During the late
Zhou dynasty
The Zhou dynasty ( ) was a royal dynasty of China that existed for 789 years from until 256 BC, the longest span of any dynasty in Chinese history. During the Western Zhou period (771 BC), the royal house, surnamed Ji, had military ...
, the inhabitants of the
Central Plains began to distinguish between and ( zh, t=華夷秩序, p=huáyí zhìxù), referred to by some historians as the Sino–barbarian dichotomy. They defined themselves as part of cultural and political region known as ''
Huaxia
''Huaxia'' is a historical concept representing the Chinese nation, and came from the self-awareness of a common cultural ancestry by ancestral populations of the Han people.
Etymology
The earliest extant authentic attestation of the ''H ...
'', which they contrasted with the surrounding regions home to outsiders, conventionally known as the
Four Barbarians
"Four Barbarians" ( zh, c=四夷, p=sìyí) was a generic term used in Ancient China, particularly by subjects of the Shang dynasty, Shang and Zhou dynasty, Zhou dynasties, referring to the various non-Sinitic peoples living outside the borders ...
(literally, "four ''
Yi''"). Although ''Yi'' is usually translated as "barbarian", other translations of this term in English include "foreigners", "ordinary others", "wild tribes" and "uncivilized tribes". The ''Hua''–''Yi'' distinction asserted Chinese superiority, but implied that outsiders could become ''Hua'' by
adopting their culture and customs. This distinction was not unique to China, but was also applied by various Vietnamese, Japanese, and Koreans regimes, all of whom considered themselves at one point in history to be
legitimate successors to the Chinese civilization and the "Central State" in imitation of China.
Historical context
Ancient China
The history of China spans several millennia across a wide geographical area. Each region now considered part of the Chinese world has experienced periods of unity, fracture, prosperity, and strife. Chinese civilization first emerged in the Y ...
was composed of a group of states that arose in the
Yellow River
The Yellow River, also known as Huanghe, is the second-longest river in China and the List of rivers by length, sixth-longest river system on Earth, with an estimated length of and a Drainage basin, watershed of . Beginning in the Bayan H ...
valley. According to historian
Li Feng, during the
Zhou dynasty
The Zhou dynasty ( ) was a royal dynasty of China that existed for 789 years from until 256 BC, the longest span of any dynasty in Chinese history. During the Western Zhou period (771 BC), the royal house, surnamed Ji, had military ...
(), the contrast between the 'Chinese' Zhou and the 'non-Chinese'
Xirong
Xirong () or Rong were various people who lived primarily in and around the western extremities of ancient China (in modern Gansu and Qinghai). They were known as early as the Shang dynasty (1765–1122 BCE), as one of the Four Barbarians that fr ...
or
Dongyi
The Dongyi or Eastern Yi () was a collective term for ancient peoples found in Chinese records. The definition of Dongyi varied across the ages, but in most cases referred to inhabitants of eastern China, then later, the Korean peninsula and Jap ...
was "more political than cultural or ethnic". Lothar von Falkenhausen argues that the perceived contrast between "Chinese" and "Barbarians" was accentuated during the
Eastern Zhou
The Eastern Zhou (256 BCE) is a period in Chinese history comprising the latter two-thirds of the Zhou dynasty. The period follows the Western Zhou era and is named due to the Zhou royal court relocating the capital eastward from Fenghao ...
period (770–256 BCE), when adherence to Zhou rituals became increasingly recognised as a "barometer of civilisation"; a meter for sophistication and cultural refinement. It is widely agreed by historians that the distinction between the ''Hua'' and the ''Yi'' emerged during that period.
Gideon Shelach claimed that Chinese texts tended to overstate the distinction between the Chinese and their northern neighbours, ignoring many intergroup similarities. Nicola di Cosmo doubted the existence of a strong demarcation between the "Zhou Universe" and "a discrete, 'barbarian', non-Zhou universe" and claimed that Chinese historian
Sima Qian
Sima Qian () was a Chinese historian during the early Han dynasty. He is considered the father of Chinese historiography for the ''Shiji'' (sometimes translated into English as ''Records of the Grand Historian''), a general history of China cov ...
popularised this concept, writing of the "chasm that had 'always' existed between China – the Hua-Hsia
uaxiapeople – and the various alien groups inhabiting the north."
The conclusion of the
Warring States period
The Warring States period in history of China, Chinese history (221 BC) comprises the final two and a half centuries of the Zhou dynasty (256 BC), which were characterized by frequent warfare, bureaucratic and military reforms, and ...
brought the first unified Chinese state—established by the
Qin dynasty
The Qin dynasty ( ) was the first Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China. It is named for its progenitor state of Qin, a fief of the confederal Zhou dynasty (256 BC). Beginning in 230 BC, the Qin under King Ying Zheng enga ...
in 221 BCE—who established the imperial system and
forcibly standardized the traditional Chinese script, leading to the first of the distinctions between the 'refined' ''Hua'' and the increasingly marginalised ''Yi''. The
Han dynasty
The Han dynasty was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China (202 BC9 AD, 25–220 AD) established by Liu Bang and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–206 BC ...
(221 BCE–206 CE) further contributed to the divide with its creation of a persistent
Han ethnocultural identity.
The Han Chinese civilisation
influenced neighbouring states
Korea
Korea is a peninsular region in East Asia consisting of the Korean Peninsula, Jeju Island, and smaller islands. Since the end of World War II in 1945, it has been politically Division of Korea, divided at or near the 38th parallel north, 3 ...
,
Japan
Japan is an island country in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean off the northeast coast of the Asia, Asian mainland, it is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan and extends from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea ...
,
Vietnam
Vietnam, officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam (SRV), is a country at the eastern edge of mainland Southeast Asia, with an area of about and a population of over 100 million, making it the world's List of countries and depende ...
and
Thailand
Thailand, officially the Kingdom of Thailand and historically known as Siam (the official name until 1939), is a country in Southeast Asia on the Mainland Southeast Asia, Indochinese Peninsula. With a population of almost 66 million, it spa ...
and other Asian countries. Although Han Chinese superiority had only been sporadically reinforced by displays of Chinese military power, their
Sinocentric system treated these countries as vassals of the
emperor of China
Throughout Chinese history, "Emperor" () was the superlative title held by the monarchs of imperial China's various dynasties. In traditional Chinese political theory, the emperor was the " Son of Heaven", an autocrat with the divine mandat ...
