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Ikšudum or Yakšudum was a Mesopotamian god worshiped in the kingdom of Mari, possibly a deified ancestor. He was closely associated with Lagamal. A possibly related deity is also listed among the hounds of
Marduk Marduk (; cuneiform: Dingir, ᵈAMAR.UTU; Sumerian language, Sumerian: "calf of the sun; solar calf"; ) is a god from ancient Mesopotamia and patron deity of Babylon who eventually rose to prominence in the 1st millennium BC. In B ...
in the god list ''
An = Anum ''An = Anum'', also known as the Great God List, is the longest preserved Mesopotamian god list, a type of lexical list cataloging the deities worshiped in the Ancient Near East, chiefly in modern Iraq. While god lists are already known from the ...
''. Texts from Mari mention a ritual procession of Ikšudum and Lagamal. The pair was also invoked in oath formulas.


Name and character

Ikšudum's name was spelled as '' dIk-šu-du-um'' in
cuneiform Cuneiform is a Logogram, logo-Syllabary, syllabic writing system that was used to write several languages of the Ancient Near East. The script was in active use from the early Bronze Age until the beginning of the Common Era. Cuneiform script ...
. A variant spelling attested in a text from
Terqa Terqa is an ancient city discovered at the site of Tell Ashara on the banks of the middle Euphrates in Deir ez-Zor Governorate, Syria, approximately from the modern border with Iraq and north of the ancient site of Mari, Syria. Its name had b ...
is Yakšudum. Wilfred G. Lambert suggested it can be translated as "he seized". However,
Karel van der Toorn Karel van der Toorn (born 8 March 1956 in The Hague) is a Dutch scholar of ancient religions. From 2006 to 2011 he was chairman of the Board at the University of Amsterdam, where he was a professor from 1998 until he became the chairman. Van der ...
instead translates it as "he has arrived", to be implicitly understood as "the god has arrived".
Dietz Otto Edzard Dietz Otto Edzard (28 August 1930 in Bremen – 2 June 2004 in Munich) was a German scholar of the Ancient Near East and grammarian of the Sumerian language. He was elected a foreign member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1 ...
suggested Ikšudum might be a shortened form of a
theophoric name A theophoric name (from Greek: , ''theophoros'', literally "bearing or carrying a god") embeds the word equivalent of 'god' or a god's name in a person's name, reflecting something about the character of the person so named in relation to that d ...
(''Ikšud'' +
theonym A theonym (from Greek (), 'god', attached to (), ) is a proper name of a deity. Theonymy, the study of divine proper names, is a branch of onomastics, the study of the etymology, history, and use of proper names. Theonymy helps develop an und ...
), but according to Ichiro Nakata this is uncertain.( The name is also attested as an ordinary given name, not preceded by the "divine
determinative A determinative, also known as a taxogram or semagram, is an ideogram used to mark semantic categories of words in logographic scripts which helps to disambiguate interpretation. They have no direct counterpart in spoken language, though they ...
", a cuneiform sign preceding
theonym A theonym (from Greek (), 'god', attached to (), ) is a proper name of a deity. Theonymy, the study of divine proper names, is a branch of onomastics, the study of the etymology, history, and use of proper names. Theonymy helps develop an und ...
s, and on this basis it has been proposed that similarly to deities such as Itūr-Mēr, Yakrub-El and Ikūnum Ikšudum was a deified ancestor in origin. One individual bearing the name Ikšudum served as the governor of Puš during the reign of Amar-Sin. Ikšudum was often paired with Lagamal, and together they could be invoked to settle disputes. For example, in a letter whose heading is not preserved an unnamed official implores king
Zimri-Lim __NOTOC__ Zimri-Lim was in the Middle Bronze Age the king of Mari, Syria, Mari (c. 1767–1752 BCE; low chronology). Background Family Zimri-Lim (Akkadian language, Akkadian: ''Zi-im-ri Li-im'') was the son or grandson of king Yahdun-Lim of Ma ...
to send him this pair of deities, as well as trustworthy royal servants, to resolve a problem apparently involving grain.


