Gurukkal, Kalarippayattu
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Kalaripayattu (), also known simply as Kalari, is an
Indian martial art Indian martial arts refers to the fighting systems of the Indian subcontinent. A variety of terms are used for the English phrases "Indian martial arts", deriving from ancient sources. While they may seem to imply specific disciplines (e.g. arch ...
that originated on the southwestern coast of India, in what is now
Kerala Kerala ( , ) is a States and union territories of India, state on the Malabar Coast of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, following the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, by combining Malayalam-speaking regions of the erstwhile ...
, during the 3rd century BCE.


Etymology

Kalaripayattu is a martial art which developed out of combat techniques of the 11th–12th century battlefield, with weapons and combative techniques that are unique to Kerala. The word is a combination of two
Malayalam Malayalam (; , ) is a Dravidian languages, Dravidian language spoken in the Indian state of Kerala and the union territories of Lakshadweep and Puducherry (union territory), Puducherry (Mahé district) by the Malayali people. It is one of ...
words – (training ground or battleground) and (training of martial arts), which is roughly translated as "practice in the arts of the battlefield". may also be derived from the
Malayalam Malayalam (; , ) is a Dravidian languages, Dravidian language spoken in the Indian state of Kerala and the union territories of Lakshadweep and Puducherry (union territory), Puducherry (Mahé district) by the Malayali people. It is one of ...
or
Sanskrit Sanskrit (; stem form ; nominal singular , ,) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in northwest South Asia after its predecessor languages had Trans-cultural ...
term , which is the name of a goddess associated with
Shaktism Shaktism () is a major Hindu denomination in which the God in Hinduism, deity or metaphysics, metaphysical reality is considered metaphorically to be a woman. Shaktism involves a galaxy of goddesses, all regarded as different aspects, mani ...
who is worshipped in Kalaripayattu. The , a 5th century CE
South Indian South India, also known as Southern India or Peninsular India, is the southern part of the Deccan Peninsula in India encompassing the states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Telangana as well as the union territories of ...
ancient text on
Shaiva Siddhanta Shaiva Siddhanta () is a form of Shaivism popular in a pristine form in Tamilnadu and Sri Lanka and in a Tantrayana syncretised form in Vietnam and Indonesia (as Siwa Siddhanta). It propounds a devotional philosophy with the ultimate goal of e ...
, discusses the construction of the , as place for military exercise.


History


Associations with Indian folklore and legends

According to legend,
Parashurama Parashurama (), also referred to as Rama Jamadagnya, Rama Bhargava and Virarama, is the sixth avatar among the Dashavatara of the preserver god Vishnu in Hinduism. Hindu tradition holds him to be the destroyer of the evil on Earth. According t ...
, the sixth
avatar Avatar (, ; ) is a concept within Hinduism that in Sanskrit literally means . It signifies the material appearance or incarnation of a powerful deity, or spirit on Earth. The relative verb to "alight, to make one's appearance" is sometimes u ...
of
Vishnu Vishnu (; , , ), also known as Narayana and Hari, is one of the Hindu deities, principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme being within Vaishnavism, one of the major traditions within contemporary Hinduism, and the god of preservation ( ...
, learned the art from
Shiva Shiva (; , ), also known as Mahadeva (; , , Help:IPA/Sanskrit, ɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐh and Hara, is one of the Hindu deities, principal deities of Hinduism. He is the God in Hinduism, Supreme Being in Shaivism, one of the major traditions w ...
, and taught it to the original settlers of Kerala shortly after bringing Kerala up from the ocean floor. A song in Malayalam refers to Parashurama's creation of
Kerala Kerala ( , ) is a States and union territories of India, state on the Malabar Coast of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, following the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, by combining Malayalam-speaking regions of the erstwhile ...
, and credits him with the establishment of the first 108 kalaris throughout Kerala, along with the instruction of the first 21 Kalaripayattu gurus in Kerala on the destruction of enemies. According to another legend, Ayyappa, a war deity from Kerala, learned Kalaripayattu in the Cheerappanchira Kalari in
Muhamma Muhamma is a census town in the Cherthala Taluk in the Alappuzha district in the Indian state of Kerala. It is home to Cheerappanchira kalari, where Lord Ayyappa of Sabarimala had his training in the martial arts. Cheerappanchira is an Ezha ...
.


Early history

According to Philip Zarrilli, the Dravidian combat techniques of the
Sangam period The Sangam literature ( Tamil: சங்க இலக்கியம், ''caṅka ilakkiyam''), historically known as 'the poetry of the noble ones' ( Tamil: சான்றோர் செய்யுள், ''Cāṉṟōr ceyyuḷ''), connote ...
(600 BCE – 300 CE) and Sanskritic Dhanur Vedic traditions were the earliest precursors to Kalaripayattu. Each warrior in the Sangam era received regular military trainingSubramanian, N. (1966). '' Sangam polity''. Bombay: Asian Publishing House – via Internet Archive. in target practice, horse and elephant riding. They specialized in one or more of the important weapons of the period including the spear (''vel''), sword (''val''), shield (''kedaham''), and bow and arrow (''vil ambu'').


Late medieval period (c. 1100 CE – c. 1500 CE)

According to Zarrilli, Kalaripayattu has been practiced "since at least the twelfth century" CE. During the 11th century, the second
Chera The Chera dynasty ( or Cēra, ), also known as Keralaputra, from the early historic or the Sangam period in Tamil-speaking southern India, ruled over parts of present-day states Kerala and Tamil Nadu. The Cheras, known as one of the mu-ventar ...
kingdom fought a century-long war with the
Chola The Chola Empire, which is often referred to as the Imperial Cholas, was a medieval thalassocratic empire based in southern India that was ruled by the Chola dynasty, and comprised overseas dominions, protectorates and spheres of influence ...
kingdom, which ended with disintegration of the Chera kingdom. During this period, military combat training was compulsory, and according to
Elamkulam Kunjan Pillai Elamkulam P. N. Kunjan Pillai (8 November 1904 – 4 March 1973), known as Elamkulam, was an Indian historian, linguist and academic from southern Kerala, India. He was a pioneering scholar of southern Indian history, Kerala history, in partic ...
, Kalaripayattu took shape in this period. According to historian A. Sreedharan Menon, Kalaripayattu was among the most important aspects of feudal Keralite society, as it helped impart military training and
Spartan Sparta was a prominent city-state in Laconia in ancient Greece. In antiquity, the city-state was known as Lacedaemon (), while the name Sparta referred to its main settlement in the valley of Evrotas river in Laconia, in southeastern Pe ...
-like discipline amongst the youth of
Kerala Kerala ( , ) is a States and union territories of India, state on the Malabar Coast of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, following the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, by combining Malayalam-speaking regions of the erstwhile ...
, irrespective of caste, community or sex. Each village in late medieval Kerala had its own ''kalari'', which contained a presiding deity known as ''Bhagavathy'' or ''Paradevata''. Children in Kerala who finished their education in local schools would join their local ''kalari'' to receive further military training. This was especially common amongst martial sects of various communities in Kerala, such as the
Nair The Nair (, ) also known as Nayar, are a group of Indian Hindu castes, described by anthropologist Kathleen Gough as "not a unitary group but a named category of castes". The Nair include several castes and many subdivisions, not all of whom hi ...
s and Thiyyars. The local legendary poems of Kerala, popularly known as ''Vadakkan Pattu'', have been passed down through oral tradition and describe the deeds of warriors, indicating the practice of Kalarippayattu. These ballads, dating back as early as the 12th century, depict a social system in which every youth was required to undergo martial training. In the late medieval period Kalaripayattu extended into the
Kerala Kerala ( , ) is a States and union territories of India, state on the Malabar Coast of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, following the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, by combining Malayalam-speaking regions of the erstwhile ...
practice of ''
ankam Ankam is a Malayalam word meaning combat or battle, typically fought with swords called 'Churika' in Malabar of Kerala Kerala ( , ) is a States and union territories of India, state on the Malabar Coast of India. It was formed on 1 Novem ...
'' ("combat" or "battle" in
Malayalam Malayalam (; , ) is a Dravidian languages, Dravidian language spoken in the Indian state of Kerala and the union territories of Lakshadweep and Puducherry (union territory), Puducherry (Mahé district) by the Malayali people. It is one of ...
) as a way to settle disputes that could not be settled by local governmental assemblies. A variant of ''ankam'', called ''poithu'' was also practiced, and was a duel between two individuals. Combatants participating in ''ankam'' or ''poithu'' used Kalaripayattu, and the combatants were given up to 12 years to prepare and train prior to the ''ankam'' itself, so that all combatants could achieve the highest level of proficiency with Kalaripayattu traditional weaponry. In some cases, professional mercenaries trained in Kalaripayattu were paid to engage in ''ankam'' on the behalf of others.


