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were armed military leagues that formed in several regions of
Japan Japan is an island country in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean off the northeast coast of the Asia, Asian mainland, it is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan and extends from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea ...
in the 15th-16th centuries, composed entirely of members of the
Jōdo Shinshū , also known as Shin Buddhism or True Pure Land Buddhism, is a school of Pure Land Buddhism founded by the former Tendai Japanese monk Shinran. Shin Buddhism is the most widely practiced branch of Buddhism in Japan. History Shinran (founder) S ...
sect of
Buddhism Buddhism, also known as Buddhadharma and Dharmavinaya, is an Indian religion and List of philosophies, philosophical tradition based on Pre-sectarian Buddhism, teachings attributed to the Buddha, a wandering teacher who lived in the 6th or ...
. In the early phases, these ''ikki'' leagues opposed the rule of local
governors A governor is an politician, administrative leader and head of a polity or Region#Political regions, political region, in some cases, such as governor-general, governors-general, as the head of a state's official representative. Depending on the ...
or ''
daimyō were powerful Japanese magnates, feudal lords who, from the 10th century to the early Meiji era, Meiji period in the middle 19th century, ruled most of Japan from their vast hereditary land holdings. They were subordinate to the shogun and no ...
'', but over time as their power consolidated and grew, they courted alliances with powerful figures in the waning Ashikaga Shogunate, until they were crushed by
Oda Nobunaga was a Japanese ''daimyō'' and one of the leading figures of the Sengoku period, Sengoku and Azuchi-Momoyama periods. He was the and regarded as the first "Great Unifier" of Japan. He is sometimes referred as the "Demon Daimyō" and "Demo ...
in the 1580's. The Ikkō-ikki mainly consisted of priests, peasants, merchants and local military rulers who followed the sect, but they sometimes associated with non-followers of the sect. They were at first organized to only a small degree. However, during the reforms of the monshu Jitsunyo, and further under his grandson Shōnyo, the temple network allowed for more efficient and effective mobilization of troops when called for. The relationship between the Honganji temple and its patriarch the monshu was complicated: some monshu such as
Rennyo Rennyo (, 1415–1499) was the 8th Monshu (Patriarch) of the Hongan-ji Temple of the Jōdo Shinshū sect of Buddhism, and descendant of founder Shinran. Jodo Shinshu Buddhists often referred to him as the restorer of the sect ( in Japanese). He ...
condemned the violence, others such as Shōnyo and Kennyo channeled it to further political aims. With recent improvements in firearms at the time, the Ikko-ikki movement would be able to rise very suddenly as a menacing force which presented a credible threat to the government, as a peasant or merchant could transform himself into a capable mobile cannoneer in mere days.


Terminology

An league in medieval Japan could be formed by any group that had a single goal in mind, and vowed to stay together to achieve it. Carol Tsang lists two general categories of ''ikki'': # Warrior-class leagues, which could be further subdivided into: #* - Formed by extended samurai clans for mutual aid and defense. Members of such leagues were forbidden from attacking one another, and obligated to come to each other's aid. #* Alternatively, - Formed by local provincial authorities (''
shugo , commonly translated as ' ilitarygovernor', 'protector', or 'constable', was a title given to certain officials in feudal Japan. They were each appointed by the shogun to oversee one or more of the provinces of Japan. The position gave way to th ...
'') with other clans for mutual defense and administration. # Villager leagues, which could be further subdivided into: #* - composed of members of the same
Shōen A was a field or Manorialism, manor in Japan. The Japanese language, Japanese term comes from the Tang dynasty Chinese language, Chinese term "莊園" (Mandarin: ''zhuāngyuán'', Cantonese: ''zong1 jyun4''). Shōen, from about the 8th to th ...
estate. #* - composed of villagers who demanded tax-relief from authorities #* - composed primarily of villagers from the countryside. This term often overlapped with other ikki terms. By contrast, the Ikkō-ikki defies easy categorization. The term refers to the exclusive emphasis of the Jodo Shinshu sect of striving for rebirth in the
Pure Land Pure Land is a Mahayana, Mahayana Buddhist concept referring to a transcendent realm emanated by a buddhahood, buddha or bodhisattva which has been purified by their activity and Other power, sustaining power. Pure lands are said to be places ...
of Amitabha Buddha. For this reason, Jodo Shinshu was often pejoratively called the ''ikkō-shū'' sect. In any case, in contrast to other ''ikki'' leagues, the Ikkō-ikki were defined not by political, familial or economic association, but by a sense of community through their association with the Jodo Shinshu sect. Similarly, adherents of the
Nichiren was a Japanese Buddhist priest and philosopher of the Kamakura period. His teachings form the basis of Nichiren Buddhism, a unique branch of Japanese Mahayana Buddhism based on the '' Lotus Sutra''. Nichiren declared that the '' Lotus Sutra ...
sect also formed ''ikki'' leagues in opposition to the Ikkō-ikki as well as mutual aid and defense.


