Ikkō-ikki

were armed military leagues that formed in several regions of Japan in the 15th-16th centuries, composed entirely of members of the Jōdo Shinshū sect of Buddhism. In the early phases, these ''ikki'' leagues opposed the rule of local governors or ''daimyō'', but over time as their power consolidated and grew, they courted alliances with powerful figures in the waning Ashikaga Shogunate, until they were crushed by Oda Nobunaga in the 1580's.

The Ikkō-ikki mainly consisted of priests, peasants, merchants and local military rulers who followed the sect, but they sometimes associated with non-followers of the sect. They were at first organized to only a small degree. However, during the reforms of the monshu Jitsunyo, and further under his grandson Shōnyo, the temple network allowed for more efficient and effective mobilization of troops when called for. The relationship between the Honganji temple and its patriarch the monshu was complicated: some monshu such as Rennyo condemned the violence, others such as Shōnyo and Kennyo channeled it to further political aims.

With recent improvements in firearms at the time, the Ikko-ikki movement would be able to rise very suddenly as a menacing force which presented a credible threat to the government, as a peasant or merchant could transform himself into a capable mobile cannoneer in mere days.

Terminology

An league in medieval Japan could be formed by any group that had a single goal in mind, and vowed to stay together to achieve it. Carol Tsang lists two general categories of ''ikki'':
# Warrior-class leagues, which could be further subdivided into:
#* - Formed by extended samurai clans for mutual aid and defense. Members of such leagues were forbidden from attacking one another, and obligated to come to each other's aid.
#* Alternatively, - Formed by local provincial authorities (''shugo'') with other clans for mutual defense and administration.
# Villager leagues, which could be further subdivided into:
#* - composed of members of the same Shōen estate.
#* - composed of villagers who demanded tax-relief from authorities
#* - composed primarily of villagers from the countryside. This term often overlapped with other ikki terms.

By contrast, the Ikkō-ikki defies easy categorization. The term refers to the exclusive emphasis of the Jodo Shinshu sect of striving for rebirth in the Pure Land of Amitabha Buddha. For this reason, Jodo Shinshu was often pejoratively called the ''ikkō-shū'' sect.
In any case, in contrast to other ''ikki'' leagues, the Ikkō-ikki were defined not by political, familial or economic association, but by a sense of community through their association with the Jodo Shinshu sect. Similarly, adherents of the Nichiren sect also formed ''ikki'' leagues in opposition to the Ikkō-ikki as well as mutual aid and defense.

History

Origins

The first recorded instances of an ''ikki'' league date as far back as the 14th century in Bingo Province by a . However, with the waning years of the Muromachi Period and the subsequent Sengoku Period of Japanese was characterized by weakening central power, and frequent conflicts between rival forces, the number of ''ikki'' leagues proliferated. The first large-scale peasant uprising occurred in 1428 when a ''tokusei-ikki'' league from Ōmi Province and Yamashiro Province and later marched on Kyoto the capital.

According to George Sansom, "The Ikko (Single-Minded) sect of Nenbutsu, or Buddha-calling ... is a branch of the worship of Amida developed from the teaching of Shinran into an aggressive doctrine of salvation by faith." In the 13th century, the jizamurai, a new class of small landowners, "formed leagues (''ikki'') for mutual defence", since they came from "good warrior families, long established in their own districts, and they were determined to protect their interests, both economic and social, against newcomers", according to Sansom. The Shirahata-Ikki, "White Flag Uprising", and Mikazuki-Ikki, "Crescent Uprising", were examples of the numerous risings against the Ashikaga shogunate. An uprising involving an entire province was called a Kuni-Ikki (kuni meaning province). Uprisings took place in 1351, 1353, 1369, 1377, 1384–1386, and 1366–1369. The risings in the 15th century, Tsuchi-Ikki or Do-Ikki, were better organized "and the peasants appear to have played a more prominent part". At the conclusion of the Ōnin War, in 1477, "many of the members of the numerous ikki" occupied the monasteries and shrines, and "would ring the warning bells day and night, hoping to terrify the rich citizens", according to Sansom.

Early Ikko-Ikki Uprisings

The Ikkō-ikki were, at first, disparate and disorganized followers of Rennyo's teachings. His missionary work, and his appointment to the position of abbot of the Kyoto Honganji, was in 1457, allowed him to "express in words and deeds" his unorthodox views.