Early modern and colonial period (c. 1500 – c. 1900 CE)


Descriptions by Europeans

In 1498, a Portuguese fleet under
Vasco da Gama Vasco da Gama ( , ; – 24 December 1524), was a Portuguese explorer and nobleman who was the Portuguese discovery of the sea route to India, first European to reach India by sea. Da Gama's first voyage (1497–1499) was the first to link ...
discovered a new sea route from Europe to India, which paved the way for direct Indo-European commerce. The next to arrive were the Dutch, with their main base in
Ceylon Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, also known historically as Ceylon, is an island country in South Asia. It lies in the Indian Ocean, southwest of the Bay of Bengal, separated from the Indian subcontinent, ...
. They established ports in Malabar. Following the Dutch, the
British British may refer to: Peoples, culture, and language * British people, nationals or natives of the United Kingdom, British Overseas Territories and Crown Dependencies. * British national identity, the characteristics of British people and culture ...
—who set up in the west coast port of
Surat Surat (Gujarati Language, Gujarati: ) is a city in the western Indian States and territories of India, state of Gujarat. The word Surat directly translates to ''face'' in Urdu, Gujarati language, Gujarati and Hindi. Located on the banks of t ...
in 1619—and the French both established trading outposts in India. Duarte Barbosa, a Portuguese explorer who visited Kerala in the 16th century, noted that the physical exercise complexes of the Nairs and Thiyyars created a network of martial culture in Malabar, and wrote about Nair military training in Kalaripayattu:
Hendrik van Rheede Hendrik Adriaan van Rheede tot Drakenstein (13 April 1636 – 15 December 1691) was a Dutch military man and colonial administrator of the Dutch East India Company. Between 1669 and 1676 he served as a governor of Dutch Malabar at Kochi and em ...
, governor of Dutch Malabar between 1669 and 1676, wrote about
Chekavar Chekavar (Also known as ''Chekon'' or ''Chevakar'', ''Cekavar'') were the warriors belonging to Hindu Thiyyar community in Malabar of Kerala. Many Thiyyar families in Malabar today trace their roots to this Chekavar lineage. Warrior role ...
(Malabar Thiyyar) training in Kalaripayattu in '' Hortus Malabaricus'': Jacob Canter Visscher (1692–1735), in his ''Letters from Malabar'', wrote about the
Chekavar Chekavar (Also known as ''Chekon'' or ''Chevakar'', ''Cekavar'') were the warriors belonging to Hindu Thiyyar community in Malabar of Kerala. Many Thiyyar families in Malabar today trace their roots to this Chekavar lineage. Warrior role ...
s:


Decline

The widespread practice and prevalence of Kalaripayattu in Kerala began to decline in the 17th century, when the usage of guns and cannons became widespread. This also coincided with the European invasions into Kerala, after which, firearms began to surpass the usage of traditional weaponry such as swords and spears. The late medieval "golden age" of Kalaripayattu is preserved in the '' Vadakkan Pattukal'' (17th–18th century), a collection of ballads about warrior heroes and heroines from earlier periods in Kerala, such as Aromal Chekavar (16th century), Unniyarcha (16th century), and Thacholi Othenan, who were celebrated for their martial prowess, chivalry and idealism. The heroes and heroines belong mainly to two matrilinear families, one of Tiyya origin and another
Nair The Nair (, ) also known as Nayar, are a group of Indian Hindu castes, described by anthropologist Kathleen Gough as "not a unitary group but a named category of castes". The Nair include several castes and many subdivisions, not all of whom hi ...
. In the Vadakkan Pattukal, it is stated that the cardinal principle of Kalaripayattu was that knowledge of the art be used to further worthy causes, and not for the advancement of one's own selfish interests. In 1804, the British banned Kalaripayattu in
Kerala Kerala ( , ) is a States and union territories of India, state on the Malabar Coast of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, following the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, by combining Malayalam-speaking regions of the erstwhile ...
in response to the Kottayathu War, a rebellion against British rule in Kerala led by the Keralite king
Pazhassi Raja Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja () (3 January 1753 – 30 November 1805), also known as Cotiote Rajah and Pychy Rajah, was the '' de facto'' head of the Kottayam Kingdom in the Malabar region of Kerala between 1774 and 1805. His struggles with the ...
. The ban came into effect shortly after Pazhassi Raja's death on November 30, 1805, resulting in the closure of most of the major ''kalari'' training grounds in Kerala. Following the ban, many Keralite ''gurukkals'' of Kalaripayattu resisted the ban and continued to teach Kalaripayattu to their students in secret. ''Gurukkals'' such as Kottackkal Kanaran Gurukkal, Kelu Kurup Gurukkal and Maroli Ramunni Gurukkal, learned and preserved the martial art for posterity and were responsible for preserving Kalaripayattu into the beginning of the twentieth century, as well as sparking the revival of Kalaripayattu in Kerala in the 1920s.