History


Origins

The first recorded instances of an ''ikki'' league date as far back as the 14th century in Bingo Province by a . However, with the waning years of the
Muromachi Period The , also known as the , is a division of Japanese history running from approximately 1336 to 1573. The period marks the governance of the Muromachi or Ashikaga shogunate ( or ), which was officially established in 1338 by the first Muromachi ...
and the subsequent
Sengoku Period The was the period in History of Japan, Japanese history in which civil wars and social upheavals took place almost continuously in the 15th and 16th centuries. The Kyōtoku incident (1454), Ōnin War (1467), or (1493) are generally chosen as th ...
of Japanese was characterized by weakening central power, and frequent conflicts between rival forces, the number of ''ikki'' leagues proliferated. The first large-scale peasant uprising occurred in 1428 when a ''tokusei-ikki'' league from
Ōmi Province was a Provinces of Japan, province of Japan, which today comprises Shiga Prefecture. It was one of the provinces that made up the Tōsandō Circuit (subnational entity), circuit. Its nickname is . Under the ''Engishiki'' classification system, ...
and
Yamashiro Province was a province of Japan, located in Kinai. It overlaps the southern part of modern Kyoto Prefecture on Honshū. Aliases include , the rare , and . It is classified as an upper province in the '' Engishiki''. Yamashiro Province included Kyoto it ...
and later marched on
Kyoto Kyoto ( or ; Japanese language, Japanese: , ''Kyōto'' ), officially , is the capital city of Kyoto Prefecture in the Kansai region of Japan's largest and most populous island of Honshu. , the city had a population of 1.46 million, making it t ...
the capital. According to George Sansom, "The Ikko (Single-Minded) sect of Nenbutsu, or Buddha-calling ... is a branch of the worship of
Amida Amida can mean : Places and jurisdictions * Amida (Mesopotamia), now Diyarbakır, an ancient city in Asian Turkey; it is (nominal) seat of: ** The Chaldean Catholic Archeparchy of Amida ** The Latin titular Metropolitan see of Amida of the Ro ...
developed from the teaching of
Shinran ''Popular Buddhism in Japan: Shin Buddhist Religion & Culture'' by Esben Andreasen, pp. 13, 14, 15, 17. University of Hawaiʻi Press 1998, . was a Japanese Buddhist monk, who was born in Hino (now a part of Fushimi, Kyoto) at the turbulent clos ...
into an aggressive doctrine of salvation by faith." In the 13th century, the
jizamurai The were lower-ranking provincial samurai that emerged in 15th-century Japan Muromachi period. The definition was rather broad and the term ''jizamurai'' included landholding military aristocracy as well as independent peasant farmers. They alt ...
, a new class of small landowners, "formed leagues (''ikki'') for mutual defence", since they came from "good warrior families, long established in their own districts, and they were determined to protect their interests, both economic and social, against newcomers", according to Sansom. The Shirahata-Ikki, "White Flag Uprising", and Mikazuki-Ikki, "Crescent Uprising", were examples of the numerous risings against the Ashikaga shogunate. An uprising involving an entire province was called a Kuni-Ikki (kuni meaning province). Uprisings took place in 1351, 1353, 1369, 1377, 1384–1386, and 1366–1369. The risings in the 15th century, Tsuchi-Ikki or Do-Ikki, were better organized "and the peasants appear to have played a more prominent part". At the conclusion of the
Ōnin War The , also known as the Upheaval of Ōnin and Ōnin-Bunmei war, was a civil war that lasted from 1467 to 1477, during the Muromachi period in Japan. ''Ōnin'' refers to the Japanese era name, Japanese era during which the war started; the war ende ...
, in 1477, "many of the members of the numerous ikki" occupied the monasteries and shrines, and "would ring the warning bells day and night, hoping to terrify the rich citizens", according to Sansom.


