Ho Language

Ho (, Warang Chiti: ) is a Munda language of the Austroasiatic language family spoken primarily in India by about 2.2 million people (0.202% of India's population) per the 2001 census. It is spoken by the Ho, Munda, Kolha and Kol tribal communities of Jharkhand, Odisha, West Bengal and Assam and is written using Warang Chiti script. Devanagari, Latin and Odia script are also used, although native speakers are said to prefer Warang Chiti, invented by Lako Bodra.

The name Ho is derived from the native word ''hoo'' meaning ''human being,'' with cognates in its sister languages ''hoṛo'' in Mundari, ''ho̠ṛ'' in Santali and ''koro'' in Korku.

Ho is closely related to Mundari and Santali. Ho and Mundari are often described as sister languages. Ho is closer to the Hasadaḱ dialect of Mundari than the other varieties spoken in Jharkhand. While being ethnically and linguistically close, Ho and Mundari speakers form distinct regional identities.

Geographical distribution

Around half of all Ho speakers reside in West Singhbhum district of Jharkhand, where they form a majority. Ho speakers are also found in districts of East Singhbhum in southern Jharkhand, Mayurbhanj and Keonjhar in northern Odisha.

Phonology

Consonants

* /b, ɖ/ can be heard as preglottalized �b̥̚, ˀɖ̥̚when in word-final position.
* /b/ can be heard as a fricative �in intervocalic positions.
* /ɳ/ has a limited phonemic distribution, and is typically a realization of /n/ before retroflex sounds.
* /w/ and /j/ only occur in medial or final positions.

Vowels

Ho has 5 basic vowels, these can be short, long, nasalized and long and nasalized. Long vowels either result from gemination of short vowels resulting from loss of intervocalic consonants or due to the bimoraic constraint inherited from Proto-Munda.

Grammar

Like other languages of the Munda family, Ho has a mostly suffixing agglutinative inflectional morphology and follows accusative morphosyntactic alignment. There is some debate on whether Munda languages have word classes, an item from any word class can function as a verb in Ho. Ho does not have relative pronouns natively and relies on the participle forms of verbs, the forms that includes aspect, object and transitivity, but no mood markers, to form relative clauses.

Nouns and noun phrases

Number, possession and case suffixes are added to nouns. Alienable and inalienable possessions are distinguished.

Number and possession

Ho distinguishes singular, dual and plural numbers. Number suffixes are generally written separate from base nouns.

Number and inalienable possession

Construction for alienable possessions is different form inalienable possessions, "That woman's thresing floor", and "That woman's aunt". Suffixes for inalienable possessions only occur in the singular.

Pronouns

Ho personal pronoun distinguish inclusive and exclusive first person and anaphoric and demonstrative third person.

Numerals

Short forms are used in compound words, general counting and counting money, the long forms are used when counting specific objects.

Postpositions

Particles

Verbs

There is no restrictions as to which word may occupy the role of a verb. Therefore, even proper nouns may act as verbs, ''Lako ket́ińako,'' 'They named me Lako'. Verbs may be serialized or modified with affixes before being put in this verb template:

Verb stem + (Aspect marker) + (Transitive/Intransitive marker) + (Object pronoun) + (Mood marker) + (Subject pronoun)

The verb stem may be modified in the following ways:

* presence of a transitivity marker indicates past tense and the absence non-past.
* ''ken'' is only used in its original function as an intransitive with a small number of verbs, like ''oṛa to bathe' and ''sen'' 'to go', it has now been extended even to transitive verbs, where it shifts the focus from the object of the verb to the subject.
* intransitive counterpart of the ingressive ''yan'' is lost in Ho, while being maintained in Mundari as ''yada/jada'' and in Santali as ''eda. ean'' maintains ingressive meaning only with a limited number of verbs, it mostly functions as the intransitive counterpart of aorist ''ket́.''
* ''tan'' is conjugated differently than other aspect markers, where the object marker occurs right before ''tan'', rather than after the transitivity marker, enabling it to be used even on transitive verbs, where it has taken over the function of ''tat́'' with many verbs, as in ''gama tat́ać'' vs. ''gamaè tanać,'' both having the same meaning with the latter being more common''.'' With a number of transitive verbs, ''tan'' and ''tat́'' contrast and produce progressive-continuous distinction, ''tusiṅ tat́ać'', 'he is wearing' (continuous aspect), ''tusiṅè tanać'', 'he (now) is (in the process of) wearing it' (progressive aspect).
* benefactive stem with ''-a'' cannot take any of the aspect markers, it can only take a transitivity marker, limiting its occurrence either with the past or the non-past tense.