Resurgence in modern times (20th–21st century)

The resurgence of public interest in Kalaripayattu began in the 1920s in
Thalassery Thalassery () (also called Tellicherry) is a city and municipality on the Malabar Coast in Kannur district in the state of Kerala, India, bordered by the districts of Mahe and Kozhikode. Thalassery municipality has a population of just under ...
, as part of a wave of rediscovery of the traditional arts throughout
southern India South India, also known as Southern India or Peninsular India, is the southern part of the Deccan Peninsula in India encompassing the states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Telangana as well as the union territories of ...
and continued through the 1970s surge of general worldwide interest in martial arts. During this period of renewed public interest in Kerala's native martial art, Kalaripayattu ''gurukkals'' such as Kottakkal Kanaran Gurukkal, Chambadan Veetil Narayanan Nair. Chambadan Veetil Narayanan Nair, a student of Kottackkal Kanaran Gurukkal, and in whose memory the CVN Kalaris are named, opened several ''kalaris'', and began to spread Kalaripayattu across its native state of Kerala, revitalizing the art across the state in the twentieth century. Chirakkal T. Sreedharan Nair is also widely credited for reviving and preserving Kalaripayattu by writing the first books ever written on Kalaripayattu, as well as writing the first authoritative text on the martial art. Sreedharan Nair is credited with writing ''Kalaripayattu'', the first book ever written on Kalaripayattu, in 1937. This book was written in
Malayalam Malayalam (; , ) is a Dravidian languages, Dravidian language spoken in the Indian state of Kerala and the union territories of Lakshadweep and Puducherry (union territory), Puducherry (Mahé district) by the Malayali people. It is one of ...
, and listed the ''vaithari'' or oral commands, of all the exercises relating to ''meypayattu'', or conditioning techniques. He is also credited with writing the first authoritative text and primer on Kalaripayattu, called ''Kalarippayattu – A Complete Guide to Kerala’s Ancient Martial Art.'' The text, alongside a compilation of Sreedharan Nair's teaching notes, were translated into English by his sons S. R. A. Das and S. R. D. Prasad and then published by
Westland Books Westland Books or Westland Publications is an Indian publishing house. It was co-founded by the Padmanabhan family in 1962, starting out under the name East West Books. Tata owned it from 2008 as a subsidiary under Trent (Westside). It was owned ...
. The book contains over 1,700 action photographs as well as explanations behind all of the exercises. It continues to be the most authentic reference material on Kalaripayattu to this day. In the modern era, Kalaripayattu is also used by practitioners of Keralite dance styles, such as
Kathakali ''Kathakali'' (International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration, IAST: Kathakaḷi ) is a traditional form of Indian Classical Dance, and one of the most complex forms of Theatre of India, Indian theatre. It is a play of verses. These vers ...
and
Mohiniyattam ''Mohiniyattam'' is an Indian classical dance form originating from the state of Kerala. The dance gets its name from Mohini – the female enchantress avatar of the Hindu deity Vishnu, who helps the devas prevail over the asuras using h ...
, as part of their training regimens. Recently, dancers from other, non-Keralite dance forms have also begun to incorporate Kalaripayattu into their training regimes, such as Vasundhara Doraswamy, a notable
Bharatanatyam ''Bharatanatyam'' is a Indian classical dance form that came from Tamil Nadu, India. It is a classical dance form recognized by the Sangeet Natak Akademi, and expresses South Indian religious themes and spiritual ideas of Hinduism and Jainism.< ...
dancer. In 2017, a 73-year-old ''gurukkal'' from Vadakara, Sri Meenakshi Amma, was awarded the
Padma Sri The Padma Shri (IAST: ''padma śrī'', lit. 'Lotus Honour'), also spelled Padma Shree, is the fourth-highest civilian award of the Republic of India, after the Bharat Ratna, the Padma Vibhushan and the Padma Bhushan. Instituted on 2 January ...
by the
Government of India The Government of India (ISO 15919, ISO: Bhārata Sarakāra, legally the Union Government or Union of India or the Central Government) is the national authority of the Republic of India, located in South Asia, consisting of States and union t ...
for her contributions to the preservation of Kalaripayattu. In January 2021, the
Government of Kerala The Government of Kerala (abbreviated as GoK), also known as the Kerala Government, is the administrative body responsible for governing the Indian States and territories of India, state of Kerala. The government is led by a chief minister, who ...
announced the opening of the Kalaripayattu Academy in
Kerala Kerala ( , ) is a States and union territories of India, state on the Malabar Coast of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, following the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, by combining Malayalam-speaking regions of the erstwhile ...
's capital,
Thiruvananthapuram Thiruvananthapuram ( ), also known as Trivandrum, is the Capital city, capital city of the Indian state of Kerala. As of 2011, the Thiruvananthapuram Municipal Corporation had a population of 957,730 over an area of 214.86 sq. km, making it the ...
, under the management of the Kerala Department of Tourism. The Kalaripayattu Academy will comprise an area of 3,500 feet, and will be part of the Vellar Crafts Village. The Kalaripayattu classes will be taught by a group of ''gurukkals'' from Kerala, led by Sri Meenakshi Amma, a Kalaripayattu ''gurukkal'' and Padma Sri recipient. The Kalaripayattu Academy will initially teach 100 students, both adults and children, in both morning and evening classes.
Chief Minister A chief minister is an elected or appointed head of government of – in most instances – a sub-national entity, for instance an administrative subdivision or federal constituent entity. Examples include a state (and sometimes a union ter ...
Pinarayi Vijayan Pinarayi Vijayan (; born 24 May 1945) is an Indian politician who has served as the List of chief ministers of Kerala, Chief Minister of Kerala since 25 May 2016. A member of the Politburo of the Communist Party of India (Marxist), politburo ...
is set to announce the syllabus of the academy in 2021.


Practice


Guru–shishya tradition

Kalaripayattu is taught in accordance with the Indian '' guru-shishya'' system. Development and mastery of Kalaripayattu comes from the tradition of constantly learning, adapting and improving the techniques by observing what techniques are practical and effective. While importance is placed on observation of tradition, Kalaripayattu ''gurukkuls'' have contributed to the evolution of Kalaripayattu by way of their experience and reasoning.


Weaponry and armour

Kalaripayattu includes strikes, kicks, grappling, preset forms, weaponry, and healing methods. Warriors trained in Kalaripayattu would use very light, and basic body armour, as it was difficult to maintain flexibility and mobility while in heavy armour. Kalaripayattu differs from many other martial arts systems in the world in that weapon-based techniques are taught first, and barehanded techniques are taught last. The weapons used include gadas, spears, daggers, and
urumi An urumi is an Indian sword with a flexible, whip-like blade, secretly worn around the waist. Originating in modern-day Kerala, a state in southwestern India, it is thought to have existed from as early as the Sangam period. It is treated as ...
s.