The first instances of the Ikkō-ikki as a defensive league, were formed in Ōmi Province to defend against the threats and violence from '' sohei'' armies of Enryakuji Temple. The 8th monshu (patriarch) of the Jodo Shinshu sect, Rennyo, proselytized in this area, and the growing influence threatened Enryakuji interests in this area. Despite some efforts at a peaceful negotiation, including payments to cover any tax revenue shortfalls, the warrior monks of Enryakuji attacked local communities at Katata in 1465. Jodo Shinshu communities attempted to fortify their temples and villages, but failed to withstand the assaults by Enryakuji. The attacks continued again in 1468, resulting in the destruction of Ōtani Honganji temple, and by 1471 Rennyo and his family fled to village of Yoshizaki in Echizen Province.

Yoshizaki and Kaga Province

A new temple community was established at Yoshizaki-gobō in 1471. It was at this temple that Rennyo began to attract a significant following through extensive letter writing, clarifying orthodox Jodo Shinshu doctrine, and refuting teaches of rival subsects (in particular the Takada sect). The village of Yoshizaki grew to a large, fortified community by 1473, and a network of temples across grew to accommodate increasing numbers of followers. Rennyo assigned family members to head new temples, or to manage existing temples, further strengthening the network. Disruptions by local Ikkō-ikki leagues forced Rennyo to draft a series of rules for proper conduct in 1475, that Jodo Shinshu adherents were expected to follow, with limited effect.

An ongoing dispute between members local governorships forced the Honganji sect to become involved in 1473 leading to a series of skirmishes and alliances in the 1470's and 1480's. By 1486 the conflict culminated in the Kaga Rebellion overthrew governor of Kaga Province and took control of it for themselves; this represented the first time in Japanese history that a group of commoners ruled a province.

Rennyo, who was in a separate province at the time, was compelled by the authorities to admonish the Ikko-ikki rebellions, to little effect, and stepped down as the Patriarch in 1489, before dying of illness in 1499. After stepping down, his second son, Jitsunyo became the 9th ''monshu'', and initially followed a conservative, cautious administration at first.

Dynastic Entanglement and Growing Power

A complex dynastic dispute within the Ashikaga shogunate in 1493, with the forced deposition of Ashikaga Yoshitane by his former deputy shogun, Hosokawa Masamoto, led to a conflict between Yoshitane's faction led by the Hatakeyama clan and their opponents, the Hosokawa clan. Masamoto forcefully enlisted military aid from the 9th monshu, Jitsunyo, in particular to help with a stalled assault on Hatakeyama Yoshihide at Konda castle in late 1505. According to the account, Jitsunyo initially fled from Masamoto's approach, and retreated to Ōtsu, but Masamoto pursued him, reportedly cornering him until he relented. Jitsunyo had enjoyed the patronage of Masamoto, including protection from prosecution from the 1488 rebellions, but initially refused, citing his role as a priest and not a warrior. Eventually, Jitsunyo relented.

While most Honganji temples heeded the call to arms, some factions in Settsu and Kawachi provinces supported Yoshitane's faction, and refused to fight under the Honganji banner. Nonetheless, in 1506, the Ikko-ikki armies helped defeat Konda castle, defeating Asakura Norikage in the of 1506, and triggering further uprisings in neighboring Etchu, Echizen, and Noto provinces, followed later by Mikawa Province. By 1507, Masamoto had been assassinated and fighting amongst the Hosokawa clan successors led to a stalemate.

During this time, Jitsunyo reformed the hierarchy of the Honganji and its network of temples into either temples staffed by family members, or temples with more autonomy, but subordinate to the Honganji. This increased centralization was intended to help with administration, but also meant that Ikko-ikki forces could be more effectively mobilized. In addition to these reforms, the letters of Rennyo were collected and a subset were selected as a core party of Jodo Shinshu doctrine, known as the or alternatively leading to increased uniformity.

Escalating Military Conflicts

Following Jitsunyo's death in 1525, Jodo Shinshu temples in the provinces increasingly formed into : fortified temple communities that did not permit military officials to enter, while also managing their own tax collection. Meanwhile, the Ikko-ikki also established a fortress complex at Ishiyama Honganji, just outside Osaka in 1496, and in Nagashima, on the borders of Owari and Ise Provinces and in a series of temples in Mikawa Province as well.

By the 1530's the Honganji was directly involved in a series of conflicts, starting with the conflict in Kaga Province, pitting the 10th monshu, Shōnyo, against rebellious temples, followed soon after by military assistance to Hosokawa Harumoto in the of 1532-1536. The Ikko-ikki defeated Nagao Tamekage in the 1536 Battle of Sendanno. By July 17th of that year, local Ikko-ikki forces marched into Nara and sacked it, looting Kasuga Shrine. Unlike his predecessors Shōnyo did not hesitate to mobilize forces, or discipline temples that were non-compliant.