Vocabulary

Most of the Ho basic vocabulary is of Munda origin, with cognates in other Kherwarian languages, undated old borrowings from Indo-Aryan languages also exist, such as ''kolom'', 'threasing floor', ''datarom'' 'a sickle', ''sutam'' 'a thread', ''gotom'' 'ghee' and ''parkom'' 'a cot'. In recent years, increased number of words from Hindi, English and Odia have been entering the language due to increased contact. Ho numbers are almost entirely out of practical use, being supplanted by Hindi numbers, except for one, two and three.

Ho lexicon reflects close association with nature, including numerous onomatopoeias arising from cries of different animals along with 'expressives' to describe sounds in nature.

Ho, like other Kherwarian languages, has lexical differentiation in many of its verbs, whereby different words exist to express distinctions within a single concept. For example, ''maḱ'' 'to cut with a striking motion', ''hat́'' 'to cut with a sawing motion', ''ir'' 'to reap with a sickle', ''get́'' 'to cut with cutting tool being stationary', ''paaḱ'' 'to split firewood with an axe', ''laṭaṕ'' 'to clip hair etc.', ''hese'' 'to clear branches etc. by cutting', ''banḍić'' 'to cut the extremities', ''topaṅ/tobaṅ to sever with a single striking motion', ''samaḱ'' 'to cut into small pieces'.

Many words are derived using affixes.

Writing system

Ho has been written in various scripts, starting from the first written record of 1824Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. : Asiatic Society of Bengal : Free download, borrow, and streaming : Internet Archive. (1844). Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/journalofasiatic1314asia/page/n47 to the present day, mostly using the Latin alphabet, Devanagari, Odia and more recently using the Warang Chiti script. Most writing done in Jharkhand tends to use the Devanagari script, while in Odisha it is the Odia script. While community intellectuals have been promoting the usage of Warang Chiti, it is yet to be widely used among Ho people due to it not being a part of school education. In 1985, a committee consisting of intellectuals including Ram Dayal Munda and Bhagey Gobardhan deliberated on common script for Ho, and decided in favor of Warang Chiti, eliminating competition from scripts put forth by other inventors such as Sangram Sindhu's Owar Anka Gār Lipi, disseminated by an institution called Sindhu Jumur, Rohidas Singh Nag's Mundari Bani Hisir Champa, Raghunath Purty's Ho Ol Lipi, Purushottam Godsora's Srishti Lipi among others.

History

Ho has developed into an independent language as a result of various phonological and semantic changes from earlier forms common to North Munda languages. Most notable among these is the loss of intervocalic /ṛ/, leading to vowel length becoming phonemic. A common North Munda verb ''doho'' 'to put, to place,'' Santali ''do̠ho̠,'' Mundari ''dō'' takes on a vulgar meaning in Ho, many such semantic shifts make conversations with speakers of these related languages difficult. Ho speakers are believed to have entered Singhbhum form the North where Mundari, with two major dialects Hasadaḱ and Naguri is spoken. In terms of affinity, Ho is closer to the Hasadaḱ dialect in most respects, including the mutation of the glottalized final consonant into or . John Hoffmann considers there to be much less difference between Hasadaḱ and Ho than between Hasadaḱ and Naguri. Some forms in southern Kolhan resemble Naguri forms, such as the conjunction ''anḍoḱ'' 'moreover, and', while in northern Singhbhum it's ''oṛoḱ'', as in Hasadaḱ. Ho in the north also maintains the Hasadaḱ contractions in certain verb forms like ''kić'' from ''ket́ić, lić'' from ''let́ić'' and ''-aić'' from ''-at́ić''. Ho is also notable for its tendency to simplify common North Munda forms, Mundari ''oṛoṅ/uṛuṅ/oḍoṅ'', Santali ''oḍok/oḍoṅ'' to /oːʔl/, Mundari, Santali ''selet́'', ''seret́'', ''irit́'', ''ilat́'' etc. to /seːʔl/, /seːʔr/, /iːʔr/ and /iːʔl/.

