Great Mosque Of Djenné
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The Great Mosque of Djenné in the Sudano-Sahelian architectural style is the largest
adobe Adobe (from arabic: الطوب Attub ; ) is a building material made from earth and organic materials. is Spanish for mudbrick. In some English-speaking regions of Spanish heritage, such as the Southwestern United States, the term is use ...
brick building in the world. The
mosque A mosque ( ), also called a masjid ( ), is a place of worship for Muslims. The term usually refers to a covered building, but can be any place where Salah, Islamic prayers are performed; such as an outdoor courtyard. Originally, mosques were si ...
is located in the city of Djenné,
Mali Mali, officially the Republic of Mali, is a landlocked country in West Africa. It is the List of African countries by area, eighth-largest country in Africa, with an area of over . The country is bordered to the north by Algeria, to the east b ...
, on the
flood plain A floodplain or flood plain or bottomlands is an area of land adjacent to a river. Floodplains stretch from the banks of a river channel to the base of the enclosing valley, and experience flooding during periods of high Discharge (hydrolog ...
of the Bani River. The first mosque on the site was built around the 13th century, but the current structure dates from 1907. As well as being the centre of the community of Djenné, it is one of the most famous landmarks in
Africa Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent after Asia. At about 30.3 million km2 (11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 20% of Earth's land area and 6% of its total surfac ...
. Along with the " Old Towns of Djenné", it was designated a
World Heritage Site World Heritage Sites are landmarks and areas with legal protection under an treaty, international treaty administered by UNESCO for having cultural, historical, or scientific significance. The sites are judged to contain "cultural and natural ...
by
UNESCO The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO ) is a List of specialized agencies of the United Nations, specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) with the aim of promoting world peace and International secur ...
in 1988.


History


The First Mosque

The actual date of construction of the first mosque in Djenné is unknown, but dates as early as 1200 and as late as 1330 have been suggested. The earliest document mentioning the mosque is Abd al-Sadi's '' Tarikh al-Sudan'' which gives the early history, presumably from the oral tradition as it existed in the mid-seventeenth century. The ''Tarikh'' states that a Sultan Kunburu became a
Muslim Muslims () are people who adhere to Islam, a Monotheism, monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God ...
and had his palace pulled down and the site turned into a mosque. He built another palace for himself near the mosque on the east side. His immediate successor built the towers of the mosque while the following Sultan built the surrounding wall. There is no other written information on the Great Mosque until the French explorer René Caillié visited Djenné in 1828, years after it had been allowed to fall into ruin, and wrote "In Jenné is a mosque built of earth, surmounted by two massive but not high towers; it is rudely constructed, though very large. It is abandoned to thousands of swallows, which build their nests in it. This occasions a very disagreeable smell, to avoid which, the custom of saying prayers in a small outer court has become common." Djenne ruins ancient mosque - Albert Rousseau.jpg, Photo taken by Albert Rousseau in 1893–94 Djenne ruins ancient mosque - H. Danel.jpg, Photo taken by H. Danel in or before 1904 Djenne Fortier 413 - Ruines de l'ancienne Mosquée.jpg, Photo taken by Edmond Fortier in 1906


Seku Amadu's mosque

Ten years before René Caillié's visit, the Fulani leader Seku Amadu had launched his
jihad ''Jihad'' (; ) is an Arabic word that means "exerting", "striving", or "struggling", particularly with a praiseworthy aim. In an Islamic context, it encompasses almost any effort to make personal and social life conform with God in Islam, God ...
and conquered the town. Seku Amadu appears to have disapproved of the existing mosque and allowed it to fall into disrepair. This would have been the building that Caillié saw. Seku Amadu had also closed all the small neighbourhood mosques. Between 1834 and 1836, Seku Amadu built a new mosque to the east of the existing one on the site of the former palace. The new mosque was a large, low building, lacking any towers or ornamentation. French forces led by Louis Archinard captured Djenné in April 1893. Soon after, the French journalist Félix Dubois visited the town and described the ruins of the original mosque. At the time of his visit, the interior of the ruined mosque was being used as a cemetery. In his 1897 book, ''Tombouctou la Mystérieuse'' (''
Timbuktu Timbuktu ( ; ; Koyra Chiini: ; ) is an ancient city in Mali, situated north of the Niger River. It is the capital of the Tombouctou Region, one of the eight administrative regions of Mali, having a population of 32,460 in the 2018 census. ...
the mysterious''), Dubois provides a plan and a drawing as to how he imagined the mosque looked before being abandoned.