, "the
Son of Heaven
Son of Heaven, or ''Tianzi'' (), was the sacred monarchial and imperial title of the Chinese sovereign. It originated with the Zhou dynasty and was founded on the political and spiritual doctrine of the Mandate of Heaven. Since the Qin dynasty ...
" (), who was in possession of the
Mandate of Heaven
The Mandate of Heaven ( zh, t=天命, p=Tiānmìng, w=, l=Heaven's command) is a Chinese ideology#Political ideologies, political ideology that was used in History of China#Ancient China, Ancient China and Chinese Empire, Imperial China to legit ...
(), the
divine right to rule. Areas outside Sinocentric influence and the divine rule of the Emperor were considered to consist of uncivilised lands inhabited by barbarians.
Throughout history, Chinese frontiers had been periodically attacked by
nomad
Nomads are communities without fixed habitation who regularly move to and from areas. Such groups include hunter-gatherers, pastoral nomads (owning livestock), tinkers and trader nomads. In the twentieth century, the population of nomadic pa ...
ic tribes from the north, west and even south. These people were being labelled as ''barbarians'' by the Chinese who believed themselves to be more refined and who had begun to
build cities and live an urban life based on agriculture. It was in an attempt of how best to deal with this problem that the philosopher,
Confucius
Confucius (; pinyin: ; ; ), born Kong Qiu (), was a Chinese philosopher of the Spring and Autumn period who is traditionally considered the paragon of Chinese sages. Much of the shared cultural heritage of the Sinosphere originates in the phil ...
(551–479 BCE) was prompted to formulate principles for relationships with the barbarians, briefly recorded in two of his ''
Analects
The ''Analects'', also known as the ''Sayings of Confucius'', is an ancient Chinese philosophical text composed of sayings and ideas attributed to Confucius and his contemporaries, traditionally believed to have been compiled by his followers. ...
''.
Although China had been trading goods to and from Europeans for centuries, it was not until the arrival of the industrialised European trade and colonialism in the 19th and 20th centuries that exposed Chinese civilisation to technological developments that had long outdated China's. As such, Chinese society was forced to undergo a modification of its traditional views of its relationships with "barbarians", and in particular could no longer regard everyone other than Chinese as objectively inferior uncultured barbarians.
China
Confucius lived during a time of war between Chinese states. He regarded people who did not respect
the traditional value of ''li'' as "barbarians", as he believed the workings of a civilised state should be founded on ethical conduct, which he said must stem from ''li''. Confucius argued that a state founded on the relatively cruel social codes of conquest and warlordism was barbaric in contrast to one founded on the principles of stately righteousness. In Analect 3.5, Confucius said, "The
Yi and
Di barbarian tribes with rulers are not as viable as the various Chinese states without them."
''The Disposition of Error'', a fifth-century tract defending
Buddhism
Buddhism, also known as Buddhadharma and Dharmavinaya, is an Indian religion and List of philosophies, philosophical tradition based on Pre-sectarian Buddhism, teachings attributed to the Buddha, a wandering teacher who lived in the 6th or ...
, notes that when Confucius was threatening to take residence among the nine barbarian states () he said, "If a gentleman-scholar dwells in their midst, what baseness can there be among them?" An alternate translation of the philosopher's Analect 9.14 is, "Someone said: 'They are vulgar. What can you do about them?' The Master said: 'A gentleman used to live there. How could they be vulgar?'" In both translations, the author is shown to believe in the superiority of the ''Hua'' culture over that of the ''Yi''.
The prominent ''
Shuowen Jiezi
The ''Shuowen Jiezi'' is a Chinese dictionary compiled by Xu Shen , during the Eastern Han dynasty (25–220 CE). While prefigured by earlier reference works for Chinese characters like the ''Erya'' (), the ''Shuowen Jiezi'' contains the ...
'' character dictionary (121 CE) defines ''yi'' as "level; peaceful" () or "people of eastern regions" () and does not attempt to marginalise them. This implies that the ''Hua-Yi'' distinction was not universally held.
Zhou dynasty
The ''
Bamboo Annals
The ''Bamboo Annals'' ( zh, t=竹書紀年, p=Zhúshū Jìnián), also known as the ''Ji Tomb Annals'' ( zh, t=汲冢紀年, p=Jí Zhǒng Jìnián), is a chronicle of ancient China.
It begins in the earliest legendary time (the age of the Yellow E ...
'' record that the founder of Zhou,
King Wu of Zhou
King Wu of Zhou (; died ), personal name Ji Fa, was the founding king of the Chinese Zhou dynasty. The chronology of his reign is disputed but is generally thought to have begun around 1046 BCE and ended with his death three years later.
Ki ...
"led the lords of the western barbarians" on a journey to conquer the
Shang dynasty
The Shang dynasty (), also known as the Yin dynasty (), was a Chinese royal dynasty that ruled in the Yellow River valley during the second millennium BC, traditionally succeeding the Xia dynasty and followed by the Western Zhou d ...
, leading to the creation of the Zhou Dynasty. The Zhou would later contribute as much as the Shang to the ''Hua–Yi'' distinction.
Not all Zhou regarded the Hua–Yi distinction as a
cultural barrier that needed to be overcome to 'purify' China. Zhou philosopher
Mencius
Mencius (孟子, ''Mèngzǐ'', ; ) was a Chinese Confucian philosopher, often described as the Second Sage () to reflect his traditional esteem relative to Confucius himself. He was part of Confucius's fourth generation of disciples, inheriting ...
believed that Confucian practices were universal and timeless, and thus, followed by both Hua and Yi people.
Jin dynasty
In order to alleviate the shortages of labour caused by the
Three Kingdoms
The Three Kingdoms of Cao Wei, Shu Han, and Eastern Wu dominated China from AD 220 to 280 following the end of the Han dynasty. This period was preceded by the Eastern Han dynasty and followed by the Jin dynasty (266–420), Western Jin dyna ...
wars, the Jin allowed millions of "barbarian" people to reside in Jin territory. Many officials opposed this decision in the name of the ''Hua–Yi'' distinction, claiming that if the barbarians did not identify with the
Huaxia
''Huaxia'' is a historical concept representing the Chinese nation, and came from the self-awareness of a common cultural ancestry by ancestral populations of the Han people.
