filipino to win multiple medals.

Ilocano people from Pangasinan

*Anne Curtis – Filipina actress whose mother is Ilocano from Pangasinan
*Jasmine Curtis-Smith – Filipina actress, younger sister of Anne Curtis
*Jhong Hilario – Filipino actor, host, and dancer
*Danny Ildefonso – professional basketball player who played in San Miguel Beerman, now Petron Blaze Boosters, who won 8 Philippine Basketball Association, PBA championships and 2 MVP's and rookie of the year award in 1998. He is fluent in Ilocano.
*Marc Pingris – Filipino basketball player from Sison.
*Fidel V. Ramos – 12th President of the Philippines (1992–1998) from Lingayen, Pangasinan
*Carmen Rosales – actress from Pangasinan
*F. Sionil José – novelist

Ilocano people from Central Luzon

*Gregorio C. Brillantes – a multi-award-winning fiction writer and magazine editor, is one of the Philippines' greatest writers in English
*Onofre Corpuz – writer and former secretary of the Department of Education; 13th president of the University of the Philippines; president of the Development Bank of the Philippines
*Ramon Magsaysay – 7th President of the Philippines
*JB Magsaysay – actor, housemate on Pinoy Big Brother (season 1), and grandson of former President Ramon Magsaysay
*Nicanor Reyes Sr. – founder and first president of the Far Eastern University in Manila. He envisioned a school that would promote the teaching of accounting to Filipinos, a profession formerly available only to foreigners. His hometown was Paniqui, Tarlac.
*Ruby Rodriguez – Filipina actress and a co-host of the television variety show ''Eat Bulaga!'' in the Philippines; from San Marcelino, Zambales
*Paulino Santos – former chief of staff of the Philippine Army during the time of Philippine President Manuel Luis Quezon; founder of Penal Colonies and a Philippine Constabulary Second Lieutenant

Other notable Filipinos of Ilocano ancestry

*Alden Richards – actor; his paternal grandmother is Ilokana from Sinait, Sinait, Ilocos Sur
*Alma Moreno – Filipina actress born in Cervantes, Ilocos Sur
*Kurt Barbosa – Sea Games taekwondo championship, whose ancestors were natives from Abra
*Antonio Carpio – Associate Justice; his father is Ilocano
*Delfin Lorenzana - Retired major general, former secretary of National Defense from 2016 to 2022, part of the ''Maagap'' Class of 1973; his parents are Ilocanos from San Quintin, Pangasinan, San Quintin, Pangasinan who traces roots from Ilocos Sur and La Union
*Bela Padilla – actress from Nueva Ecija
*Bianca King – Filipina actress; her mother is Ilokana
*Bryan Termulo – singer; her mother is Ilocana from La Union
*Carlos P. Garcia – 8th President of the Philippines (1957–1961); his parents were natives from Bangued, Bangued, Abra
*Ces Drilon – Filipina news anchor; her father is Ilocano
*Coleen Garcia – Filipina actress; her mother is Ilokana from La Union
*Darren Espanto – Filipino singer; his parents are Ilocano From Nueva Vizcaya
*Daniel Padilla – actor; his paternal grandmother is Ilokana and the sister of Bela Padilla's maternal grandmother
*Doug Kramer – Filipino basketball player; his mother is from La Union
*Emmylou Taliño-Mendoza, Emmylou "Lala" Taliño-Mendoza – Governor of Cotabato, North Cotabato (2010–2019, 2022–present) of Ilocano descent
*Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo – daughter of Eva Macapagal from Pangasinan
*Isabelle Daza – daughter of Gloria Diaz
*Jake Cuenca - Filipino American actor, From Ilocos Norte
*Joseph Emilio Abaya – DOTC secretary from Candon, Ilocos Sur; he is a descendant of Isabelo Abaya of Candon, Ilocos Sur, "one of the greatest heroes of the Revolution in the entire North"
*Jessy Mendiola – Filipina actress; her mother Didith Garvida is from Bangui, Ilocos Norte
*Jonha Richman – Filipino-businesswoman; her mother is from Bangued, Bangued, Abra
*Kylie Padilla – Filipina actress; her father, Robin Padilla, is an Ilocano from Nueva Ecija
*Marilou Diaz-Abaya – Filipina director and National Artist of the Philippines for Film and Broadcast Arts; her father is from Paoay, Ilocos Norte
*Jim Paredes – musician; his father is Ilocano from Abra
*Liza Soberano – Filipino-American model and actress; her father and ancestors are Ilocanos from Santa Maria, Ilocos Sur, Sta. Maria, Asingan, Pangasinan, Asingan, and Baguio
*Mac Alejandre – Filipino director
*Orlando Quevedo – a Filipino cardinal of Roman Catholic Church, served as an Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Cotabato, Archbishop Emeritus of Cotabato from 1998 to 2018. He was born and spent his very early years in Laoag, Ilocos Norte but was raised in Koronadal, Koronadal (Marbel), South Cotabato, where he finished his remaining grade school and entire high school years. The first cardinal from Mindanao.
*Vice Ganda (also known as Jose Mari Viceral) – Filipino comedian; his mother is Ilokana from La Union.
*Yassi Pressman – actress; her mother is from Isabela
*Aquilino Pimentel Jr., Aquilino "Nene" Pimentel, Jr. - a Filipino politician and human rights lawyer during the Martial law under Ferdinand Marcos, Martial Law under Marcos administration, former mayor of Cagayan de Oro from 1980 to 1984; his mother is an ethnic Ilokana from Batac, Ilocos Norte
*Lawrence Fortun - Filipino politician, mayor of Butuan (2022–present), former Agusan del Norte's 1st congressional district, Agusan del Norte 1st district representative (2013-2022); his mother is Ilokana from San Fernando, La Union