The first published written record of the Ho language is from 1844, which has a short word list dated 2 April 1824. Samuel Tickell published ''Grammatical construction of the Ho language'' in 1840. The first published Ho writing by an ethnic Ho is poetry of Kanuram Deogam in 1930.

The Latin, Devanagari and Warang Chiti scripts have been used in the field of teaching and learning. In 1953, the department of Education, Government of Bihar set out instructions to all the Divisional Inspectors of schools. The government maintained that 'the pupil-teachers whose mother tongue is other than Hindi should be given the option of maintaining their records in their mother tongue. In every junior Training School besides Hindi, a second mother-tongue as accepted in Government resolution no.645ER of 10 August 1953 should be invariably taught.' The plan has been to provide education in their mother tongue at the primary level.

Since 1976, the Ho language is being imparted at intermediate and graduate courses in different colleges under the Ranchi University. The university opened a separate department named Tribal and Regional Languages in 1981.

In erstwhile Bihar, the Information and Mass Communication department regularly published Ho articles, folk stories, songs in Devanagari script in a weekly named Adivasi Saptahik.

There are significant initiatives inculcated in development of Ho language. A pioneering work was started at Ete Turtung Akhara, Jhinkapani to study and develop the Ho language under the leadership of Lako Bodra with the help of Adi Sanskriti Evam Vigyan Sansthan. The institute published a book in 1963 titled ''Ho Hayam Paham Puti'' in Warang Chiti and introduced the letters of Warang Chiti.

A. Pathak and N.K. Verma tried to compare the Warang Chiti with Indus script in ''Echoes of Indus Valley''. Sudhanshu Kumar Ray in his 'Indus Script' described that the script Warang Chiti resembles the script of Indus that was discovered by Ashok Pagal and Bulu Imam in the caves of Aswara hill near Baraka village.

Xavier Ho Publication, Lupungutu has been publishing Ho books in the Devanagri script. John Deeney published ''Ho Grammar and Vocabulary'' in 1975.

Usage

Under the Multilingual Education (MLE) programme, Odisha government has been providing primary education in Ho speaking areas.

The University Grants Commission of India has already recognized Ho as a language and literature. Now, UGC is conducting National Eligibility Test examination in Ho language under the "'subject code 70"' in Tribal and Regional Language/Literature group. In Odisha and Jharkhand, Education in Ho at the primary level was introduced in 20 and 449 schools respectively and about 44,502 tribal students are pursuing their studies in the language.

Besides education, Ho has also got its due recognition in the world of mass media. For the last few years, All India Radio (AIR) has been airing songs in Ho from the AIR centres in Keonjhar, Rourkela and Cuttack besides Baripada in Mayurbhanj district of Odisha state. Regular programs in Ho are broadcast from Chaibasa and Jamshedpur AIR centres in Jharkhand. Similarly, from Ranchi AIR centre in Jharkhand, regional news bulletins are broadcast two days a week Friday and Sunday.