Etymology
The earliest extant authentic attestation of the ''H ...
, they would conspire to destroy the empire.
Sixteen Kingdoms
During the
Uprising of the Five Barbarians
The Upheaval of the Five Barbarians also translated as the Uprising, Rebellion or the Revolt of the Five Barbarians () is a Chinese expression used to refer to a chaotic period of warfare from 304 to 316 during the fall of the Western Jin dynas ...
() and ravaging of
North China
North China () is a list of regions of China, geographical region of the People's Republic of China, consisting of five province-level divisions of China, provincial-level administrative divisions, namely the direct-administered municipalities ...
that occurred at the start of the 4th century, the
Jin dynasty
Jin may refer to:
States Jìn 晉
* Jin (Chinese state) (晉國), major state of the Zhou dynasty, existing from the 11th century BC to 376 BC
* Jin dynasty (266–420) (晉朝), also known as Liang Jin and Sima Jin
* Jin (Later Tang precursor) ...
and other ethnic Han appealed to entrenched beliefs in the Hua–Yi distinction when calling for resistance to the Five Barbarians and the Yi they represented. The Jin was eventually driven out of the north and relocated south of the
Yangtze River
The Yangtze or Yangzi ( or ) is the longest river in Eurasia and the third-longest in the world. It rises at Jari Hill in the Tanggula Mountains of the Tibetan Plateau and flows including Dam Qu River the longest source of the Yangtze, i ...
. The historians of the
Southern dynasties
The Northern and Southern dynasties () was a period of political division in the history of China that lasted from 420 to 589, following the tumultuous era of the Sixteen Kingdoms and the Eastern Jin dynasty. It is sometimes considered as ...
, who were all Han Chinese, portrayed the non-Han rulers as barbaric.
Meanwhile, the "Five Barbarians", who founded several of the Sixteen Kingdoms in northern China and Sichuan, often had to cooperate with the local Han people to consolidate their rules. The first two of the Sixteen Kingdoms, the
Han-Zhao
The Han-Zhao ( zh, s=汉赵, t=漢趙, p=Hàn Zhào; 304–329 AD), or Former Zhao ( zh, s=前赵, t=前趙, p=Qián Zhào), was a dynastic state of China ruled by the Liu ( Luandi) clan of Chuge-Xiongnu ethnicity during the Sixteen Kingdoms per ...
and
Cheng-Han
Cheng-Han (; 303 or 304 – 347) was a dynastic state of China listed as one of the Sixteen Kingdoms in Chinese historiography. Ruled by the Li clan of the Ba-Di people, its territory was based in what is modern-day Sichuan Province, China. The ...
dynasties, adopted the Chinese ruling systems and customs, with the former initially claiming to be a continuation of the Han dynasty. The
Xianbei
The Xianbei (; ) were an ancient nomadic people that once resided in the eastern Eurasian steppes in what is today Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, and Northeastern China. The Xianbei were likely not of a single ethnicity, but rather a multiling ...
-led
Former Yan
Yan, known in historiography as the Former Yan (; 337–370), was a dynastic state of China ruled by the Murong clan of the Xianbei during the Sixteen Kingdoms period. From Liaoning, the Former Yan later conquered and ruled over Hebei, Shaanxi, ...
rose to prominence partly due to their acceptance and employment of Han Chinese emigres within their administration, while
Fu Jian of the
Di-led
Former Qin
Qin, known as the Former Qin and Fu Qin (苻秦) in historiography, was a Dynasties of China, dynastic state of China ruled by the Fu (Pu) clan of the Di (Five Barbarians), Di peoples during the Sixteen Kingdoms period. Founded in the wake of ...
is most famous for his partnership with his Chinese Prime Minister,
Wang Meng and his strong dedication to
Confucian
Confucianism, also known as Ruism or Ru classicism, is a system of thought and behavior originating in ancient China, and is variously described as a tradition, philosophy, religion, theory of government, or way of life. Founded by Confucius ...
principles.
Still, tension between the Han Chinese and the non-Han was evident at times. The Han-Zhao first introduced separate governing bodies for the Chinese and non-Han tribes which was later adopted by some of the Sixteen Kingdoms, thus upholding the Hua–Yi distinction. Relations were especially tense in northern China under the
Later Zhao dynasty, which culminated in racial violence during the final years of the empire.
Ran Min's order to kill the "barbarians"
The
Later Zhao dynasty was founded the Shi clan of
Jie ethnicity, who had a practice of heavily adopting people into their family. One of these people was
Shi Min (later named Ran Min), a Han Chinese who was the adoptive grandson of Later Zhao's third ruler,
Shi Hu
Shi Hu (; 295 – 26 May 349), courtesy name Jilong (季龍), also known by his posthumous name as the Emperor Wu of Later Zhao (後趙武帝), was an emperor of the Jie-led Chinese Later Zhao dynasty. He was the founding emperor Shi Le (Em ...
. In 349 CE, after his promise to be made Crown Prince was reneged, Shi Min seized control of the emperor and the capital,
Ye. Due to multiple attempts on his life, he soon became apprehensive of the non-Han tribes and ordered the Han people to slaughter the Jie people and other barbarians, identifying them by their high noses and full beards. Around 200,000 people were killed, with the Jie soon disappearing from history, but a large number of victims were also mistakenly-identified Han Chinese people. After Ran Min founded his state of
Ran Wei
Wei ( zh, 魏; 350–352), known as Ran Wei () in Chinese historiography, was a short-lived Dynasties of China, dynastic state of China established by Ran Min. In 350, Ran Wei usurped the throne of the Later Zhao, Later Zhao dynasty in the city ...
in 350, he attempted to win back the support of the tribes, but in 352, his regime was toppled by the Xianbei-led
Former Yan dynasty.
Ran Min continues to be a controversial figure. He is considered by some to be a hero, whereas others believe he bore extreme prejudice arising from the Hua–Yi distinction.