Training ground

Kalaripayattu is taught in a specialized training ground known as a ''
kalari A kalari is a gymnasium or training space primarily associated with the martial art of Kalaripayattu. The word ''kalari'' comes from Tamil. In the past, village schools in Tamilnadu, typically run by the traditional astrologer families, were k ...
''. The location and construction of each ''kalari'' is built in accordance to
Hindu Hindus (; ; also known as Sanātanīs) are people who religiously adhere to Hinduism, also known by its endonym Sanātana Dharma. Jeffery D. Long (2007), A Vision for Hinduism, IB Tauris, , pp. 35–37 Historically, the term has also be ...
architectural treatises such as the ''Vastu Shastras'' along with various religious traditions and customs native to
Kerala Kerala ( , ) is a States and union territories of India, state on the Malabar Coast of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, following the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, by combining Malayalam-speaking regions of the erstwhile ...
. Specifications are made regarding the physical dimensions of the ''kalari'', how deep the ground in a ''kalari'' must be, along with the material that the floor of the ''kalari'' must consist of. The floor of each ''kalari'' consists of red sand which is mixed with specific herbs that are said to aid in the treatment of small wounds suffered during training. The directional aspects of ''kalari'' construction are also specified, such as the entrance of the ''kalari'' facing east, and the location of ritualistic structures such as the ''Poothara'', ''Ganapatithara'', and ''Guruthara'', are to face the west. The ''Poothara'' ("Flower ground" or "Flower floor" in
Malayalam Malayalam (; , ) is a Dravidian languages, Dravidian language spoken in the Indian state of Kerala and the union territories of Lakshadweep and Puducherry (union territory), Puducherry (Mahé district) by the Malayali people. It is one of ...
) in a kalari is a seven-step raised platform with a lotus-shaped ''kumbha'' or figure, at its apex. The art uses concepts similar to the ancient Indian medical text, the
Ayurveda Ayurveda (; ) is an alternative medicine system with historical roots in the Indian subcontinent. It is heavily practised throughout India and Nepal, where as much as 80% of the population report using ayurveda. The theory and practice of ayur ...
, and the seven steps represent the seven ''dhatu'' and the ''
kosha A ''kosha'' (also ''kosa''; Sanskrit :wikt:कोश, कोश, IAST: ), usually rendered "sheath", is a covering of the ''Atman (Hinduism), Atman'', or Self according to Vedantic philosophy. The five sheaths, summarised with the term Panchak ...
'' of the human body as per
Ayurvedic Ayurveda (; ) is an alternative medicine system with historical roots in the Indian subcontinent. It is heavily practised throughout India and Nepal, where as much as 80% of the population report using ayurveda. The theory and practice of ayur ...
traditions. The ''kumbha'' at the apex of the poothara is said to represent
Bhagavathy Bhagavatī (Devanagari: भगवती, IAST: Bhagavatī), is an Indian epithet of Sanskrit origin, used as an honorific title for goddesses in Hinduism and Buddhism. In Hinduism, it is primarily used to address the goddesses Sarasvati, Laks ...
or the heart of the individual. The Ganapatithara ("Ground of Ganapati" in Malayalam) is the area of the kalari that is reserved for the worship of Ganapati, a
Hindu Hindus (; ; also known as Sanātanīs) are people who religiously adhere to Hinduism, also known by its endonym Sanātana Dharma. Jeffery D. Long (2007), A Vision for Hinduism, IB Tauris, , pp. 35–37 Historically, the term has also be ...
deity that is said to be the remover of obstacles. The Guruthara ("Ground of the
Guru Guru ( ; International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration, IAST: ''guru'') is a Sanskrit term for a "mentor, guide, expert, or master" of certain knowledge or field. In pan-Indian religions, Indian traditions, a guru is more than a teacher: tr ...
" in Malayalam) is the area of the kalari that is reserved for worship of the Guru of the ''kalari'', who represents the tradition of gurukkals in Kerala who protected and taught Kalaripayattu to the next generation. In the Ganapatithara, Ganapati is symbolically invoked by the placing of an ''otta'', or tusk-shaped wooden stick. The ''paduka'', or footwear, is placed at the Guruthara to symbolize the life of a gurukkal. The presiding deity of Kalaripayattu is said to be
Bhadrakali Bhadrakali (IAST: Bhadrakālī; ) is an important goddess, mainly worshiped by Hindus, and is a form of Kali. She is considered to be the auspicious and fortunate form of Adi Shakti or Durga, the supreme mother who protects the good, known ...
or
Bhagavathy Bhagavatī (Devanagari: भगवती, IAST: Bhagavatī), is an Indian epithet of Sanskrit origin, used as an honorific title for goddesses in Hinduism and Buddhism. In Hinduism, it is primarily used to address the goddesses Sarasvati, Laks ...
. Before every training session in the kalari, salutations are provided to the presiding deities and obedience is paid to the kalari temple. Students apply tilak or tikka on their foreheads and upon the forehead of the idol of the presiding deity using soil from the ground of the kalari.


Training uniform

The traditional training uniform used in Kalaripayattu is the ''kachakettal'', a loincloth that is either red and white or red and black in colour. Along with traditional attire, oral commands, or ''vaithari'', are given by the guru during training sessions, and are given in Sanskrit or Malayalam.


''Chuvadu'' and ''Vadivu''

A number of
South Asian South Asia is the southern Subregion#Asia, subregion of Asia that is defined in both geographical and Ethnicity, ethnic-Culture, cultural terms. South Asia, with a population of 2.04 billion, contains a quarter (25%) of the world's populatio ...
fighting styles remain closely connected to
yoga Yoga (UK: , US: ; 'yoga' ; ) is a group of physical, mental, and spiritual practices or disciplines that originated with its own philosophy in ancient India, aimed at controlling body and mind to attain various salvation goals, as pra ...
, dance and performing arts. Some of the choreographed sparring in Kalaripayattu can be applied to dance and
Kathakali ''Kathakali'' (International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration, IAST: Kathakaḷi ) is a traditional form of Indian Classical Dance, and one of the most complex forms of Theatre of India, Indian theatre. It is a play of verses. These vers ...
dancers who knew Kalaripayattu were believed to be markedly better than other performers. Some traditional Indian classical dance schools still incorporate martial arts as part of their exercise regimen.Luijendijk, D. H. (2008).
Kalarippayat: The Essence and Structure of an Indian Martial Art
', Oprat,
Kalaripayattu techniques are a combination of steps (''Chuvadu'') and postures (''Vadivu''). ''Chuvadu'' literally means 'steps', the basic steps of the martial arts. ''Vadivu'' literally means 'postures' or stances which are the foundations of Kalaripayattu training. They are named after animals, and are usually presented in eight forms. Styles differ considerably from one tradition to another. Not only do the names of poses differ, but their utilization and interpretation vary depending on the ''gurukkal'', and the traditions of the ''kalari''. Each stance has its own style, combination, and function. These techniques vary from one style to another.


Adaption of new techniques

A Kalari practitioner might encounter new fighting techniques from an enemy combatant. The Kalari practitioner would need to learn how to anticipate, adapt to and neutralize these new techniques. This is especially seen in the Southern style of Kalaripayattu, which is believed to have been adapted and modified during wars with
Tamil Tamil may refer to: People, culture and language * Tamils, an ethno-linguistic group native to India, Sri Lanka, and some other parts of Asia **Sri Lankan Tamils, Tamil people native to Sri Lanka ** Myanmar or Burmese Tamils, Tamil people of Ind ...
kingdoms to counter martial arts like
Silambam Silambam is an old Indian martial arts, Indian martial art originating in the southern Indian state of Tamil Nadu. This style is mentioned in Tamil Sangam literature. The World Silambam Association is the official international body of Silamba ...
, which was one of the main martial art forms practiced by Tamil soldiers at the time.