The Ikko-ikki also fought Asakura Norikage again in the 1555 Battle of Daishoji-omote.

Apex of Power and Downfall

Towards the end of the 16th century, however, their growing numbers and strength caught the attention and concern of the great samurai leaders of the time. Tokugawa Ieyasu worried that Ikko-ikki of Mikawa Province would rise up and seize the province. In 1564, his forces, with the help of Jōdo-shū forces, defeated the Mikawa Ikkō-ikki in the Battle of Azukizaka.

By this point, Ishiyama Honganji and other strongholds of the Ikko-ikki lay across major trade routes and occupied the same areas that Nobunaga saw as his primary territorial objectives. Nearly every road to the capital from this western part of the country was controlled by the Ikko-ikki or their allies, and their populist roots gave them significant economic power as well. Nobunaga in particular sought the destruction of the Ikkō-ikki for these reasons, and because they allied themselves with nearly every one of his major enemies or rivals. Ashikaga Yoshiaki was once strongly supported in his claim to become Shōgun by Nobunaga, but turned to the Ikko-ikki when their relationship soured. The Ikko-ikki also had powerful allies in the Mōri, Azai, and Asakura clans. In the Asakura stronghold of Echizen province, today's Fukui-prefecture, Nobunaga ordered his generals to kill the people in Ajimano village in August 1575 as noted in The Chronicle of Lord Nobunaga. The Ishiyama Honganji was besieged several times by the forces of Oda Nobunaga in the Ishiyama Honganji War, as was the Nagashima fortress. After several failed attempts at seizing each emplacement, Oda successfully defeated Nagashima by 1574 after a four-year siege, and Ishiyama Honganji in 1580 after an 11-year siege.Kennyo (Shōnyo's son) submitted to Nobunaga's authority, relinquishing much of their independence in the process, though a few holdouts resisted as late as 1585.

In the 1580s, the last of the Ikkō-ikki courted Toyotomi Hideyoshi, and fought alongside his forces against warrior monks and priests of other sects.

Weapons, training, and lifestyle

The Ikkō-ikki bands of the 16th century, due largely to their origins as countryside mobs, used quite varied armor and armament. Many wore the more traditional priest robes, with varying degrees and types of armor. Some wore various sorts of helmets, while others opted for the straw hat and cloak of a peasant. Naginata remained very common, along with a variety of swords and daggers, and a limited number of arquebuses. Finally, while not truly armor nor armament, a very common item wielded by the mobs of Ikkō-ikki priest warriors was a banner with a Buddhist slogan written upon it. Some of the more common slogans included the '' nenbutsu'' chant "Hail to Buddha Amida!" (''Namu Amida Butsu''; 南無阿弥陀仏) and "He who advances is sure of salvation, but he who retreats will go to hell".

Jodo Shinshu Buddhism was persecuted in response to the Ikkō-ikki, which caused the formation of '' kakure nenbutsu'' secret societies.

References

Further reading

* Dobbins, James C. (1989). ''Jodo Shinshu: Shin Buddhism in Medieval Japan.'' Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press.
OCLC 470742039
* Neil McMullin (1984). Buddhism and the State in Sixteenth-Century Japan, Princeton University Press.
* Repp, Martin (2011)
Review of ''War and Faith: Ikko Ikki in Late Muromachi Japan'' by Carol Richmond Tsang (2007)
in ''Japanese Religions'' 36: 1-2, pp. 104–108 croll down the page* Gyūichi Ōta (2011 translation; 1610 account). ''The Chronicle of Lord Nobunaga''. Volume 36 of Brill's Japanese Studies Library, Jurgis Saulius Algirdas Elisonas & Jeroen Pieter Lamers, editors. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. E-
* Otani, Chojun (1968)
« Le mouvement insurrectionnel des Ikko-Ikki, adeptes de la secte Bouddhique Shin-Shu au XVème et au XVIème siècle
École pratique des hautes études. 4e section, Sciences historiques et philologiques, Annuaire 1967–1968, pp. 609–612
* Sugiyama, Shigeki J. (1994)
"Honganji in the Muromachi-Sengoku Period: Taking Up the Sword and its Consequences"
''The Pacific World'', New Series, pp. 10, 56–74

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Buddhism in the Azuchi–Momoyama period
Buddhism in the Muromachi period
Former countries in Japanese history
Japanese rebels
Japanese warriors
16th-century rebels