Present mosque

In 1906, the town arranged for the original mosque to be rebuilt and for a school to be constructed on the site of Seku Amadu's mosque. The rebuilding was completed in 1907 using forced labour under the direction of Ismaila Traoré, head of Djenné's guild of masons. From photographs taken at the time, it appears the position of at least some of the outer walls follows those of the original mosque but it is unclear whether the columns supporting the roof kept to the previous arrangement. What was almost certainly novel in the rebuilt mosque was the symmetric arrangement of three large towers in the ''
qibla The qibla () is the direction towards the Kaaba in the Great Mosque of Mecca, Sacred Mosque in Mecca, which is used by Muslims in various religious contexts, particularly the direction of prayer for the salah. In Islam, the Kaaba is believed to ...
'' wall. There has been debate about to what extent the design of the rebuilt mosque was subject to French influence, although it is unlikely that French engineers worked on the building at all. Dubois revisited Djenné in 1910 and was shocked by the reconstructed mosque. He believed that the French colonial administration were responsible for the design and wrote that it looked like a cross between a hedgehog and a church organ. He thought that the cones made the building resemble a baroque temple dedicated to the god of suppositories. By contrast, Jean-Louis Bourgeois has argued that the French had little influence except perhaps for the internal arches and that the design is "basically African." Ismaila Traoré head of Djenne's guild of masons and renowned throughout the
Sahel The Sahel region (; ), or Sahelian acacia savanna, is a Biogeography, biogeographical region in Africa. It is the Ecotone, transition zone between the more humid Sudanian savannas to its south and the drier Sahara to the north. The Sahel has a ...
, was the architect for the reconstruction of the Djenné mosque. French ethnologist Michel Leiris, in his account of travelling through Mali in 1931, states that the new mosque is indeed the work of Europeans. He also says that local people were so unhappy with the reconstructed building that they refused to clean it, only doing so when threatened with prison. Jean-Louis Bourgeois however, recorded that the rebuilt mosque was constructed by Djenné's traditional local guild of masons, traditionally responsible for the building and maintenance of the town's original mosque and of Djenné's other buildings, using traditional techniques and with minimal French involvement. A problem concerning the mosque arose from Djenné's local politics: most of the city's inhabitants – including the Islamic elite who were harassed by Seku Amadu and humiliated by the destruction of the old mosque – wanted an exact rebuilding of the old mosque in their vision. The terrace in front of the eastern wall includes two tombs. The larger tomb to the south contains the remains of Almany Ismaïla, an important ''
imam Imam (; , '; : , ') is an Islamic leadership position. For Sunni Islam, Sunni Muslims, Imam is most commonly used as the title of a prayer leader of a mosque. In this context, imams may lead Salah, Islamic prayers, serve as community leaders, ...
'' of the 18th century. Early in the French colonial period, a pond located on the eastern side of the mosque was filled with earth to create the open area that is now used for the weekly market. Electrical wiring and indoor plumbing have been added to many mosques in Mali. In some cases, the original surfaces of mosques have even been tiled over, destroying their historical appearances and in some cases compromising the building's structural integrity. While the Great Mosque has been equipped with a loudspeaker system, the citizens of Djenné have resisted modernization in favor of the building's historical integrity. Many historical preservationists have praised the community's preservation effort, and interest in this aspect of the building grew in the 1990s. The mosque is seen in the 2005 film ''
Sahara The Sahara (, ) is a desert spanning across North Africa. With an area of , it is the largest hot desert in the world and the list of deserts by area, third-largest desert overall, smaller only than the deserts of Antarctica and the northern Ar ...
''.