Massage

As a result of learning about the human body, Indian martial artists became knowledgeable in the fields of traditional medicine and massage. Kalaripayattu teachers often provide massages (''uzhichil'') with medicinal oils to their students in order to increase their physical flexibility or to treat muscular injuries. Such massages are generally termed ''thirumal'' and the unique massage given to increase flexibility is known as ''katcha thirumal''.


Styles

Each style, or ''vazhi'', in Kalaripayattu has a different purpose. The styles are variations that various masters have adapted and modified according to their understanding of the art. There are two major styles that are generally acknowledged within traditional Kalaripayattu, and are based on the regions in which they are practiced, the Northern style, or ''Vadakkan Kalari'', and the Southern style, or ''Thekkan Kalari.'' These two systems have marked similarities in their styles or ''vazhi'' ("way" or "method" in Malayalam), such as ''Hanuman Vazhi'', ''Bhiman Vazhi'', and ''Bali Vazhi'' among others. The northern style of Kalaripayattu, or ''Vadakkan Kalari'', is primarily practiced in the Malabar region of
Kerala Kerala ( , ) is a States and union territories of India, state on the Malabar Coast of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, following the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, by combining Malayalam-speaking regions of the erstwhile ...
, and is based on elegant and flexible movements, evasions, jumps and weapons training. The southern style of Kalaripayattu, or ''Thekkan Kalari'', is primarily practiced in the southern regions of Kerala, and specializes in hard, impact based techniques with emphasis on hand-to-hand combat and pressure point strikes. Both systems make use of internal and external concepts. A third style, the Central style, or ''Madhya Kalari'', is also practiced, but it is less commonly practiced than its northern and southern counterparts. A smaller, regional style of Kalaripayattu called ''Tulunadan Kalari'', is referenced in texts such as the Vadakkan Pattukal, but it is largely restricted to the
Tulu Nadu Tulu Nadu, or Tulunad, is a region and Proposed states and union territories of India, proposed state on the southwestern coast of India. The Tulu people, known as 'Tuluva' (pl. 'Tuluver') are speakers of Tulu language, Tulu, a Dravidian langu ...
region in northern Kerala and southern Karnataka. Other smaller, regional styles are also said to exist in isolated regions of Kerala, but these styles are becoming increasingly rare, and difficult to find. Examples include ''Dronamballi'', ''Odimurassery'', ''Tulu Nadan Shaiva Mura'', and ''Kayyangali''.


Northern style

The Northern style is also known as ''Vadakkan Kalari'', and is generally regarded as the "original" form of Kalaripayattu. This system places more emphasis on physical flexibility exercises rooted on the slogan ''Meyy kanavanam'', meaning "make the body an eye". These exercises are done individually, as well as in combinations. After that ''meypayattu'' (a concept similar to
kata ''Kata'' is a Japanese word ( 型 or 形) meaning "form". It refers to a detailed choreographed pattern of martial arts movements. It can also be reviewed within groups and in unison when training. It is practiced in Japanese martial arts ...
in Karate) is taught. These are a combination of flexibility exercises with offensive and defensive techniques, however, the actual techniques are taught very much later. Traditionally, the number of ''meypayattu'' may differ as per the teaching methods of the guru. Training is usually done in four stages, the first stage being ''Meipayattu'' (training stances), followed by ''Kolthari'' (practice with wooden weapons), ''Angathari'' (practice with metal weapons) and finally ''Verum kai'' (barehanded combat). Generally, the majority of the ''Kalaris'' (schools that teach Kalaripayattu) start training with weapons within 3 to 6 months. Some Kalaris only allow one weapon to be learned per year. After long stick and small stick fighting, iron weapons are introduced. Weapons training begins with the dagger and sword, followed by the spear. Not all modern schools use specialized weapons. Traditionally, bows and arrows were commonly used in Kerala and students were trained in these techniques, but is rarely taught today.


Southern style

The Southern style is also known as ''Thekkan Kalari''. Traditionally, it is believed to be a style of Kalaripayattu that is said to have been altered and influenced by
Agastya Agastya was a revered Indian sage of Hinduism. In the Indian tradition, he is a noted recluse and an influential scholar in diverse languages of the Indian subcontinent. He is regarded in some traditions to be a Chiranjivi. He and his wife ...
. It is an essentially the northern style of Kalaripayattu that has been influenced by martial arts from neighboring regions, such as Varma Adi or Adi Murai. While the Southern form of Kalaripayattu has notable similarities to Varma Adi, it is considered to be a distinct and separate martial art from Varma Adi due to its similarities to Northern Kalaripayattu. The similarities between the southern form of Kalaripayattu and Varma Adi are likely due to geographic proximity to each other, with the Southern style of Kalaripayattu being considered a mixture of Kalaripayattu and Varma Adi. While the Southern style is less commonly practiced in Kerala compared to the Northern style, it is revered in Kerala as a combination of the teachings of both Parashurama and Agastya. It is predominantly practiced in some regions of the southern parts of Kerala, particularly in areas near
Kanyakumari Kanyakumari (Tamil; / kəɳjɑkʊmɑɾiː/; referring to Devi Kanya Kumari, officially known as Kanniyakumari, formerly known as Cape Comorin) is a town and a municipality in Kanyakumari district in the state of Tamil Nadu, India. It is the ...
. While many of the exercises of the Southern style are identical to the Northern Style, it is more combative and martial in nature, and places heavy emphasis on hand-to-hand combat, hard impact techniques, and footwork, rather than emphasizing flexibility like the Northern style. It starts with the training in ''Chuvadu,'' a system of various combinations of fighting techniques similar to
Muay Thai Muay Thai or Muaythai (, , ), sometimes referred to as Thai boxing, the Art of Eight Limbs or the Science of Eight Limbs, is a Thai martial art and full-contact combat sport that uses stand-up striking, sweeps, and various clinch fighting, cl ...
and
Judo is an unarmed gendai budō, modern Japanese martial art, combat sport, Olympic sport (since 1964), and the most prominent form of jacket wrestling competed internationally.『日本大百科全書』電子版【柔道】(CD-ROM version of Encyc ...
. Immediately after that, sparring with a partner is introduced as part of the training. These pre-determined techniques are repeatedly trained. After a basic proficiency in unarmed combat is established, weapons training begins with a small stick. Small stick training is usually done with two combatants, armed with a stick or dagger. These are primarily defensive techniques. Fighting techniques with two combatants having the same weapons include sparring with long stick, sword, etc. During the duration of this training, the refining of un-armed combat also progresses. As the student gains more experience, a small amount of knowledge pertaining to the ''Marma'' points (pressure points) is also taught to the student if deemed appropriate by the ''gurukkal''.