Universities

The following universities offer courses on Ho:
* Ranchi University, Ranchi, Jharkhand
* Kolhan University, Chaibasa, Jharkhand

Educational institutions

The following educational institutions offer courses on Ho:
* Ho Language Education Council, Thakurmunda, Mayurbhanj, Odisha
* Ho Language +2 Junior College, Thakurmunda, Mayurbhanj, Odisha
* Kolguru Lako Bodra Ho Language High school, Birbasa, Bhubaneswar, Odisha
* Banajyoti Bahubhasi Vidya Mandir, Purunapai, Deogorh, Odisha
* Veer Birsa Warangchity Mondo, Rairangpur, Mayurbhanj, Odisha
* Birsa Munda Ho Language High school, Jamunalia, Keonjhar, Odisha
* Padmashree Tulasi Munda Ho Language High School, Machhgorh, Keonjhar, Odisha
* Kol guru Lako Bodra Ho Language High School, Dobati, Balasore, Odisha
* Birsa Munda Ho Language High School, Nuagaon, Mayurbhanj, Odisha
* Atteh Turtung Rumtulay mondo, singda, Mayurbhanj, Odisha
* Bankipirh Marshal Mondo, Bankidihi, Mayurbhanj, Odisha
* Similipal Baa bagan mondo, Thakurmapatna, Mayurbhanj, Odisha
* Kolguru Lako Bodra Ho Language High School, Gokul Chandra pur, Mayurbhanj, Odisha
* Birsa Munda Ho Language High School, Hadagutu, Mayurbhanj, Odisha
* Kolhan High School, Satakosia, Mayurbhanj, Odisha
* Guru Lako Bodra Ho Language High School, Thakurmunda, Mayurbhanj, Odisha
* Ho Hayam Seyannoh Moond, Madkamhatu, Mayurbhanj, Odisha
* Sitadevi Warang chiti(𑢹𑣗𑣁𑣜𑣊 𑢯𑣂𑣕𑣂) Moond, Khunta, Mayurbhanj, Odisha
* P.C.Haibru Warang chiti(𑢹𑣗𑣁𑣜𑣊 𑢯𑣂𑣕𑣂) School, Kadadiha, Mayurbhanj, Odisha

Literature

* Ho folk literature's collection of folk songs by Sharatchandra Rai, Dr. D.N. Majumdar, B. Sukumar, Haldhaar, Kanhuram Devgum etc. (1915–26).
* Tuturd, Sayan Marsal by Dr. S.K. Tiyu.
* The Affairs of a Tribe by Dr. D.N. Majumdaar.
* Aandi and Sarjom Ba Dumba by Jaidev Das.
* Ho Durang by W.G. Archer.
* Folklore of Kolhaan by C.H. Bompaas.
* Sengail (Poems), Satish Rumul (Poems), Ho Chapakarh Kahin, Satish Chandra Sanhita, and Chaas Raiy Takh by Satish Kumar Koda.
* Dishum Rumul Mage Durudh by Shivcharan Birua.
* Adivasi Sivil Durang, Adivasi Deyoan, Adivasi Muni and Urri Keda Kova Red-Ranu by Durga Purti.
* Bonga Buru Ko (Ho Religion), Horoh Hoan Ko, Maradh Bonga, and Gosain-Devgum Mage Poraab (on Maage Parv) by Pradhan Gagrai.
* Warangchiti (on 𑢹𑣗𑣁𑣜𑣊 𑢯𑣂𑣕𑣂), Pompo, Shaar Hora 1-7 (Play), Raghuvansh (Play), Kol ruul(Hindi and Ho(𑢹𑣗𑣁𑣜𑣊 𑢯𑣂𑣕𑣂) , Homoyom pitika, Hora-Bara, Ho Hayam paam puti, Halang halpung, Ela ol itu ute, Jiboan * * Gumpai Durang, Baa buru Bonga buru and Bonga Singirai (Novel) by Ot Guru Kol Lako Bodra.
* Ho Kudih (Novel) by Dumbi Ho.
* Ho Kudih (Novel) and Adhunik Ho Shishth Kawya by Prof. Janum Singh Soy.
* Jaira Jeebon Dastur, Durrn Dudugar, and Ho Bhasha Shastra Ayun Vyakaran by Prof. Balram Paat Pingua.
* Ho Dishum Ho Hoon Ko by Dhanusingh Purti.
* Eitaa Bataa Nalaa Basaa, Joaur, Parem Sanadh (Poems), Sarjom Ba Taral, etc. By Kamal Lochan Kohaar.
* Ho Lokkatha by Dr. Aditya Prasad Sinha.
* Magazines like Johar, Turturd, Ottoroad, and Sarnaphool also have Ho language articles.
* Ho Language Digital Journal "Diyang"
* Ho Language monthly journal"Dostur Korang"by Kairasingh Bandiya
* Ho Kaboy (Poem) poti "''Tangi Meyanj Sorogo Kore''" by Ghanshyam Bodra
* Ho language song"Dureng Dala"by Dibakar Soy
* Ho language learning books "Ol initu" and "Mage Porob"by Kairasingh Bandiya"
* Ho hayam sibil dureng(Ho and Hindi) by Doboro Buliuli