Northern Wei dynasty
Emperor Xiaowen of
Northern Wei
Wei (), known in historiography as the Northern Wei ( zh, c=北魏, p=Běi Wèi), Tuoba Wei ( zh, c=拓跋魏, p=Tuòbá Wèi), Yuan Wei ( zh, c=元魏, p=Yuán Wèi) and Later Wei ( zh, t=後魏, p=Hòu Wèi), was an Dynasties of China, impe ...
(a state that controlled the north of China), who was of the
Xianbei
The Xianbei (; ) were an ancient nomadic people that once resided in the eastern Eurasian steppes in what is today Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, and Northeastern China. The Xianbei were likely not of a single ethnicity, but rather a multiling ...
people attempted to eliminate ''Yi'' from his state by imposing
Sinicisation on his people. The Xianbei language was outlawed and Xianbei people began to adopt surnames of the Han ethnicity; for example, the ruling clan of the Northern Wei originally bore the surname
Tuoba
The Tuoba (Chinese language, Chinese) or Tabgatch (, ''Tabγač''), also known by #Names, other names, was an influential Xianbei clan in early imperial China. During the Sixteen Kingdoms after the fall of Han and the Three Kingdoms, the Tuoba e ...
but it was abandoned in favor of Yuan.
Sui dynasty
In 581, the Sui emperor
Yang Jian deposed the Xianbei ruler of Northern Zhou and restored Han rule over North China. This event marked the end of all power that the Xianbei and other non-Han groups had over China, and racial tension subsided.
Tang dynasty
During the
Tang dynasty
The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, c=唐朝), or the Tang Empire, was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907, with an Wu Zhou, interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dynasty and followed ...
, various ethnic groups including Koreans, Indians and Tibetans journeyed to
Chang'an
Chang'an (; zh, t=長安, s=长安, p=Cháng'ān, first=t) is the traditional name of the city now named Xi'an and was the capital of several Chinese dynasties, ranging from 202 BCE to 907 CE. The site has been inhabited since Neolithic time ...
and other major Tang cities for business or study. These people brought their religions and customs:
Buddhism
Buddhism, also known as Buddhadharma and Dharmavinaya, is an Indian religion and List of philosophies, philosophical tradition based on Pre-sectarian Buddhism, teachings attributed to the Buddha, a wandering teacher who lived in the 6th or ...
,
Islam
Islam is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the Quran, and the teachings of Muhammad. Adherents of Islam are called Muslims, who are estimated to number Islam by country, 2 billion worldwide and are the world ...
,
Zoroastrianism
Zoroastrianism ( ), also called Mazdayasnā () or Beh-dīn (), is an Iranian religions, Iranian religion centred on the Avesta and the teachings of Zoroaster, Zarathushtra Spitama, who is more commonly referred to by the Greek translation, ...
(''Xianjiao''),
Manichaeism
Manichaeism (; in ; ) is an endangered former major world religion currently only practiced in China around Cao'an,R. van den Broek, Wouter J. Hanegraaff ''Gnosis and Hermeticism from Antiquity to Modern Times''. SUNY Press, 1998 p. 37 found ...
(''Monijiao'') and
Syriac Christianity
Syriac Christianity (, ''Mšiḥoyuṯo Suryoyto'' or ''Mšiḥāyūṯā Suryāytā'') is a branch of Eastern Christianity of which formative Christian theology, theological writings and traditional Christian liturgy, liturgies are expressed in ...
(''Jingjiao''), all of which flourished.
This cosmopolitan policy caused controversy among the literati, many of whom questioned the recommendation of the
Kaifeng
Kaifeng ( zh, s=开封, p=Kāifēng) is a prefecture-level city in east-Zhongyuan, central Henan province, China. It is one of the Historical capitals of China, Eight Ancient Capitals of China, having been the capital eight times in history, and ...
governor for the participation of Arab-born Li Yan-sheng in the 847
imperial examination
The imperial examination was a civil service examination system in History of China#Imperial China, Imperial China administered for the purpose of selecting candidates for the Civil service#China, state bureaucracy. The concept of choosing bureau ...
s and several similar incidences of what they believed as incorrect racial privileging. Such was the discourse that Tang intellectual Chen An wrote an essay defending the governor's decision; ''The Heart of Being Hua'' (), which is often cited as expressing the sentiments of the "non-xenophobic" Chinese position on the Hua–Yi distinction. In the essay, Chen wrote: "If one speaks in terms of geography, then there are Hua and Yi. But if one speaks in terms of education, then there can be no such difference. For the distinction between Hua and Yi rests in the heart and is determined by their different inclinations."
A prominent Tang Confucian,
Han Yu
Han Yu (; 76825 December 824), courtesy name Tuizhi (), and commonly known by his posthumous name Han Wengong (韓文公), was an essayist, Confucian scholar, poet, and government official during the Tang dynasty who significantly influenced t ...
, wrote in his essay ''Yuan Dao'', "When Confucius wrote the ''Chunqiu'', he said that if the feudal lords use the Yi ritual, then they should be called Yi. If they use Chinese rituals, then they should be called Chinese." Han Yu went on to lament that the Chinese of his time might all become Yi because the Tang court wanted to put Yi laws above the teachings of the former kings, creating the possibility that although insiders could lose their culture, outsiders could similarly gain insider culture.
Arguments that excoriated the Tang's lax attitude towards foreigners were strengthened by the Yi-led
An Lushan Rebellion
The An Lushan rebellion was a civil war in China that lasted from 755 to 763, at the approximate midpoint of the Tang dynasty (618–907). It began as a commandery rebellion attempting to overthrow and replace the Tang government with the rogue ...
(755–763), which propelled the Tang into decline. An intellectual movement "to return to the pure... sources of orthodox thought and morality", including many of the concepts of the
Classical Prose Movement, also targeted "foreign" religions, as exemplified by Han Yu's diatribe against Buddhism.
Emperor Wenzong of Tang passed decrees in line with these views, especially restricting
Iranian religions
The Iranian religions, also known as the Persian religions, are, in the context of comparative religion, a grouping of religious movements that originated in the Iranian plateau, which accounts for the bulk of what is called " Greater Iran".
Ba ...
and Buddhism, but this policy was relaxed by his successors.
Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms
The "Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms" was a period in which the north of China was ruled by a non-Han people, the
Shatuo
The Shatuo, or the Shatuo Turks (; also transcribed as Sha-t'o, Sanskrit SartZuev Yu.A., ''"Horse Tamgas from Vassal Princedoms (Translation of Chinese composition "Tanghuyao" of 8-10th centuries)"'', Kazakh SSR Academy of Sciences, Alma-Ata, I ...
, for three short-lived dynasties while the south was ruled by ethnic Han. Their legitimacy was recognised by the
Song dynasty
The Song dynasty ( ) was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 960 to 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song, who usurped the throne of the Later Zhou dynasty and went on to conquer the rest of the Fiv ...
.
Song dynasty
The Song dynasty saw both an economic boom and invasion by alien states. States like the
Liao dynasty and
Western Xia
The Western Xia or the Xi Xia ( zh, c=, w=Hsi1 Hsia4, p=Xī Xià), officially the Great Xia ( zh, c=大夏, w=Ta4 Hsia4, p=Dà Xià, labels=no), also known as the Tangut Empire, and known as Stein (1972), pp. 70–71. to the Tanguts ...
began to take territories inhabited by large numbers of Chinese and asserted that they too were Chinese and successors to the Tang, and posed legitimacy issues for Song rule.
In response to rising concerns from citizenry and claims from Yi states such as the Western Xia, Song scholars stipulated that groups like the
Shatuo
The Shatuo, or the Shatuo Turks (; also transcribed as Sha-t'o, Sanskrit SartZuev Yu.A., ''"Horse Tamgas from Vassal Princedoms (Translation of Chinese composition "Tanghuyao" of 8-10th centuries)"'', Kazakh SSR Academy of Sciences, Alma-Ata, I ...
(whom the Song largely succeeded and who largely continued the rule of the Tang) were not barbarian or "Yi" but Chinese or "Hua" and that the Song had only descended from ruling groups that were Hua. Secondly, the Song asserted that the Liao and Western Xia, and later the
Jin, were barbarian states despite their control of large areas of traditional Han territory because they had not inherited any mandate from a legitimate, "Hua" dynasty.
Yuan dynasty
Concerns over legitimacy were not limited to the Song alone: states rose up again in the
Yuan dynasty
The Yuan dynasty ( ; zh, c=元朝, p=Yuáncháo), officially the Great Yuan (; Mongolian language, Mongolian: , , literally 'Great Yuan State'), was a Mongol-led imperial dynasty of China and a successor state to the Mongol Empire after Div ...
, as its rulers were non-
Han. However, the Yuan dynasty adopted a different approach to quelling the conflict. The Yuan asserted that the Song, Liao and Jin were all legitimate; therefore all three dynasties were given their own history, as recognition of their legitimacy.
Despite this, the Yuan racially segregated their people; dividing society into four categories:
#
Mongols
Mongols are an East Asian ethnic group native to Mongolia, China ( Inner Mongolia and other 11 autonomous territories), as well as the republics of Buryatia and Kalmykia in Russia. The Mongols are the principal member of the large family o ...
: the ruling group and hence, the most important
#
Semu
Semu () is the name of a caste established by the Yuan dynasty. The 31 Semu categories referred to people who came from Central and West Asia. They had come to serve the Yuan dynasty by enfranchising under the dominant Mongol caste. The Semu wer ...
("assorted categories"): a term for non-Chinese and non-Mongol foreigners who occupied the second slate;
#
Han (漢人): a term for the Han Chinese, Jurchens, and Khitan under the rule of the Jin dynasty;
# Southerner (南人): a term for Han Chinese under the rule of the Song dynasty.
In addition, the Yuan also divided society into 10 castes, based on "desirability":
# High officials (官)
# Minor officials (吏)
# Buddhist monks (僧)
# Taoist priests (道)
# Physicians (医)
# Peasants (農)
# Hunters (獵)
# Courtesans (妓)
# Confucian scholars (儒)
# Beggars (丐)
The Yuan rulers were ethnic
Mongols
Mongols are an East Asian ethnic group native to Mongolia, China ( Inner Mongolia and other 11 autonomous territories), as well as the republics of Buryatia and Kalmykia in Russia. The Mongols are the principal member of the large family o ...
and were viewed as barbaric by the dominant Han population, although they did not last long in
China proper
China proper, also called Inner China, are terms used primarily in the West in reference to the traditional "core" regions of China centered in the southeast. The term was first used by Westerners during the Manchu people, Manchu-led Qing dyn ...
(from 1271 to 1368).
Ming dynasty
In 1368,
Zhu Yuanzhang
The Hongwu Emperor (21 October 1328– 24 June 1398), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Taizu of Ming, personal name Zhu Yuanzhang, courtesy name Guorui, was the founding emperor of the Ming dynasty, reigning from 1368 to 1398.
In ...
proclaimed the
Ming dynasty
The Ming dynasty, officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming was the last imperial dynasty of ...
and issued a long manifesto, in which he labeled the Yuan as barbarians who had usurped the Chinese throne, and who had inflicted atrocities such as rape and murder. He lists incidents where the Mongols massacred men in entire villages and appropriated the women. Zhu's northern military expedition had been a success; Beijing was captured in the same year and China was again governed by ethnic Han.
Although the Ming referred to the preceding Yuan as the "wild Yuan" (胡元), they also accepted the Yuan before them as a legitimate dynasty. The Hongwu Emperor indicated on another occasion that he was happy to be born in the Yuan period and that the Yuan did legitimately receive the Mandate of Heaven to rule over China. In addition, one of his key advisors,
Liu Ji, generally supported the idea that while the Chinese and the non-Chinese are different, they are actually equal. Liu was therefore arguing against the idea that Hua was and is superior to Yi.
During the
Miao Rebellions There have been several rebellions among the Miao people (also known as the Hmong) in Chinese history:
*Miao rebellions in the Ming dynasty (14th–15th centuries)
*Bozhou rebellion (1589–1600)
*Miao Rebellion (1735–36)
*Miao Rebellion (1795– ...