Early Ikko-Ikki Uprisings

The Ikkō-ikki were, at first, disparate and disorganized followers of Rennyo's teachings. His missionary work, and his appointment to the position of abbot of the Kyoto Honganji, was in 1457, allowed him to "express in words and deeds" his unorthodox views. The first instances of the Ikkō-ikki as a defensive league, were formed in
Ōmi Province was a Provinces of Japan, province of Japan, which today comprises Shiga Prefecture. It was one of the provinces that made up the Tōsandō Circuit (subnational entity), circuit. Its nickname is . Under the ''Engishiki'' classification system, ...
to defend against the threats and violence from '' sohei'' armies of Enryakuji Temple. The 8th monshu (patriarch) of the Jodo Shinshu sect,
Rennyo Rennyo (, 1415–1499) was the 8th Monshu (Patriarch) of the Hongan-ji Temple of the Jōdo Shinshū sect of Buddhism, and descendant of founder Shinran. Jodo Shinshu Buddhists often referred to him as the restorer of the sect ( in Japanese). He ...
, proselytized in this area, and the growing influence threatened Enryakuji interests in this area. Despite some efforts at a peaceful negotiation, including payments to cover any tax revenue shortfalls, the warrior monks of Enryakuji attacked local communities at Katata in 1465. Jodo Shinshu communities attempted to fortify their temples and villages, but failed to withstand the assaults by Enryakuji. The attacks continued again in 1468, resulting in the destruction of Ōtani Honganji temple, and by 1471 Rennyo and his family fled to village of Yoshizaki in
Echizen Province was a Provinces of Japan, province of Japan in the area that is today the northern portion of Fukui Prefecture in the Hokuriku region of Japan. Echizen bordered on Kaga Province, Kaga, Wakasa Province, Wakasa, Hida Province, Hida, and Ōmi Provin ...
.


Yoshizaki and Kaga Province

A new temple community was established at Yoshizaki-gobō in 1471. It was at this temple that Rennyo began to attract a significant following through extensive letter writing, clarifying orthodox Jodo Shinshu doctrine, and refuting teaches of rival subsects (in particular the Takada sect). The village of Yoshizaki grew to a large, fortified community by 1473, and a network of temples across grew to accommodate increasing numbers of followers. Rennyo assigned family members to head new temples, or to manage existing temples, further strengthening the network. Disruptions by local Ikkō-ikki leagues forced Rennyo to draft a series of rules for proper conduct in 1475, that Jodo Shinshu adherents were expected to follow, with limited effect. An ongoing dispute between members local governorships forced the Honganji sect to become involved in 1473 leading to a series of skirmishes and alliances in the 1470's and 1480's. By 1486 the conflict culminated in the Kaga Rebellion overthrew governor of
Kaga Province was a province of Japan in the area that is today the south and western portion of Ishikawa Prefecture in the Hokuriku region of Japan. Kaga bordered on Echizen, Etchū, Hida, and Noto Provinces. It was part of Hokurikudō Circuit. Its ...
and took control of it for themselves; this represented the first time in Japanese history that a group of commoners ruled a province. Rennyo, who was in a separate province at the time, was compelled by the authorities to admonish the Ikko-ikki rebellions, to little effect, and stepped down as the Patriarch in 1489, before dying of illness in 1499. After stepping down, his second son, Jitsunyo became the 9th ''monshu'', and initially followed a conservative, cautious administration at first.