In the god list ''An = Anum''

A similarly named deity, ''dIk-šu-du'' or ''dIk-šu-da'', occurs in the god list ''
An = Anum ''An = Anum'', also known as the Great God List, is the longest preserved Mesopotamian god list, a type of lexical list cataloging the deities worshiped in the Ancient Near East, chiefly in modern Iraq. While god lists are already known from the ...
'' (tablet II, line 273) as one of the four dogs of
Marduk Marduk (; cuneiform: Dingir, ᵈAMAR.UTU; Sumerian language, Sumerian: "calf of the sun; solar calf"; ) is a god from ancient Mesopotamia and patron deity of Babylon who eventually rose to prominence in the 1st millennium BC. In B ...
, the other three being Sukkulu ("thievish"), Ukkumu ("predatory") and Iltebu. Ichiro Nakata considers this to be a possible attestation of the Mariote Ikšudum. However, Wilfed G. Lambert noted that it would be implausible to view the latter as an underling of Marduk. In early scholarship attempts have been made to identify the four dogs as a representation of Io, Europa, Ganymede and
Callisto CALLISTO (''Cooperative Action Leading to Launcher Innovation in Stage Toss-back Operations'') is a reusable VTVL Prototype, demonstrator propelled by a small 40 kN Japanese LOX-LH2 rocket engine. It is being developed jointly by the CNES, French ...
, the
Galilean moons The Galilean moons (), or Galilean satellites, are the four largest moons of Jupiter. They are, in descending-size order, Ganymede (moon), Ganymede, Callisto (moon), Callisto, Io (moon), Io, and Europa (moon), Europa. They are the most apparent m ...
of
Jupiter Jupiter is the fifth planet from the Sun and the List of Solar System objects by size, largest in the Solar System. It is a gas giant with a Jupiter mass, mass more than 2.5 times that of all the other planets in the Solar System combined a ...
, the planet associated with Marduk, but this view is no longer accepted in
Assyriology Assyriology (from Greek , ''Assyriā''; and , ''-logia''), also known as Cuneiform studies or Ancient Near East studies, is the archaeological, anthropological, historical, and linguistic study of the cultures that used cuneiform writing. The fie ...
, and the modern consensus is that the earliest possible reference to one of these celestial bodies being observed only occurs in a Chinese text dated to 364 BCE, attributed to the astronomer
Gan De Gan De (; fl. 4th century BC), also known as the Lord Gan (Gan Gong), was an ancient Chinese astronomer and astrologer born in the State of Qi. Along with Shi Shen, he is believed to be the first in history known by name to compile a star catal ...
.


Worship

Ikšudum was worshiped in
Terqa Terqa is an ancient city discovered at the site of Tell Ashara on the banks of the middle Euphrates in Deir ez-Zor Governorate, Syria, approximately from the modern border with Iraq and north of the ancient site of Mari, Syria. Its name had b ...
in the kingdom of Mari. According to Dominique Charpin, it is possible that even though the city was associated with Dagan, Ikšudum and Lagamal might have been understood as its tutelary deities, analogously to how in
Nippur Nippur (Sumerian language, Sumerian: ''Nibru'', often logogram, logographically recorded as , EN.LÍLKI, "Enlil City;"I. E. S. Edwards, C. J. Gadd, N. G. L. Hammond, ''The Cambridge Ancient History: Prolegomena & Prehistory'': Vol. 1, Part 1, Ca ...
Ninurta Ninurta (: , possible meaning "Lord fBarley"), also known as Ninĝirsu (: , meaning "Lord fGirsu"), is an List of Mesopotamian deities, ancient Mesopotamian god associated with farming, healing, hunting, law, scribes, and war who was f ...
served as the city deity and was invoked in oaths, while
Enlil Enlil, later known as Elil and Ellil, is an List of Mesopotamian deities, ancient Mesopotamian god associated with wind, air, earth, and storms. He is first attested as the chief deity of the Sumerian pantheon, but he was later worshipped by t ...
, who was also associated with it, was more broadly the head of the pantheon. A legal text from Terqa dated to the reign of
Zimri-Lim __NOTOC__ Zimri-Lim was in the Middle Bronze Age the king of Mari, Syria, Mari (c. 1767–1752 BCE; low chronology). Background Family Zimri-Lim (Akkadian language, Akkadian: ''Zi-im-ri Li-im'') was the son or grandson of king Yahdun-Lim of Ma ...
contains an oath sworn by Ikšudum and Lagamal. There is also evidence that the pair could travel in order to act as witnesses in similar contexts. References to a possible festival procession of Ikšudum and Lagamal between Mari and Terqa are known. Analogous ceremonies are also attested for Dagan, Yakrub-El and Belet Nagar. Apparently the journey of Ikšudum between Terqa and Mari could only occur when the roads were safe. Kibri-Dagan, the local governor, in a letter explains that it required a peaceful atmosphere and an entourage of a hundred soldiers. Another document attributed to him describes the arrival of Ikšudum and his companion in Terqa. It has been suggested that the purpose of the celebrations was rainmaking, as a change in the weather is described in one of the letters mentioning it.


References


Bibliography

* * * * * * * * * {{refend Mesopotamian gods