, Ming forces engaged in massive slaughter of the
Hmong
Hmong may refer to:
* Hmong people, an ethnic group living mainly in Southwest China, Vietnam, Laos, and Thailand
* Hmong cuisine
* Hmong customs and culture
** Hmong music
** Hmong textile art
* Hmong language, a continuum of closely related ...
and other native ethnic groups in
South China
South China ( zh, s=, p=Huá'nán, j=jyut6 naam4) is a geographical and cultural region that covers the southernmost part of China. Its precise meaning varies with context. A notable feature of South China in comparison to the rest of China is ...
; after castrating Hmong boys to use as
eunuch
A eunuch ( , ) is a male who has been castration, castrated. Throughout history, castration often served a specific social function. The earliest records for intentional castration to produce eunuchs are from the Sumerian city of Lagash in the 2 ...
slaves, Chinese soldiers took Hmong women as wives and colonised the southern provinces.
Towards the end of the Ming dynasty, Ming loyalists invoked the Hua-Yi distinction to urge the Chinese to resist the
Manchu
The Manchus (; ) are a Tungusic peoples, Tungusic East Asian people, East Asian ethnic group native to Manchuria in Northeast Asia. They are an officially recognized Ethnic minorities in China, ethnic minority in China and the people from wh ...
invaders.
Qing dynasty
The
Qing dynasty
The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing, was a Manchu-led Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China and an early modern empire in East Asia. The last imperial dynasty in Chinese history, the Qing dynasty was preceded by the ...
's order that all subjects shave their forehead and braid the rest of their hair into a
queue was viewed as a symbolic gesture of servitude by many ethnic Han, who thought that changing their dress to the same as Yi would be contrary to the spirit of the Hua-Yi distinction.
Scholar
Lü Liuliang (1629–1683), who lived through the transition between the Ming and the Manchu-led
Qing dynasty
The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing, was a Manchu-led Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China and an early modern empire in East Asia. The last imperial dynasty in Chinese history, the Qing dynasty was preceded by the ...
, refused to serve the new dynasty because he claimed that upholding the difference between Huaxia and the Yi was more important than respecting the righteous bond between minister () and sovereign (). In 1728, failed
Imperial examination
The imperial examination was a civil service examination system in History of China#Imperial China, Imperial China administered for the purpose of selecting candidates for the Civil service#China, state bureaucracy. The concept of choosing bureau ...
candidate
Zeng Jing, influenced by Lü's works, called for the overthrow of the Manchu regime. The
Yongzheng Emperor
The Yongzheng Emperor (13 December 1678 – 8 October 1735), also known by his temple name Emperor Shizong of Qing, personal name Yinzhen, was the fourth List of emperors of the Qing dynasty, emperor of the Qing dynasty, and the third Qing em ...
, whom Zeng accused of ten major crimes, took this event as an opportunity to educate the Qing's Chinese subjects. In a series of discussions with Zeng Jing, the emperor proclaimed that Chinese were not inherently superior to the barbarians. To justify his statements, he declared that King Wen, the sage king and the founder of the Zhou dynasty, was of Western Yi origin, but this did not hurt his greatness.
The
Yongzheng Emperor
The Yongzheng Emperor (13 December 1678 – 8 October 1735), also known by his temple name Emperor Shizong of Qing, personal name Yinzhen, was the fourth List of emperors of the Qing dynasty, emperor of the Qing dynasty, and the third Qing em ...
also borrowed from Han Yu, indicating that Yi can become Hua and vice versa. In addition, according to Yongzheng, both Hua and Yi were now a part of the same family under the Qing. One of the goals of the tract ''Dayi juemi lu'' (), which the Yongzheng Emperor published and distributed throughout the empire in 1730, was "to undermine the credibility of the hua/yi distinction." However, due to the fact that this tract also helped to expose many unsavoury aspects of court life and political intrigues in the imperial government, Yongzheng's successor the
Qianlong Emperor
The Qianlong Emperor (25 September 17117 February 1799), also known by his temple name Emperor Gaozong of Qing, personal name Hongli, was the fifth Emperor of China, emperor of the Qing dynasty and the fourth Qing emperor to rule over China pr ...
() recalled the tracts and had them burned for the fear that it would undermine the legitimacy of the Qing empire.
During the Qing, the Qing destroyed writings that criticised the Liao, Jin and Yuan using the Hua–Yi distinction.
Sun Yat-sen
Sun Yat-senUsually known as Sun Zhongshan () in Chinese; also known by Names of Sun Yat-sen, several other names. (; 12 November 186612 March 1925) was a Chinese physician, revolutionary, statesman, and political philosopher who founded the Republ ...
also used the Hua–Yi distinction to justify the overthrow of the Qing dynasty.
However, the Qing adopted Confucian philosophy and Han Chinese institutions to show that the Manchu rulers had received the Mandate of Heaven, while at the same time trying to retain their own indigenous culture. Due to the Manchus' adoption of Han Chinese culture, most Han Chinese (though not all) accepted the Manchus as the legitimate rulers.
Republic of China
Historian
Frank Dikötter
Frank Dikötter (; , born 1961) is a Dutch historian who specialises in modern China. Dikötter is the author of ''The People's Trilogy'', which consists of ''Mao's Great Famine'' (2010), ''The Tragedy of Liberation'' (2013), and ''The Cultural ...
says the Chinese "idea of 'race' (''zhong''
�� "seed", "species", "race") started to dominate the intellectual scene" in the late 19th-century Qing dynasty and completed the "transition from cultural exclusiveness to racial exclusiveness in modern China" in the 1920s.
Following the overthrow of the Qing, Sun Yat-sen allegedly went to the grave of Zhu Yuanzhang and told him that the Huaxia had been restored and the barbarians overthrown. However, after the
Republic of China
Taiwan, officially the Republic of China (ROC), is a country in East Asia. The main geography of Taiwan, island of Taiwan, also known as ''Formosa'', lies between the East China Sea, East and South China Seas in the northwestern Pacific Ocea ...
revolution, Sun also advocated that all ethnic groups in China were part of the Chinese family.
People's Republic of China
The PRC did not abide by the concept of the Hua-Yi distinction and recognised the Liao, Jin, Yuan, and Qing as legitimate dynasties. Initially, the
Communist Party condemned all Chinese dynasties as "feudal."