Design

The walls of the Great Mosque are made of sun-baked earth bricks (called ''ferey''), and sand and earth-based mortar, and are coated with a plaster which gives the building its smooth, sculpted look. The walls of the building are decorated with bundles of rodier palm ('' Borassus aethiopum'') sticks, called ''toron'', that project about from the surface. The ''toron'' also serve as readymade scaffolding for the annual repairs. Ceramic half-pipes also extend from the roofline and direct rain water from the roof away from the walls. The mosque is built on a platform measuring about that is raised by above the level of the marketplace. The platform prevents damage to the mosque when the Bani River floods. It is accessed by six sets of stairs, each decorated with pinnacles. The main entrance is on the northern side of the building. The outer walls of the Great Mosque are not precisely orthogonal to one another so that the plan of the building has a noticeable trapezoidal outline. The prayer wall or ''
qibla The qibla () is the direction towards the Kaaba in the Great Mosque of Mecca, Sacred Mosque in Mecca, which is used by Muslims in various religious contexts, particularly the direction of prayer for the salah. In Islam, the Kaaba is believed to ...
'' of the Great Mosque faces east towards Mecca and overlooks the city marketplace. The ''qibla'' is dominated by three large, box-like towers or minarets jutting out from the main wall. The central tower is around 16 metres in height. The cone shaped spires or pinnacles at the top of each minaret are topped with ostrich eggs. The eastern wall is about a metre (3ft) in thickness and is strengthened on the exterior by eighteen pilaster like buttresses, each of which is topped by a pinnacle. The corners are formed by rectangular-shaped buttresses decorated with ''toron'' and topped by pinnacles. The prayer hall, measuring about , occupies the eastern half of the mosque behind the ''qibla'' wall. The mud-covered, rodier-palm roof is supported by nine interior walls running north–south which are pierced by pointed arches that reach up almost to the roof. This design creates a forest of ninety massive rectangular pillars that span the interior prayer hall and severely reduce the field of view. The small, irregularly-positioned windows on the north and south walls allow little natural light to reach the interior of the hall. The floor is composed of sandy earth. In the prayer hall, each of the three towers in the ''qibla'' wall has a niche or ''
mihrab ''Mihrab'' (, ', pl. ') is a niche in the wall of a mosque that indicates the ''qibla'', the direction of the Kaaba in Mecca towards which Muslims should face when praying. The wall in which a ''mihrab'' appears is thus the "''qibla'' wall". ...
''. The ''imam'' conducts the prayers from the ''mihrab'' in the larger central tower. A narrow opening in the ceiling of the central ''mihrab'' connects with a small room situated above roof level in the tower. In earlier times, a crier would repeat the words of the ''imam'' to people in the town. To the right of the ''mihrab'' in the central tower is a second niche, the pulpit or '' minbar'', from which the ''imam'' preaches his Friday sermon. The towers in the ''qibla'' wall do not contain stairs linking the prayer hall with the roof. Instead there are two square towers housing stairs leading to the roof. One set of stairs is located at the southwestern corner of the prayer hall while the other set, situated near the main entrance on the northern side, is only accessible from the exterior of the mosque. Small vents in the roof are topped with removable inverted kiln-fired bowls, which when removed allow hot air to rise out of the building and so ventilate the interior. The interior courtyard to the west of the prayer hall, measuring , is surrounded on three sides by galleries. The walls of the galleries facing the courtyard are punctuated by arched openings. The western gallery is reserved for use by women. Though it benefits from regular maintenance, since the facade's construction in 1907, only small changes have been made to the design. Rather than a single central niche, the ''mihrab'' tower originally had a pair of large recesses echoing the form of the entrance arches in the north wall. The mosque also had many fewer ''toron'' with none on the corner buttresses. It is evident from published photographs that two additional rows of ''toron'' were added to the walls in the early 1990s.


