The French Imperial Army () was the land force branch of the French imperial military during the

Napoleonic era The Napoleonic era is a period in the history of France and history of Europe, Europe. It is generally classified as including the fourth and final stage of the French Revolution, the first being the National Assembly (French Revoluti ...

History

The beginnings of the Imperial Army were seeded in the reorganisation of the French Army in 1803, which helped pave the way for the well-known French-style army organisation. Under this reorganisation, the old-style military district system was reorganised so that it included the new departments. These districts were known as 'Military Divisions', or ''divisions militaires'', which were tasked with local administration of garrisons, recruitment, and providing

National Guard National guard is the name used by a wide variety of current and historical uniformed organizations in different countries. The original National Guard was formed during the French Revolution around a cadre of defectors from the French Guards. ...

and local forces for invasion. The Imperial Army was divided into three separate types of commands: the largest was the ''

Grande Armée The (; ) was the primary field army of the French Imperial Army (1804–1815), French Imperial Army during the Napoleonic Wars. Commanded by Napoleon, from 1804 to 1808 it won a series of military victories that allowed the First French Empi ...

'', and its equivalent 'Field Armies', the next smallest were the Corps of Observation which were tasked with overseeing regions with strategic importance and providing rearguards where necessary, the next smallest was the 'Field Corps' which provided the actual fighting potential with the Field Armies, and finally, the Military Districts, as previously described. In 1814, following the Abdication of Napoleon, the army was quickly redesignated as the Royal Army ''(Armée Royale)'', and the structure (for the most part) remained, though with regimental name changes and slight uniform changes. After the Return of Napoleon in 1815, almost the entirety of the army (with the exception of some of the Royal Guard (formerly Napoleon's Imperial Guard)) went over to his side along with the majority of its staff. Though the 1815 campaign was a disaster for France, it is still seen by many military historians as a success, as France was able to form several field armies and win multiple battles, with almost no preparation whatsoever. After Napoleon's second abdication, some elements of the army refused to give up, including the ''Armée de l'Ouest'' fighting an insurrection in the

Vendée Vendée () is a department in the Pays de la Loire region in Western France, on the Atlantic coast. In 2019, it had a population of 685,442.Maréchal'' Louis-Nicolas Davout, who retired westward to join the hastily formed ''Armée de la Loire''. However, following the end of the Hundred Days, the remainder of the ''Armée de la Loire'' was disbanded along with any troops of the Army. The only remaining elements were the board of directors and those soldiers who had no families and were too old to leave. Part of King

Louis XVIII Louis XVIII (Louis Stanislas Xavier; 17 November 1755 – 16 September 1824), known as the Desired (), was King of France from 1814 to 1824, except for a brief interruption during the Hundred Days in 1815. Before his reign, he spent 23 y ...

's plan to remove the imperial stain was to completely reconstitute the army on a new regional basis and destroy the imperialist esprit-de-corps. This marked the effective disbandment of the Imperial Army.

Method of conscription

The French method of conscription brought around 2,300,000 French men into the Army between the period of 1804 and 1813. To give an estimate of how much of the population this was, modern estimates range from 7 to 8% of the population of France proper, while the

First World War World War I or the First World War (28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), also known as the Great War, was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War I, Allies (or Entente) and the Central Powers. Fighting to ...

used around 20 to 21%.

Command staff

The French Imperial Army was commanded, as its predecessors by the Supreme Commander-in-Chief, who was

Emperor The word ''emperor'' (from , via ) can mean the male ruler of an empire. ''Empress'', the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife (empress consort), mother/grandmother (empress dowager/grand empress dowager), or a woman who rules ...

Napoleon Bonaparte Napoleon Bonaparte (born Napoleone di Buonaparte; 15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821), later known by his regnal name Napoleon I, was a French general and statesman who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and led Military career ...

from 1804, and in 1815. Under him sat the effective commander of the Army, the

Minister of War A ministry of defence or defense (see American and British English spelling differences#-ce.2C -se, spelling differences), also known as a department of defence or defense, is the part of a government responsible for matters of defence and Mi ...

(''Ministre de la Guerre''). Below is a list of the officers who held the position.