Conceptualisation of the Hua–Yi distinction in the Sinosphere
Japan
In ancient times Japan seems to have had a vassal relationship with China. In 57
Emperor Guangwu of Han
Emperor Guangwu of Han (; 15 January 5 BC29 March AD 57), born Liu Xiu (), courtesy name Wenshu (), was a Chinese monarch. He served as an emperor of the Han dynasty by restoring the dynasty in AD 25, thus founding the Eastern Han dynasty. He ...
sent an imperial seal which mentions "King of Japan" (漢委奴國王) and in 239
Emperor Ming of Cao Wei sent a seal for "pro-Wei King of Japan" (親魏倭王) to Japan.
However, in 607
Prince Shōtoku
, also known as or , was a semi-legendary regent and a politician of the Asuka period in Japan who served under Empress Suiko. He was the son of Emperor Yōmei and his consort, Princess Anahobe no Hashihito, who was also Yōmei's younger half ...
of Japan stated its perspective of being independent and equal to China in a diplomatic letter by referring to the Japanese ruler as the
Son of Heaven
Son of Heaven, or ''Tianzi'' (), was the sacred monarchial and imperial title of the Chinese sovereign. It originated with the Zhou dynasty and was founded on the political and spiritual doctrine of the Mandate of Heaven. Since the Qin dynasty ...
, another title for the Chinese emperor (日出處天子致書日沒處天子無恙云云; "The Son of Heaven of where the sun rises is writing to the Son of Heaven of where the sun sets"). It was taken as an insult by the Chinese emperor of the time,
Emperor Yang of Sui
Emperor Yang of Sui (隋煬帝, 569 – 11 April 618), personal name Yang Guang (), alternative name Ying (), Xianbei name Amo (), was the second emperor of the Sui dynasty of China.
Emperor Yang's original name was Yang Ying, but he was rena ...
, since Heaven is only supposed to have one eldest Son.
Confucianism
Confucianism, also known as Ruism or Ru classicism, is a system of thought and behavior originating in ancient China, and is variously described as a tradition, philosophy, Religious Confucianism, religion, theory of government, or way of li ...
was introduced into Japan about at the same time as Buddhism, but it was not encouraged to be spread as much as Buddhism was.
Some Japanese philosophers, like the neo-Confucianists
Yamaga Sokō and
Aizawa Seishisai claimed that Japan was the "Central State" (; Chūgoku) instead of China.
Korea
After the
Qing dynasty
The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing, was a Manchu-led Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China and an early modern empire in East Asia. The last imperial dynasty in Chinese history, the Qing dynasty was preceded by the ...
succeeded the
Ming dynasty
The Ming dynasty, officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming was the last imperial dynasty of ...
in
China proper
China proper, also called Inner China, are terms used primarily in the West in reference to the traditional "core" regions of China centered in the southeast. The term was first used by Westerners during the Manchu people, Manchu-led Qing dyn ...
in 1644, the Korean
Joseon dynasty
Joseon ( ; ; also romanized as ''Chosun''), officially Great Joseon (), was a dynastic kingdom of Korea that existed for 505 years. It was founded by Taejo of Joseon in July 1392 and replaced by the Korean Empire in October 1897. The kingdom w ...
began to refer to itself as "''Sojunghwa''" (; "Little China"). As the Joseon supported the Ming, they were reported to have extended a friendliness to the Ming that they did not display to the Qing dynasty.
This sentiment was in large part due to the fact that the Jurchens were descended from the Mohe people, who were once subjects of Goguryeo and Balhae. In addition, the Jurchens were widely recognised as "barbarians", as Jurchen tribes have been raiding and pillaging the northern border regions of Korean Goryeo and Joseon kingdoms for centuries. This sentiment did not disappear even after Qing completed sinicisation.
Because Korea had been closely tied to Han Chinese, "barbarianism ruling China" became a major issue for discussion there.
As the Ming dynasty fell, Korea was worried about its own security. This was due to previous instances in which Ming China aided Korea such as in the
Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–98)
The Imjin War () was a series of two Japanese invasions of Korea: an initial invasion in 1592 also individually called the "Imjin War", a brief truce in 1596, and a second invasion in 1597 called the Chŏngyu War (). The conflict ended in 159 ...
. Long after the establishment of the Qing dynasty, the Joseon ruling elite and even the Joseon government continued to use the
Chongzhen Emperor
The Chongzhen Emperor (6 February 1611 – 25 April 1644), personal name Zhu Youjian, courtesy name Deyue,Wang Yuan (王源),''Ju ye tang wen ji'' (《居業堂文集》), vol. 19. "聞之張景蔚親見烈皇帝神主題御諱字德約,行� ...
's
era name
A regnal year is a year of the reign of a sovereign, from the Latin meaning kingdom, rule. Regnal years considered the date as an ordinal, not a cardinal number. For example, a monarch could have a first year of rule, a second year of rule, a t ...
() of the last Ming emperor. In private they referred to the Manchu emperors of Qing China as the "barbarian ruler" and Qing ambassadors as "barbarian ambassadors". These feelings could not be expressed as the "barbarians" held great power over Korea following their successful invasion in the
Later Jin invasion of Joseon
The Later Jin invasion of Joseon occurred in early 1627 when the Later Jin prince Amin led an invasion of the Joseon dynasty. The war ended after three months with the Later Jin establishing itself as sovereign tributary overlord over Joseon. ...
in 1627 and the
Qing invasion of Joseon
The Qing invasion of Joseon () occurred in the winter of 1636 when the newly established Qing dynasty invaded the Joseon, Joseon dynasty, establishing the former's status as the hegemon in the Tributary system of China, Imperial Chinese Tributa ...
of 1637.
Over time the Qing government exerted more power over Joseon Korea. This would eventually turn Korea into a
hermit kingdom to limit foreign influence.
Ryūkyū
The
Ryukyu Kingdom
The Ryukyu Kingdom was a kingdom in the Ryukyu Islands from 1429 to 1879. It was ruled as a Tributary system of China, tributary state of Ming dynasty, imperial Ming China by the King of Ryukyu, Ryukyuan monarchy, who unified Okinawa Island t ...
was heavily influenced by Chinese culture, taking language, architecture, and court practices from China. It also paid annual tribute to first the Ming and later Qing courts from 1374 until 1874.