Cultural significance

The entire community of Djenné takes an active role in the mosque's maintenance during an annual festival. This includes music and food, but is mainly to repair the damage inflicted on the mosque in the past year (mostly
erosion Erosion is the action of surface processes (such as Surface runoff, water flow or wind) that removes soil, Rock (geology), rock, or dissolved material from one location on the Earth's crust#Crust, Earth's crust and then sediment transport, tran ...
caused by the annual rains and cracks caused by changes in temperature and humidity). In the days before the festival, the plaster is prepared in pits. It requires several days to cure but needs to be periodically stirred, a task usually falling to young boys who play in the mixture, thus stirring up the contents. Men climb onto the mosque's built-in scaffolding and ladders made of palm wood and smear the plaster over the face of the mosque. Another group of men carries the plaster from the pits to the workmen on the mosque. A race is held at the beginning of the festival to see who will be the first to deliver the plaster to the mosque. Women and girls carry water to the pits before the festival and to the workmen on the mosque during it. Members of Djenné's masons guild direct the work, while elderly members of the community, who have already participated in the festival many times, sit in a place of honour in the market
square In geometry, a square is a regular polygon, regular quadrilateral. It has four straight sides of equal length and four equal angles. Squares are special cases of rectangles, which have four equal angles, and of rhombuses, which have four equal si ...
watching the proceedings. In 1930, an inexact replica of the mosque was built in the town of
Fréjus Fréjus (; ) is a Communes of France, commune in the Var (department), Var Departments of France, department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur Regions of France, region in Southeastern France. It neighbours Saint-Raphaël, Var, Saint-Raphaël ...
in southern France. The imitation, the Missiri mosque, was built in
cement A cement is a binder, a chemical substance used for construction that sets, hardens, and adheres to other materials to bind them together. Cement is seldom used on its own, but rather to bind sand and gravel ( aggregate) together. Cement mi ...
and painted in red ochre to resemble the colour of the original. It was intended to serve as a mosque for the '' Tirailleurs sénégalais'', the West African colonial troops in the
French Army The French Army, officially known as the Land Army (, , ), is the principal Army, land warfare force of France, and the largest component of the French Armed Forces; it is responsible to the Government of France, alongside the French Navy, Fren ...
who were posted to the region during the winter. The original mosque presided over one of the most important Islamic learning centers in Africa during the
Middle Ages In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the 5th to the late 15th centuries, similarly to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and ...
, with thousands of students coming to study the
Quran The Quran, also Romanization, romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a Waḥy, revelation directly from God in Islam, God (''Allah, Allāh''). It is organized in 114 chapters (, ) which ...
in Djenné's madrassas. The historic areas of Djenné, including the Great Mosque, were designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1988. While there are many mosques that are older than its current incarnation, the Great Mosque remains the most prominent symbol of both the city of Djenné and the nation of Mali. On 20 January 2006, the sight of a team of men hacking at the roof of the mosque sparked a riot in the town. The team were inspecting the roof as part of a restoration project financed by the Aga Khan Trust for Culture. The men quickly disappeared to avoid being lynched. In the mosque the mob ripped out the ventilation fans that had been presented by the US Embassy at the time of the
Iraq War The Iraq War (), also referred to as the Second Gulf War, was a prolonged conflict in Iraq lasting from 2003 to 2011. It began with 2003 invasion of Iraq, the invasion by a Multi-National Force – Iraq, United States-led coalition, which ...
and then went on a rampage through the town. The crowd ransacked the Cultural Mission, the mayor's home, destroyed the car belonging to the imam's younger brother and damaged three cars belonging to the Imam himself. The local police were overwhelmed and had to call in reinforcements from Mopti. One man died during the disturbances. On Thursday 5 November 2009, the upper section of the southern large tower of the ''qibla'' wall collapsed after 75mm (3 inches) of rain had fallen in a 24-hour period. The Aga Khan Trust for Culture funded the rebuilding of the tower. The mosque features on the coat of arms of Mali.


3D documentation with laser-scanning

The 3D documentation of the Djenné Mosque was carried out in 2005 using terrestrial laser-scanning. This formed part of the
Zamani Project The Zamani Project is part of the African Cultural heritage, Cultural Heritage Sites and Landscapes Database. Zamani is a research group at the University of Cape Town, which acquires, models, presents and manages spatial and other data from cultu ...
that aims to document cultural heritage sites in 3D to create a record for future generations.


Video games

The mosque is a Wonder Building in the historical strategy games ''Sid Meier's Civilization V'', '' Age of Empires II'', and '' Age of Empires IV''.


See also

* Lists of mosques * List of mosques in Africa * African Architecture *
Islamic architecture Islamic architecture comprises the architectural styles of buildings associated with Islam. It encompasses both Secularity, secular and religious styles from the early history of Islam to the present day. The Muslim world, Islamic world encompasse ...
* Islam in Mali * West African Mosques


Notes


References

*. *. *. Google Books
Volume 1Volume 2
*. *. *. Reproduces postcards and photographs dating from the early years of the 20th century. *. *. *. *


Further reading

* * * *


External links


Archnet Digital Library: Djenné Great Mosque Restoration
{{DEFAULTSORT:Great Mosque Of Djenne Djenné Mosques in Mali Mosques completed in 1907 Massina Empire Sudano-Sahelian architecture 13th-century mosques in Africa 13th-century establishments in Africa