Demand for inclusion in the Eighth Schedule

Governments of Odisha and Jharkhand have been making demands for Ho to be included in the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India. Ho peoples are also making continuous efforts to fulfill their demands as to be included in 8th scheduled. Rajya Sabha member and Union Petroleum and Steel Minister Dharmendra Pradhan had also submitted a memorandum demanding that the Government of India include Ho in the Constitution to give it an ''official status''.The same request has also been made by the Department of Personnel, Jharkhand. Former Home Minister Rajnath singh had assured that Ho would be included in Eighth Scheduled, and assured to take appropriates steps to fulfil the demand, said union minister Dharmendra Pradhan.

Erstwhile Jharkhand Chief Minister Hemant Soren has written to the Home Ministry for the inclusion of Ho into the Eighth Schedule of Indian Constitution.

Further reading

* Anderson, Gregory D. S., Toshiki Osada and K. David Harrison. ''Ho and the other Kherwarian Languages'' In Gregory Anderson (ed.) ''Munda Languages''. (2008). Routledge.
* Burrows, L. (1915).
Ho grammar: with vocabulary
'.
* Deeney, J. J. (1991). ''Introduction to the Ho language: Learn Ho Quickly and Well''. Chaibasa: Xavier Ho Publications.
* Deeney, J. J. (1975). ''Ho Grammar and Vocabulary''. Chaibasa: Xavier Ho Publications.
* Deeney, J. J. (1978). ''Ho-English Dictionary''. Chaibasa: Xavier Ho Publications.
* Deogam, Chandrabhusan, ''Larka Ho''.
* Hoffmann, Johann aptist& Arthur Van Emelen. 1930-1950. ''Encyclopaedia Mundarica'' undari encyclopaedia Patna, Bihar: Superintendent Government Printing, Bihar and Orissa. xv+10+4889+xiipp. (13 vols.)
* Nottrott, A., Fitzgerald, A. G. F. (1905). Grammar of the Kol-language. India: Printed at the G.E.L. Mission Press.
* Perumalsamy P (2021) "Ho language" in Linguistic Survey of India: Jharkhand Volume, Language Division, Office of the Registrar General India: New Delhi pp: 339 – 431

* Pucilowski, A. (2013)
Topics in Ho Morphophonology and Morphosyntax
(Doctoral dissertation, University of Oregon).
* Uxbond, F. A. (1928). Munda-Magyar-Maori, an Indian Link Between the Antipodes, New Tracks of Hungarian Origins. Luzac.

See also

* Languages of India
* Languages with official status in India

References

External links

The Ho language webpage by K. David Harrison, Swarthmore College

RWAAI , RWAAI, Lunds universitet
RWAAI (Repository and Workspace for Austroasiatic Intangible Heritage)
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{{Authority control

𑢹𑣉𑣉 𑢹𑣅𑣖
Munda languages
Endangered languages of India
Languages of Jharkhand
Languages of Odisha
Languages written in Devanagari