Vietnam
Vietnamese dynasties competed for primacy, adopting the same descriptive term, "Central State" (中國; ''Trung Quốc''), while the Chinese were "outsiders". For example, the
Gia Long Emperor used ''Trung Quốc'' as a name for Vietnam in 1805.
Cambodia
Cambodia, officially the Kingdom of Cambodia, is a country in Southeast Asia on the Mainland Southeast Asia, Indochinese Peninsula. It is bordered by Thailand to the northwest, Laos to the north, and Vietnam to the east, and has a coastline ...
was regularly called ''Cao Man'' (高蛮), the country of "upper barbarians".
In the 1800s,
Nguyễn rulers such as the
Minh Mạng Emperor claimed the legacy of Confucianism and China's
Han dynasty
The Han dynasty was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China (202 BC9 AD, 25–220 AD) established by Liu Bang and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–206 BC ...
for Vietnam. Vietnamese called themselves as ''Hán dân'' (漢民) and ''Hán nhân'' (漢人), while they referred to ethnic Chinese as ''Thanh nhân'' (清人) or ''Đường nhân'' (唐人). For example, Emperor
Gia Long
Gia Long (Chữ Hán, Chữ hán: 嘉隆) ( (''Hanoi, North''), (''Ho Chi Minh City, South''); 8 February 1762 – 3 February 1820), born Nguyễn Phúc Ánh (阮福暎) or Nguyễn Ánh (阮暎), was the founding emperor of the Nguyễn dynas ...
said ''Hán di hữu hạn'' (漢夷有限, "''the Vietnamese and the barbarians must have clear borders''") when differentiating between Khmer and Vietnamese.
As
Vietnam conquered territory from the
Khmer and
Lao kingdoms and various tribes on the
Central Highlands such as the
Jarai and the
Mạ, Emperor Minh Mạng implemented an acculturation integration policy directed at these peoples. He declared, "We must hope that their barbarian habits will be subconsciously dissipated, and that they will daily become more infected by Han
ino-Vietnamesecustoms."
Clothing was also affected by Nguyễn policies. Lord
Nguyễn Phúc Khoát
Nguyễn Phúc Khoát (26 September 1714 – 7 July 1765) was one of the Nguyễn lords who ruled over the southern portion of Vietnam from the 16th-18th centuries. Also known as Chúa Võ (主武) or Võ vương (武王) (roughly ''Martial King'' ...
ordered traditional wrapped-skirt and cross-collar clothing which is very popular in Sinosphere to be replaced by Qing and Ming-style clothing although isolated hamlets in northern Vietnam continued to wear skirts until the 1920s.
The
ao dai
AO, aO, Ao, or ao may refer to:
Places
* Ao (building)
* Ao, Estonia, village in Väike-Maarja Parish, Lääne-Viru County, Estonia
* Ao Line, commuter railway line in Hyōgo Prefecture, Japan
* Ao River (Fujian), in China
* Ao Station, ...
was created when
tucks, which were close fitting and compact, were added to this Chinese style in the 1920s.
Up to 1812, the 1644 Ming Datong calendar was used by the Nguyễn in Vietnam.
See also
*
Barbarian
A barbarian is a person or tribe of people that is perceived to be primitive, savage and warlike. Many cultures have referred to other cultures as barbarians, sometimes out of misunderstanding and sometimes out of prejudice.
A "barbarian" may ...
*
Conquest dynasty
*
Foreign relations of imperial China
*
Graphic pejoratives in written Chinese
Some historical Chinese characters for non-Han Chinese, Han peoples were graphically pejorative ethnic slurs, where the racial insult derived not from the Chinese word but from the character used to write it. For instance, written Chinese first tra ...
*
Greater China
In ethnogeography, "Greater China" is a loosely-defined term that refers to the region sharing cultural and economic ties with the Chinese people, often used by international enterprises or organisations in unofficial usage. The notion contains ...
*
List of recipients of tribute from China
Central Plain political entities have paid tribute to a number of states and confederations throughout history. China proper also had a strong Confucian tradition, which believed that showing virtue and giving gifts or tribute would civilize " B ...
*
List of tributary states of China
This is a list of states that paid tribute to the Imperial dynasties of China under the tributary system. It encompassed states in Central Asia, East Asia, North Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia, and Europe.
List of tributaries
In the 5th centur ...
*
Suzerainty
A suzerain (, from Old French "above" + "supreme, chief") is a person, state (polity)">state or polity who has supremacy and dominant influence over the foreign policy">polity.html" ;"title="state (polity)">state or polity">state (polity)">st ...
*
Tributary state
A tributary state is a pre-modern state in a particular type of subordinate relationship to a more powerful state which involved the sending of a regular token of submission, or tribute, to the superior power (the suzerain). This token often ...
* ''
Pax Sinica''
References
Citations
Sources
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Further reading
*
*
*
*Geng Yunzhi 耿云志 (2006).
Jindai sixiangshi shang de minzuzhuyi 近代思想史上的民族主义
Nationalism in modern intellectual history"br>
''Shixue yuekan''史学月刊
Journal of Historical Science"2006 (6). Retrieved on January 16, 2009
Google translation
*
*
*Huang Shijian 黄时鉴 (2008).
地图上的"天下观"
The 'All-under-heaven' conception on maps" From ''Zhongguo cehui'' 中国测绘
Google translation
*Liu Lifu 刘立夫 and Heng Yu 恆毓 (2000).
Yi-Xia zhi bian yu Fojiao 夷夏之辨與佛教
The Yi-Xia distinction and Buddhism" Retrieved on January 16, 2009
Google translation
*
*Pang Naiming 庞乃明 (2008).
Guoji zhengzhi xin yinsu yu Mingchao houqi Hua-Yi zhi bian' 国际政治新因素与明朝后期华夷之辨
A new factor in international politics and the Hua-Yi distinction in the late Ming dynasty" ''Qiushi xuekan'' 求是学刊
Seeking Truth"35 (4).
{{DEFAULTSORT:Hua-Yi distinction
Chinese culture
Historical controversies in China
Culture of Japan
Culture of Korea
Culture of Vietnam
Confucian ethics
History of China–Korea relations
China–Japan relations
China–Vietnam relations
Barbarians