Foreign nationals of Ilocano ancestry

*Pedro Flores (inventor), Pedro Flores – businessman and toymaker who has been credited with popularizing the yo-yo in the United States
*John Leo Dato – Filipino-American boxer
*Matthew Libatique – American Hollywood cinematographer and Academy Award, Oscar nominee best known for his work with director Darren Aronofsky on such films as ''A Star Is Born (2018 film), A Star is Born'', ''Iron Man (2008 film), Iron Man,'' ''Iron Man 2'', ''Inside Man'', ''Miracle at St. Anna'', ''Gothika'', ''Cowboys & Aliens'', ''Pi (film), π'', ''Requiem for a Dream'', ''The Fountain,'' and ''Black Swan (film), Black Swan''
*Jasmine Trias – 3rd-place winner in ''American Idol'' Season 3
*Jocelyn Enriquez – singer in the Dance Music Genre who performed the hit songs "A Little Bit of Ecstasy" and "Do You Miss Me"
*Benny Agbayani – professional baseball player
*Larry Ramos (born Hilario Ramos on April 19, 1942) – professional guitar player and singer who was awarded a Grammy for his participation in the 1962 album, ''Presenting The New Christy Minstrels'', and who was a key part of the 1960s American Pop music, pop band the Association
*Thelma Buchholdt, J.D. – elected member, Alaska State House of Representatives (1974–1982)
*Carlos Bulosan – novelist and poet best known for his novel ''America Is in the Heart''
*David Bunevacz – athlete
*Mikey Bustos – YouTube star and ''Canadian Idol'' finalist
*Ben Cayetano – 5th Governor of Hawaii (1994–2002)
*Philip Vera Cruz – labor union leader
*Emil Guillermo – journalist and 2000 American Book Award winner
*Gina Ortiz Jones – Filipina-American Iraq War veteran, intelligence officer and politician
*Ana Julaton, Ana "The Hurricane" Julaton – professional boxer who is an International Boxing Association and World Boxing Organization world title holder as of 2010"Ana Julaton: Her Side of the Ring".
Mightygloves.com. November 28, 2009.
*Lt. Gen. Edward Soriano – first Filipino-American General of the US Army (ret)
*Maj. Gen. Antonio Taguba – second Filipino-American General of the US Army
*Brian Viloria – light flyweight boxing champion
*PJ Raval – Filipino-American filmmaker and director of the feature documentary ''Call Her Ganda'' about the murder of Jennifer Laude by US Marine Joseph Scott Pemberton
*Bretman Rock – social media influencer and makeup artist; his parents were from the province of Cagayan, and he currently lives in Hawaii
*Vincent Bueno – Austrian singer who represented Austria in the 65th Eurovision Song Contest
*Christian Alquiza – Filipino-American Chef & Social Media Content Creator, Creator of The Bastos Sauce. His parents are from Vigan, Ilocos Sur

See also

*Ethnic groups in the Philippines

Notes and sources

References

*
*

External links

The Online Ilokano Dictionary Project
– a free Ilokano dictionary application
Tarabay iti Ortograpia ti Pagsasao nga Ilokano
– a free e-book version of the ''Guide on the Orthography of the Ilokano Language'' (2012), developed by the Komisyon ng Wikang Filipino (KWF) in consultation with stakeholders in the Ilokano language and culture
Learn Filipino
– a webpage for learning how people are called in Ilocano

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ilocano People
Ilocano people,
Ilocano culture
Ethnic groups in Luzon
Ethnic groups in the Philippines