''Marmashastram'' – striking of vital points

It is claimed that experienced Kalari warriors could disable or kill their opponents by merely striking the correct ''marmam'' (vital point) on their opponent's body. This technique is taught only to the most promising and level-headed students so as to discourage misuse of the technique. ''Marmashastram'' stresses on the knowledge of marmam and is also used for marma treatment (''marmachikitsa''). This system of marma treatment originated from
Ayurveda Ayurveda (; ) is an alternative medicine system with historical roots in the Indian subcontinent. It is heavily practised throughout India and Nepal, where as much as 80% of the population report using ayurveda. The theory and practice of ayur ...
, as well as
Siddha medicine Siddha medicine is a form of traditional medicine originating in southern India. It is one of the oldest systems of medicine in India. The Indian Medical Association regards Siddha medicine degrees as "fake" and Siddha therapies as quackery, ...
. Critics of Kalaripayattu have pointed out that the application of marmam techniques against neutral outsiders has not always produced verifiable results. The earliest mention of marmam is found in the ''
Rig Veda The ''Rigveda'' or ''Rig Veda'' (, , from wikt:ऋच्, ऋच्, "praise" and wikt:वेद, वेद, "knowledge") is an ancient Indian Miscellany, collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns (''sūktas''). It is one of the four sacred canoni ...
'', where
Indra Indra (; ) is the Hindu god of weather, considered the king of the Deva (Hinduism), Devas and Svarga in Hinduism. He is associated with the sky, lightning, weather, thunder, storms, rains, river flows, and war.  volumes Indra is the m ...
is said to have defeated
Vritra Vritra (, , ) is a danava in Hinduism. He serves as the personification of drought, and is an adversary of the king of the devas, Indra. As a danava, he belongs to the race of the asuras. Vritra is also known in the Vedas as Ahi ( ). He appe ...
by attacking his ''marmam'' with a
vajra The Vajra (, , ), is a legendary and ritualistic tool, symbolizing the properties of a diamond (indestructibility) and a thunderbolt (irresistible force). It is also described as a "ritual weapon". The use of the bell and vajra together as s ...
. References to marmam are also found in the ''
Atharva Veda The Atharvaveda or Atharva Veda (, , from ''wikt:अथर्वन्, अथर्वन्'', "priest" and ''wikt:वेद, वेद'', "knowledge") or is the "knowledge storehouse of ''wikt:अथर्वन्, atharvans'', the proced ...
''. With numerous other scattered references to vital points in Vedic and epic sources, it is certain that India's early martial artists knew about and practiced attacking or defending vital points.
Sushruta Suśruta (, ) is the listed author of the '' Suśruta Saṃhiāa'' (''Suśruta's Compendium''), considered to be one of the most important surviving ancient treatises on medicine. It is also considered a foundational text of Ayurveda. The treat ...
(c. 6th century BCE) identified and defined 107 vital points of the human body in his ''Sushruta Samhita''. Of these 107 points, 64 were classified as being lethal if properly struck with a fist or stick.J. R. Svinth (2002)
"A Chronological History of the Martial Arts and Combative Sports"
''Electronic Journals of Martial Arts and Sciences''.
Sushruta's work formed the basis of the medical discipline
Ayurveda Ayurveda (; ) is an alternative medicine system with historical roots in the Indian subcontinent. It is heavily practised throughout India and Nepal, where as much as 80% of the population report using ayurveda. The theory and practice of ayur ...
, which was taught alongside various
Indian martial arts Indian martial arts refers to the fighting systems of the Indian subcontinent. A variety of terms are used for the English phrases "Indian martial arts", deriving from ancient sources. While they may seem to imply specific disciplines (e.g. arch ...
that had an emphasis on vital points, such as
Varma kalai Varma Kalai (Tamil: ''varmakkalai'', Malayalam and Sanskrit: ''marma-vidya/marmam'') is an Indian traditional art of pressure points. It combines massage, alternative medicine, traditional yoga and martial arts in which the body's pressure poin ...
and Marma adi.


Governing bodies

In India, the Indian Kalaripayattu Federation (IKF) in
Thiruvananthapuram Thiruvananthapuram ( ), also known as Trivandrum, is the Capital city, capital city of the Indian state of Kerala. As of 2011, the Thiruvananthapuram Municipal Corporation had a population of 957,730 over an area of 214.86 sq. km, making it the ...
is one of the primary governing bodies of Kalaripayattu. It is recognized by the
Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports The Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports is a branch of the Government of India which administers the Department of Youth Affairs and the Department of Sports in India. Mansukh Mandaviya is the current Minister of Youth Affairs and Sports foll ...
of the
Government of India The Government of India (ISO 15919, ISO: Bhārata Sarakāra, legally the Union Government or Union of India or the Central Government) is the national authority of the Republic of India, located in South Asia, consisting of States and union t ...
. It received affiliation as a regional sports federation in 2015. The Kalaripayattu Federation of India (KFI), based in
Kozhikode Kozhikode (), also known as Calicut, is a city along the Malabar Coast in the state of Kerala in India. Known as the City of Spices, Kozhikode is listed among the City of Literature, UNESCO's Cities of Literature. It is the nineteenth large ...
, is another governing body of Kalaripayattu, as has been recognized by the
Indian Olympic Association The Indian Olympic Association (IOA) or Indian Olympic Committee (IOC) (ISO 15919, ISO: ''Bhāratīya Olaṃpika Saṃgha'') is responsible for selecting athletes to represent India at the Olympic Games, Asian Games and other international spor ...
. The Kerala Kalaripayattu Association (KKA) in Thiruvananthapuram is also a governing body of the martial art which is recognised by the Kerala State Sports Council.


Notable practitioners

Kottakkal Kanaran Gurukkal (1850–1935), also known as the " Dronacharya of Kalaripayattu", was a ''gurukkal'' of Chambadan Veetil Narayanan Nair. Korrakkal Kanaran Gurukkal is recognized as one of the ''gurukkals'' who preserved Kalaripayattu in
Kerala Kerala ( , ) is a States and union territories of India, state on the Malabar Coast of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, following the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, by combining Malayalam-speaking regions of the erstwhile ...
and allowed it to survive into the twentieth century after studying it from several gurukkals in the Malabar region of the state. During the British ban of Kalaripayattu, he is said to have sold his lands and property to finance the study of Kalaripayattu. Chambadan Veetil Narayanan Nair (1905–1944), a Kalaripayattu ''gurukkal'' and student of Kottakal Kanaran Gurukkal, who was popularly known as "CVN" and in whose memory the CVN Kalaris sprang up across
Kerala Kerala ( , ) is a States and union territories of India, state on the Malabar Coast of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, following the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, by combining Malayalam-speaking regions of the erstwhile ...
, enabling the revival of Kalaripayattu across its native state. Chirakkal T. Sreedharan Nair (1909–1984), a Kalaripayattu ''gurukkal'', and founder of Sree Bharat Kalari (formerly known as Rajkumar Kalari). He is known for writing the first books on Kalaripayattu. His first work, ''Kalaripayattu'', written in Malayalam and published in 1937, was the first book written on Kalaripayattu. He also authored first authoritative text and primer on Kalaripayattu, called ''Kalarippayattu – A Complete Guide to Kerala’s Ancient Martial Art.'' The text is considered to be the most authentic reference material on Kalaripayattu to this day. For their contributions to the preservation of Kalaripayattu, Meenakshi Amma, a 73 year old ''gurukkal'' from Vadakara and Sankara Narayana Menon Chundayil, a ''gurukkal'' from Chavakkad, were awarded the
Padma Sri The Padma Shri (IAST: ''padma śrī'', lit. 'Lotus Honour'), also spelled Padma Shree, is the fourth-highest civilian award of the Republic of India, after the Bharat Ratna, the Padma Vibhushan and the Padma Bhushan. Instituted on 2 January ...
by the
Government of India The Government of India (ISO 15919, ISO: Bhārata Sarakāra, legally the Union Government or Union of India or the Central Government) is the national authority of the Republic of India, located in South Asia, consisting of States and union t ...
.