Dynastic Entanglement and Growing Power

A complex dynastic dispute within the Ashikaga shogunate in 1493, with the forced deposition of Ashikaga Yoshitane by his former deputy shogun,
Hosokawa Masamoto was a deputy-'' shōgun,'' daimyo and shugo of the Hosokawa clan of Japan, and son of Hosokawa Katsumoto. Masamoto was appointed to the rank of deputy-shogun in 1486, but lost this status to his rival Hatakeyama Masanaga. His childhood name ...
, led to a conflict between Yoshitane's faction led by the Hatakeyama clan and their opponents, the
Hosokawa clan The is a Japanese samurai kin group or Japanese clan, clan. The clan descends from the Seiwa Genji, a branch of the Minamoto clan, and ultimately from Emperor Seiwa, through the Ashikaga clan. It produced many prominent officials in the Ashikaga ...
. Masamoto forcefully enlisted military aid from the 9th monshu, Jitsunyo, in particular to help with a stalled assault on Hatakeyama Yoshihide at Konda castle in late 1505. According to the account, Jitsunyo initially fled from Masamoto's approach, and retreated to Ōtsu, but Masamoto pursued him, reportedly cornering him until he relented. Jitsunyo had enjoyed the patronage of Masamoto, including protection from prosecution from the 1488 rebellions, but initially refused, citing his role as a priest and not a warrior. Eventually, Jitsunyo relented. While most Honganji temples heeded the call to arms, some factions in Settsu and Kawachi provinces supported Yoshitane's faction, and refused to fight under the Honganji banner. Nonetheless, in 1506, the Ikko-ikki armies helped defeat Konda castle, defeating Asakura Norikage in the of 1506, and triggering further uprisings in neighboring Etchu, Echizen, and
Noto Noto (; ) is a city and in the Province of Syracuse, Sicily, Italy. It is southwest of the city of Syracuse at the foot of the Iblean Mountains. It lends its name to the surrounding area Val di Noto. In 2002 Noto and its church were decl ...
provinces, followed later by
Mikawa Province was an Provinces of Japan, old province in the area that today forms the eastern half of Aichi Prefecture.Louis-Frédéric, Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric. (2005). "''Mikawa''" in . Its abbreviated form name was . Mikawa bordered on Owari Province, O ...
. By 1507, Masamoto had been assassinated and fighting amongst the Hosokawa clan successors led to a stalemate. During this time, Jitsunyo reformed the hierarchy of the Honganji and its network of temples into either temples staffed by family members, or temples with more autonomy, but subordinate to the Honganji. This increased centralization was intended to help with administration, but also meant that Ikko-ikki forces could be more effectively mobilized. In addition to these reforms, the letters of Rennyo were collected and a subset were selected as a core party of Jodo Shinshu doctrine, known as the or alternatively leading to increased uniformity.


Escalating Military Conflicts

Following Jitsunyo's death in 1525, Jodo Shinshu temples in the provinces increasingly formed into : fortified temple communities that did not permit military officials to enter, while also managing their own tax collection. Meanwhile, the Ikko-ikki also established a fortress complex at Ishiyama Honganji, just outside
Osaka is a Cities designated by government ordinance of Japan, designated city in the Kansai region of Honshu in Japan. It is the capital of and most populous city in Osaka Prefecture, and the List of cities in Japan, third-most populous city in J ...
in 1496, and in Nagashima, on the borders of Owari and
Ise Province was a province of Japan in the area of Japan that is today includes most of modern Mie Prefecture. Ise bordered on Iga, Kii, Mino, Ōmi, Owari, Shima, and Yamato Provinces. Its abbreviated form name was . History The name of Ise appears ...
s and in a series of temples in
Mikawa Province was an Provinces of Japan, old province in the area that today forms the eastern half of Aichi Prefecture.Louis-Frédéric, Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric. (2005). "''Mikawa''" in . Its abbreviated form name was . Mikawa bordered on Owari Province, O ...
as well. By the 1530's the Honganji was directly involved in a series of conflicts, starting with the conflict in
Kaga Province was a province of Japan in the area that is today the south and western portion of Ishikawa Prefecture in the Hokuriku region of Japan. Kaga bordered on Echizen, Etchū, Hida, and Noto Provinces. It was part of Hokurikudō Circuit. Its ...
, pitting the 10th monshu, Shōnyo, against rebellious temples, followed soon after by military assistance to Hosokawa Harumoto in the of 1532-1536. The Ikko-ikki defeated Nagao Tamekage in the 1536 Battle of Sendanno. By July 17th of that year, local Ikko-ikki forces marched into
Nara The National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) is an independent agency of the United States government within the executive branch, charged with the preservation and documentation of government and historical records. It is also task ...
and sacked it, looting Kasuga Shrine. Unlike his predecessors Shōnyo did not hesitate to mobilize forces, or discipline temples that were non-compliant. The Ikko-ikki also fought Asakura Norikage again in the 1555 Battle of Daishoji-omote.