Commander-in-Chief

Minister of War

The duties of the

were described by historian Ronald Pawley as follows: "... he was responsible for all matters such as personnel, the ministerial budget, the Emperor's orders regarding troop movements within the Empire, the departments of artillery and engineers, and prisoners of war". When the first Minister, Louis-Alexandre Berthier was on campaign during the Ulm campaign, three members of the ministry replaced him as effective minister. ''Monsieur'' Antoine Denniée ''pére'', became effective acting minister, ''Monsieur'' Gérard became responsible for the movements of units stationed within the borders of France (Intendent General of the Army), and ''Monsieur'' Michel Tabarié, Director General of the Personnel Department. * Ministry of War Headquarters, at the Ministry of Defence Building in

Paris Paris () is the Capital city, capital and List of communes in France with over 20,000 inhabitants, largest city of France. With an estimated population of 2,048,472 residents in January 2025 in an area of more than , Paris is the List of ci ...

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** Ministry of War Administration *** Intendant General of the Army ( Jean François Aimé Dejean, 1802–1810; Jean-Gérard Lacuée, ''Comte de'' Cessac 1810–13; and Pierre Antoine Noël Bruno 1813–14 & 1815) **** Director General for Supplies ( Augustin Louis Petiet, 1804–06; Jacques-Pierre Orillard de Villemanzy, 1806; Pierre Antoine Noël Bruno, 1806–12; Guillaume-Mathieu Dumas, 1812–14; Jean-Pierre-Paulin-Hector Daure, 1815) **** Chief Organizing Commissioners ***** Gendarmerie Department ***** Hospitals Department ***** Transport Department ***** Supplies & Rations Department ***** Support Department ** Director General of Reviews of Conscription (Jean-Gérard Lacuée, ''Comte de'' Cessac, 1806–10;, Guillaume-Mathieu Dumas, 1810–12; and Étienne Hastrel de Rivedoux, 1812–14) ** 6 x Inspectors in Chief of Reviews (Divisional Generals) ** 30 x Inspectors of Reviews (Brigade Generals) ** 100 x Sub-Inspectors of Reviews (Colonels) ** Assistant Sub-Inspectors, 1st Class (''Chefs de Bataillons'') – posts created in 1811 ** Assistant Sub-Inspectors, 2nd Class (Captains) ** War Commissaires

Types of units

Imperial Guard

The Imperial Guard ''(Garde Impériale)'' was the senior branch of the army, consisting of the senior troops and those who had distinguished themselves during battle, however (rather ironically) the guard consisted of some of the youngest regiments of the army. Their history is thus relatively short and simple compared to the ancient regiments of the line, many of which were raised in the 16th century. The life span of most of the guard regiments was also very short: a royal decree of 12 May 1814 (just after the Treaty of Fontainebleau) completely disbanded the Young Guard, and the units were broken up and distributed among the line. Certain units were attached to the guard in 1813, for example, the Saxon Life Grenadier Guards ''(Saxe Leibgrenadiergarde'') and a battalion of Polish grenadiers, but these were not part of the guard and did not wear the guard button. The guard was separated into three 'echelons', of which each consisted many different types of units, these consisted of the Old Guard, the Middle Guard, and the Young Guard. This effectively made the guard an independent fighting corps with everything from its own staff down to its own support units.

Infantry

The infantry during the Napoleonic era provided the majority of the fighting force while on campaign. The nucleus of the army was formed in 1803, when the old 'royalist term' of ''Régiment'' replaced the 'republican style' ''Demi-Brigade'', which subsequently referred to provisional units only. At the time, only some 90 regiments existed, the majority of them consisting of three battalions. By 1804, each battalion had been obliged to convert one of its fusilier companies into '' voltigeurs'', thus augmenting the French light infantry establishment. The war/peace establishment of a grenadier or carabinier company was 3/3 officers and 83/75 men. All other companies had 3 officers and 123 men in wartime; the peace establishments of men were 75 for fusiliers, 68 for chasseurs, and 123 for voltigeurs. Including the staff, a battalion had 700 men in peacetime and 1,100 in war. A regiment of two battalions would have 46 officers and 1,375 men in peacetime and 38 officers and 2,162 men in war; a regiment of three battalions would have 39 officers and 2,054 men in peacetime and 42 officers and 3,234 in war.Smith 1998, pp. 21–23. The line and light infantry battalion organisations were standardised to the class one grenadier, one voltigeur, and four fusilier companies by an order of 18 February 1808. That same day, Napoleon decreed that each line and light infantry regiment was to consist of one depot and four field battalions, with the depot acting as the recruitment and reserve unit.