In popular culture

In the Indian
graphic novel A graphic novel is a self-contained, book-length form of sequential art. The term ''graphic novel'' is often applied broadly, including fiction, non-fiction, and Anthology, anthologized work, though this practice is highly contested by comics sc ...
s ''Odayan'' and ''Odayan II – Yuddham'', the title character is a vigilante who is highly skilled in Kalaripayattu, with the story itself being set in 16th century feudal
Kerala Kerala ( , ) is a States and union territories of India, state on the Malabar Coast of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, following the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, by combining Malayalam-speaking regions of the erstwhile ...
. ''Little Kalari Warriors'', a cartoon made by Toonz Animation India for
Cartoon Network Cartoon Network (CN) is an American cable television television channel, channel and the flagship property of the Cartoon Network, Inc., a sub-division of the Warner Bros. Discovery Networks division of Warner Bros. Discovery. It launched on ...
, features Kalaripayattu practitioners as the principal characters. Kalaripayattu is also seen in the Indian animated film '' Arjun: The Warrior Prince'' (2012). In the Indian
role-playing game A role-playing game (sometimes spelled roleplaying game, or abbreviated as RPG) is a game in which players assume the roles of player character, characters in a fictional Setting (narrative), setting. Players take responsibility for acting out ...
''Ashwathama – The Immortal'', which is based on Indian mythology, the fight scenes were choreographed using Kalaripayattu, with the movements of the characters being
motion capture Motion capture (sometimes referred as mocap or mo-cap, for short) is the process of recording high-resolution motion (physics), movement of objects or people into a computer system. It is used in Military science, military, entertainment, sports ...
d from real Kalaripayattu masters. Kalaripayattu is used as a fighting style for the character Connie Maheswaran in the American animated television series ''
Steven Universe ''Steven Universe'' is an American animated television series created by Rebecca Sugar for Cartoon Network. It tells the coming-of-age story of a young boy, Steven Universe (character), Steven Universe (Zach Callison), who lives with the Crys ...
''. Outside of Indian video games, characters in international games also use Kalaripayattu, such as Voldo in the ''
Soulcalibur is a fighting game franchise developed by Bandai Namco Studios and published by Bandai Namco Entertainment. There are a total of seven main installments and various media spin-offs, including music albums and a series of manga books in the ...
'' series, Asura in ''Death Battle'', and Zafina in the ''
Tekken is a Japanese media franchise centered on a series of fighting games developed and published by Bandai Namco Entertainment (formerly Namco). The franchise also includes film and print adaptations. The main games in the series follow the events ...
'' series among others. The style is also used by Cyril Rahman, Ethan Stanley and Shō Kanō in the Japanese
manga are comics or graphic novels originating from Japan. Most manga conform to a style developed in Japan in the late 19th century, and the form has a long history in earlier Japanese art. The term is used in Japan to refer to both comics ...
TV series '' Kenichi: The Mightiest Disciple''. In 2019, a character of Indian origin was introduced for the first time in the Japanese
manga are comics or graphic novels originating from Japan. Most manga conform to a style developed in Japan in the late 19th century, and the form has a long history in earlier Japanese art. The term is used in Japan to refer to both comics ...
, ''Agari''. It features a character named Ravi, a Kalaripayattu master, as the protagonist. While numerous documentaries have been made about or referencing Kalaripayattu, one of the earliest known documentaries on the subject is a
BBC The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) is a British public service broadcaster headquartered at Broadcasting House in London, England. Originally established in 1922 as the British Broadcasting Company, it evolved into its current sta ...
documentary titled '' The Way of the Warrior''. Kalaripayattu was also documented in Season 2 of Fight Quest.


In film

Kalaripayattu has also featured in international and
Indian films The cinema of India, consisting of motion pictures made by the Indian film industry, has had a large effect on world cinema since the second half of the 20th century. Indian cinema is made up of various film industries, each focused on pr ...
such as: *''Thacholi Othenan'' (1964) *'' Aromalunni'' (1972) *'' Ondanondu Kaladalli'' (
Kannada Kannada () is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly in the state of Karnataka in southwestern India, and spoken by a minority of the population in all neighbouring states. It has 44 million native speakers, and is additionally a ...
) (1978) *'' Chilambu (1986) *''
Oru Vadakkan Veeragatha ''Oru Vadakkan Veeragatha'' (), credited internationally as ''A Northern Story of Valor'', is a subplot of Vadakkan Pattukal, a medieval ballad from North Malabar and is often regarded as a classic in Malayalam cinema. The film won four Nation ...
'' (1989) *''
Kallan Kappalil Thanne ''Kallan Kappalil Thanne'' is a 1992 Indian Malayalam film directed by Prasanth. The film stars Jagadish, Siddique, Maathu, Suchitra and Poojappura Ravi in the lead roles. Plot Murali is a pharmaceutical representative who is in love with Ga ...
'' (1991) *'' Thacholi Varghese Chekavar'' (1995) *''
Asoka Ashoka, also known as Asoka or Aśoka ( ; , ; – 232 BCE), and popularly known as Ashoka the Great, was Emperor of Magadha from until his death in 232 BCE, and the third ruler from the Mauryan dynasty. His empire covered a large p ...
'' (2001) (
Hindi Modern Standard Hindi (, ), commonly referred to as Hindi, is the Standard language, standardised variety of the Hindustani language written in the Devanagari script. It is an official language of India, official language of the Government ...
) *'' The Myth'' (2005) ( English) *''
The Last Legion ''The Last Legion'' is a 2007 historical action adventure film directed by Doug Lefler and produced by Dino De Laurentiis. It is based on the 2002 novel of the same name by Valerio Massimo Manfredi. It stars Colin Firth, Ben Kingsley, Aishwary ...
'' (2007) ( English) *''
Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja () (3 January 1753 – 30 November 1805), also known as Cotiote Rajah and Pychy Rajah, was the '' de facto'' head of the Kottayam Kingdom in the Malabar region of Kerala between 1774 and 1805. His struggles with the ...
'' (2009) *''
Manasara The ''Mānasāra'', also known as ''Manasa'' or ''Manasara Shilpa Shastra'', is an ancient Sanskrit treatise on Indian architecture and design. Organized into 70 ''adhyayas'' (chapters) and 10,000 ''shlokas'' (verses), it is one of many Hindu te ...
'' (2010) ( Telugu) * ''
Urumi An urumi is an Indian sword with a flexible, whip-like blade, secretly worn around the waist. Originating in modern-day Kerala, a state in southwestern India, it is thought to have existed from as early as the Sangam period. It is treated as ...
'' (2011) * ''
Commando A commando is a combatant, or operative of an elite light infantry or special operations force, specially trained for carrying out raids and operating in small teams behind enemy lines. Originally, "a commando" was a type of combat unit, as oppo ...
'' (2013) (
Hindi Modern Standard Hindi (, ), commonly referred to as Hindi, is the Standard language, standardised variety of the Hindustani language written in the Devanagari script. It is an official language of India, official language of the Government ...
) * ''
Bajirao Mastani ''Bajirao Mastani'' is a 2015 Indian Hindi-language Epic film, epic historical film, historical tragedy film directed by Sanjay Leela Bhansali, who co-produced it with Eros International and composed its Bajirao Mastani (soundtrack), soundtrack ...
'' (2015) (
Hindi Modern Standard Hindi (, ), commonly referred to as Hindi, is the Standard language, standardised variety of the Hindustani language written in the Devanagari script. It is an official language of India, official language of the Government ...
) * '' Baaghi'' (2016) (
Hindi Modern Standard Hindi (, ), commonly referred to as Hindi, is the Standard language, standardised variety of the Hindustani language written in the Devanagari script. It is an official language of India, official language of the Government ...
) * '' Veeram'' (2016) * '' Padmaavat'' (2018) (
Hindi Modern Standard Hindi (, ), commonly referred to as Hindi, is the Standard language, standardised variety of the Hindustani language written in the Devanagari script. It is an official language of India, official language of the Government ...
) * ''
Kayamkulam Kochunni Kayamkulam Kochunni (born c. 1818) was a revolutionary from Kayamkulam, who lived during the late 19th century. He was active in the Travancore area in the present-day Kerala, India. He is said to have stolen from the rich and given to the poor ...
'' (2018) * '' Junglee'' (2019) (
Hindi Modern Standard Hindi (, ), commonly referred to as Hindi, is the Standard language, standardised variety of the Hindustani language written in the Devanagari script. It is an official language of India, official language of the Government ...
) * '' Athiran'' (2019) * '' Sanak'' (2021) (
Hindi Modern Standard Hindi (, ), commonly referred to as Hindi, is the Standard language, standardised variety of the Hindustani language written in the Devanagari script. It is an official language of India, official language of the Government ...
) * '' Spider-Man: Across the Spider-Verse'' (2023) ( English) * '' Ajayante Randam Moshanam'' (2024)