Apex of Power and Downfall

Towards the end of the 16th century, however, their growing numbers and strength caught the attention and concern of the great samurai leaders of the time.
Tokugawa Ieyasu Tokugawa Ieyasu (born Matsudaira Takechiyo; 31 January 1543 – 1 June 1616) was the founder and first ''shōgun'' of the Tokugawa shogunate of Japan, which ruled from 1603 until the Meiji Restoration in 1868. He was the third of the three "Gr ...
worried that Ikko-ikki of
Mikawa Province was an Provinces of Japan, old province in the area that today forms the eastern half of Aichi Prefecture.Louis-Frédéric, Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric. (2005). "''Mikawa''" in . Its abbreviated form name was . Mikawa bordered on Owari Province, O ...
would rise up and seize the province. In 1564, his forces, with the help of
Jōdo-shū Jōdo-shū (浄土宗, "The Pure Land School"), is a Japanese branch of Pure Land Buddhism derived from the teachings of the Kamakura era monk Hōnen (1133–1212). The school is traditionally considered as having been established in 1175 and i ...
forces, defeated the Mikawa Ikkō-ikki in the Battle of Azukizaka. By this point, Ishiyama Honganji and other strongholds of the Ikko-ikki lay across major trade routes and occupied the same areas that Nobunaga saw as his primary territorial objectives. Nearly every road to the capital from this western part of the country was controlled by the Ikko-ikki or their allies, and their populist roots gave them significant economic power as well. Nobunaga in particular sought the destruction of the Ikkō-ikki for these reasons, and because they allied themselves with nearly every one of his major enemies or rivals.
Ashikaga Yoshiaki "Ashikaga Yoshiaki" in '' The New Encyclopædia Britannica''. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 15th edn., 1992, Vol. 1, p. 625. was the 15th and final ''shōgun'' of the Ashikaga shogunate in Japan who reigned from 1568 to 1573 when he ...
was once strongly supported in his claim to become Shōgun by Nobunaga, but turned to the Ikko-ikki when their relationship soured. The Ikko-ikki also had powerful allies in the Mōri, Azai, and
Asakura clan The is a Japanese samurai kin group.Edmond Papinot, Papinot, Jacques Edmond Joseph. (1906). ''Dictionnaire d'histoire et de géographie du Japon''; Papinot, (2003)"Asakura", ''Nobiliare du Japon'', p. 3 DF 7 of 80/nowiki> retrieved 2013-5-4. ...
s. In the Asakura stronghold of Echizen province, today's Fukui-prefecture, Nobunaga ordered his generals to kill the people in Ajimano village in August 1575 as noted in The Chronicle of Lord Nobunaga. The Ishiyama Honganji was besieged several times by the forces of
Oda Nobunaga was a Japanese ''daimyō'' and one of the leading figures of the Sengoku period, Sengoku and Azuchi-Momoyama periods. He was the and regarded as the first "Great Unifier" of Japan. He is sometimes referred as the "Demon Daimyō" and "Demo ...
in the Ishiyama Honganji War, as was the Nagashima fortress. After several failed attempts at seizing each emplacement, Oda successfully defeated Nagashima by 1574 after a four-year siege, and Ishiyama Honganji in 1580 after an 11-year siege.Kennyo (Shōnyo's son) submitted to Nobunaga's authority, relinquishing much of their independence in the process, though a few holdouts resisted as late as 1585. In the 1580s, the last of the Ikkō-ikki courted
Toyotomi Hideyoshi , otherwise known as and , was a Japanese samurai and ''daimyō'' (feudal lord) of the late Sengoku period, Sengoku and Azuchi-Momoyama periods and regarded as the second "Great Unifier" of Japan.Richard Holmes, The World Atlas of Warfare: ...
, and fought alongside his forces against warrior monks and priests of other sects.