Line Infantry

The line infantry was the best-known and most valuable infantry branch within the Imperial Army. The line infantry also had the most regiments throughout the war, with the following an abbreviated list of all regiments: * 1st–113th Line Infantry Regiments existing prior to 1803 * The following in the above prior regiments were disbanded or failed to form during the Empire period: ** 31st, 38th, 41st, 49th, 68th, 71st, 73rd, 74th, 77th, 78th, 80th, 83rd, 87th, 89th–91st, 97th–99th, 104th, 107th, and 109th–110th * 114th–120th Line Infantry Regiments formed from the former provisional line regiments in Spain by decree on 7 July 1808. * 121st and 122nd Line Infantry Regiments formed by decree on 1 January 1809, from the 1st–4th ''Légions de Résérve'' which had become the 1st and 2nd Supplementary Regiments. * 123rd–126th Line Infantry Regiments formed by decree on 18 August 1810, all from the old Dutch regiments * 127th–134th Line Infantry Regiments formed by decree on 24 January, 3 February, and 9 March 1811 mostly from auxiliary regiments * 135th–156th Line Infantry Regiments formed by decree on 12 January 1813 from National Guard Cohorts (battalions) From 1792 till 14 March 1804, a line infantry regiment consisted of three battalions: 2 x Field battalions (8 x Fusilier and 1 x Grenadier Companies), and the Depot Battalion. On 20 September 1804, the line infantry battalions were modified by the conversion of one of the 8 fusilier companies to voltigeurs; in the fact, the most agile, smallest men in each fusilier company were concentrated into the new company. During this period, a depot battalion consisted of a senior captain who was mounted, one depot captain, one 'Quartermaster Treasurer', and 4 x Fusilier Companies.

= Grenadiers

Grenadier A grenadier ( , ; derived from the word ''grenade'') was historically an assault-specialist soldier who threw hand grenades in siege operation battles. The distinct combat function of the grenadier was established in the mid-17th century, when ...

s had historically been the tallest and most experienced. These soldiers would line up in straight lines and advance to 5–10 feet of the enemy and throw

grenade A grenade is a small explosive weapon typically thrown by hand (also called hand grenade), but can also refer to a Shell (projectile), shell (explosive projectile) shot from the muzzle of a rifle (as a rifle grenade) or a grenade launcher. A mod ...

s, of which very few ever actually exploded. However, by the mid-18th century, these troops became elite infantry and were placed on the right of the line, indicating they were the most experienced and held in high regard.

Light Infantry

France began to experiment with light infantry in 1740 and several legions were raised by 1749. At the same time, a battalion of '' Chasseurs à Pied'' (literally Hunters on Foot) was attached to each of the six newly raised regiments of '' Chasseurs à Cheval'' (literally Hunters on Horses/ Mounted Hunters). In 1788 these battalions were separated from the cavalry, and six more were raised to give 12 Chasseurs battalions in the army. They were designed to perform scouting duties and to act as advance and rear guards. Below is an abbreviated list of the regiments of ''Régiment''(s) ''Légère'' (Light Infantry Regiments): * 1st–37th Light Infantry Regiments * The following in the above prior regiments were disbanded or failed to form during the Empire period: ** 11th (formed 1811), 19th (formed 1813), 20th, 29th (formed 1811), and 30th

= Chasseurs

= On 14 March 1803, under that year's reform, it was ordered that each light infantry battalion was to consist of one Carabinier (Grenadier equivalent), eight '' Chasseur'' (

Fusilier ''Fusilier'' is a name given to various kinds of soldiers; its meaning depends on the historical context. While ''fusilier'' is derived from the 17th-century French word – meaning a type of flintlock musket – the term has been used in cont ...

equivalent), and one '' Voltigeur''. Chasseurs effectively had the same role of the fusiliers, but were shorter and were quickly and typically more agile.