See also

* Meenakshi Amma *
Angampora Angampora is a Sinhalese martial art that combines combat techniques, self-defense, combat sport, sport, exercise, and meditation. A key component of angampora is the namesake ''angam'', which incorporates hand-to-hand fighting, and ''illangam'', ...
*
Banshay Banshay (, ) is a weapon-based martial art from Myanmar focusing primarily on the sword, staff and spear. Influenced by both Indian and Chinese sources, it is closely related to similar Southeast Asian systems such as Thai krabi krabong, Cambo ...
* Bataireacht *
Bōjutsu () is the martial art of stick fighting using a bō, which is the Japanese word for staff. Staffs have been in use for thousands of years in Asian martial arts like Silambam. Some techniques involve slashing, swinging, and stabbing with the ...
*
Gatka Gatka (; ; ; ) is a form of martial art associated primarily with the Sikhs of the Punjab and other related ethnic groups, such as Hindkowans and Pahari-Pothwari. It is a style of stick-fighting, with wooden sticks intended to simulate sw ...
*
Adimurai Adimurai is an Indian martial art originating in modern-day Kanyakumari, the southernmost region in India. It was traditionally practiced in the Kanyakumari district of modern-day Tamil Nadu as well as nearby areas in southeastern Kerala. I ...
*
Indian martial arts Indian martial arts refers to the fighting systems of the Indian subcontinent. A variety of terms are used for the English phrases "Indian martial arts", deriving from ancient sources. While they may seem to imply specific disciplines (e.g. arch ...
*
Kendo is a modern Japanese martial art, descended from kenjutsu (one of the old Japanese martial arts, swordsmanship), that uses bamboo swords ( shinai) as well as protective armor ( bōgu). It began as samurai warriors' customary swordsmanship ex ...
*
Krabi–krabong Krabi-Krabong (, ) is a weapon-based martial art from Thailand. It is closely related to other Southeast Asian fighting styles such as Silat, Burmese banshay and Cambodian kbach kun boran. The royal bodyguard corps of the late King Bhumibol Adul ...
*
Kuttu Varisai Silambam is an old Indian martial art originating in the southern Indian state of Tamil Nadu. This style is mentioned in Tamil Sangam literature. The World Silambam Association is the official international body of Silambam. Origin References ...
*
Mardani khel Mardani Khel and Bothati are armed Indian martial arts from Maharashtra. They are particularly known for their use of the uniquely Indian pata (sword), patta (sword) and ''vita'' (corded lance). The early history of Bothati as a distinct system is ...
*
Silambam Silambam is an old Indian martial arts, Indian martial art originating in the southern Indian state of Tamil Nadu. This style is mentioned in Tamil Sangam literature. The World Silambam Association is the official international body of Silamba ...
* Tahtib * Thang-ta *
Varma kalai Varma Kalai (Tamil: ''varmakkalai'', Malayalam and Sanskrit: ''marma-vidya/marmam'') is an Indian traditional art of pressure points. It combines massage, alternative medicine, traditional yoga and martial arts in which the body's pressure poin ...
*
Ankam Ankam is a Malayalam word meaning combat or battle, typically fought with swords called 'Churika' in Malabar of Kerala Kerala ( , ) is a States and union territories of India, state on the Malabar Coast of India. It was formed on 1 Novem ...
*
Kalarippayattu films Kalaripayattu is an Indian martial art developed in present-day Kerala in the southwestern coast of the Indian subcontinent. It is featured in several films, television, literature, video games, comics and other media. Films Television Do ...
*
Malayali The Malayali people (; also spelt Malayalee and sometimes known by the demonym Keralite) are a Dravidian ethnolinguistic group originating from the present-day state of Kerala and Union Territory of Lakshadweep in India, occupying its south ...


Notes


References


Sources

* * * * * * * * *


Further reading

* Balakrsnan, Pi (1995) ''Kalarippayattu: The ancient martial art of Kerala'', C. V. Govindankutty Nair Gurukka 1995, * Denaud, Patrick (1996) ''Kalaripayat'', Budostore, * Elgood, Robert (2005), ''Hindu Arms and Ritual: Arms and Armour from India 1400-1865'', Eburon, * Zarrilli, Phillip B. (1992)
To Heal and/or To Harm: The Vital Spots in Two South Indian Martial Traditions
* Zarrilli, Phillip B. (1993),
Actualizing Power and Crafting a Self in Kalarippayattu
'',
Journal of Asian Martial Arts The ''Journal of Asian Martial Arts'' (''JAMA'') was a quarterly magazine published by Via Media Publishing Company that covered various aspects of martial arts from Asia, but also included material from other parts of the world. The magazine had ...
''


External links


Kalarippayattu - one of the oldest martial arts
Government of Kerala website (
Wayback Machine The Wayback Machine is a digital archive of the World Wide Web founded by Internet Archive, an American nonprofit organization based in San Francisco, California. Launched for public access in 2001, the service allows users to go "back in ...
copy)
Fundamentals of Kalaripayattu Video Series
{{Authority control Indian martial arts Dravidian martial arts Culture of Kerala