Weapons, training, and lifestyle

The Ikkō-ikki bands of the 16th century, due largely to their origins as countryside mobs, used quite varied armor and armament. Many wore the more traditional priest robes, with varying degrees and types of armor. Some wore various sorts of helmets, while others opted for the straw hat and cloak of a peasant.
Naginata The ''naginata'' (, , ) is a polearm and one of several varieties of traditionally made Japanese blades ('' nihontō''). ''Naginata'' were originally used by the samurai class of feudal Japan, as well as by ashigaru (foot soldiers) and sōhei ( ...
remained very common, along with a variety of swords and daggers, and a limited number of
arquebus An arquebus ( ) is a form of long gun that appeared in Europe and the Ottoman Empire during the 15th century. An infantryman armed with an arquebus is called an arquebusier. The term ''arquebus'' was applied to many different forms of firearms ...
es. Finally, while not truly armor nor armament, a very common item wielded by the mobs of Ikkō-ikki priest warriors was a banner with a Buddhist slogan written upon it. Some of the more common slogans included the '' nenbutsu'' chant "Hail to Buddha Amida!" (''Namu Amida Butsu''; 南無阿弥陀仏) and "He who advances is sure of salvation, but he who retreats will go to
hell In religion and folklore, hell is a location or state in the afterlife in which souls are subjected to punishment after death. Religions with a linear divine history sometimes depict hells as eternal destinations, such as Christianity and I ...
". Jodo Shinshu Buddhism was persecuted in response to the Ikkō-ikki, which caused the formation of '' kakure nenbutsu'' secret societies.


References


Further reading

* Dobbins, James C. (1989). ''Jodo Shinshu: Shin Buddhism in Medieval Japan.'' Bloomington, Indiana:
Indiana University Press Indiana University Press, also known as IU Press, is an academic publisher founded in 1950 at Indiana University that specializes in the humanities and social sciences. Its headquarters are located in Bloomington, Indiana. IU Press publishes ...
.
OCLC 470742039
* Neil McMullin (1984). Buddhism and the State in Sixteenth-Century Japan,
Princeton University Press Princeton University Press is an independent publisher with close connections to Princeton University. Its mission is to disseminate scholarship within academia and society at large. The press was founded by Whitney Darrow, with the financial ...
. * Repp, Martin (2011)
Review of ''War and Faith: Ikko Ikki in Late Muromachi Japan'' by Carol Richmond Tsang (2007)
in ''Japanese Religions'' 36: 1-2, pp. 104–108 croll down the page* Gyūichi Ōta (2011 translation; 1610 account). ''The Chronicle of Lord Nobunaga''. Volume 36 of Brill's Japanese Studies Library, Jurgis Saulius Algirdas Elisonas & Jeroen Pieter Lamers, editors. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. E- * Otani, Chojun (1968)
« Le mouvement insurrectionnel des Ikko-Ikki, adeptes de la secte Bouddhique Shin-Shu au XVème et au XVIème siècle
École pratique des hautes études. 4e section, Sciences historiques et philologiques, Annuaire 1967–1968, pp. 609–612 * Sugiyama, Shigeki J. (1994)
"Honganji in the Muromachi-Sengoku Period: Taking Up the Sword and its Consequences"
''The Pacific World'', New Series, pp. 10, 56–74 {{DEFAULTSORT:Ikko-ikki Buddhism in the Azuchi–Momoyama period Buddhism in the Muromachi period Former countries in Japanese history Japanese rebels Japanese warriors 16th-century rebels