Cavalry

By decree of the emperor, cavalry typically were between a fifth and a sixth of the ''Grande Armée''. Cavalry regiments of 800–1,200 men were made up of three or four escadrons of two companies each, plus supporting elements. In

light cavalry Light cavalry comprised lightly armed and body armor, armored cavalry troops mounted on fast horses, as opposed to heavy cavalry, where the mounted riders (and sometimes the warhorses) were heavily armored. The purpose of light cavalry was p ...

and dragoon regiments, the first company of every regiment's first escadron, was always designated as 'elite', with presumably, the best men and horses. In the revolution's wake, the cavalry suffered the greatest from the loss of experienced aristocratic officers and NCOs still loyal to the ''

Ancien Régime ''Ancien'' may refer to * the French word for " ancient, old" ** Société des anciens textes français * the French for "former, senior" ** Virelai ancien ** Ancien Régime ** Ancien Régime in France {{disambig ...

''. Consequently, the quality of French cavalry drastically declined. Napoleon rebuilt the branch, turning it into arguably the finest in the world. Until 1812, it was undefeated in any large engagements above the regimental level. There were two primary types of cavalry for different roles, heavy and light. The French fielded inferior cavalry as compared to their Hessian, Baden, Polish, British, Prussian and Austrian counterparts. However, French cavalry won many more engagements than their enemies, with many reasons combining to achieve this. One factor was certainly their superior organization, at higher levels, to most of their opponents. The French command structure and organization made it more likely that a French cavalry had reserves available, and the ability to direct them to exploit a break in the enemy line or plug a gap in their own, or counterattack a victorious enemy. Their discipline and tactics of using larger formations (cavalry divisions and cavalry corps) impressed even the most bitter enemies of France. In peacetime, the regiments of dragoons, lancers, chasseurs and hussars had colour of horses according to squadron: * I Squadron (1st (Elite) company on blacks, 5th company on dark browns) * II Squadron (2nd and 6th company) on bays * III Squadron (3rd and 7th company) on chestnuts * IV Squadron (4th and 8th company) on grays However, already during the campaign in 1805, only some colonels insisted on keeping up these peacetime practices. The heavy cavalry, carabiniers and cuirassiers, rode on black horses.

Heavy Cavalry

= Horse Carabiniers

= The elite among all French heavy cavalry line formations, the two regiments of mounted carabiniers had a very similar appearance with the mounted grenadiers of the Imperial Guard; bearskins, long blue coats, etc. and were mounted exclusively on black horses prior to 1813. They were largely used in identical manner to the Cuirassiers, but being (initially) unarmored, they were less suited for close-quarters,

melee A melee ( or ) is a confused hand-to-hand combat, hand-to-hand fight among several people. The English term ''melee'' originated circa 1648 from the French word ' (), derived from the Old French ''mesler'', from which '':wikt:medley, medley'' and ...

combat. Unarmored heavy cavalry was the norm in Europe during most of the Napoleonic Wars, with the French being the first to reintroduce the back-and-breastplate. In 1809, appalled by their mauling at the hands of Austrian Uhlans, Napoleon ordered that they be given armour. The carabinier's refusal to copy the less elite cuirassiers resulted in them being given special armor, with their helmets and cuirasses being sheathed in bronze for added visual effect. But this did not prevent them from being defeated by Russian cuirassiers at Borodino in 1812, and panicking before Hungarian hussars at

Leipzig Leipzig (, ; ; Upper Saxon: ; ) is the most populous city in the States of Germany, German state of Saxony. The city has a population of 628,718 inhabitants as of 2023. It is the List of cities in Germany by population, eighth-largest city in Ge ...

the following year.

= Cuirassiers

= The heavy cavalry, wearing a heavy '' cuirass'' (breastplate) and helmets of brass and iron and armed with straight long sabres, pistols, and later carbines. Like medieval knights, they served as mounted shock troops. Because of the weight of their armour and weapons, both the trooper and the horse had to be big and strong, and could put a lot of force behind their charge. Though the ''cuirass'' could not protect against direct musket fire, it could deflect ricochets and shots from long range, and offered some protection from pistol shots. More importantly, the breastplates protected against the swords and lances of opposing cavalry. Napoleon often combined all of his

cuirassier A cuirassier ( ; ; ) was a cavalryman equipped with a cuirass, sword, and pistols. Cuirassiers first appeared in mid-to-late 16th century Europe as a result of armoured cavalry, such as man-at-arms, men-at-arms and demi-lancers discarding their ...

s and carabiniers into a cavalry reserve, to be used at the decisive moment of the battle. In this manner, they proved to be an extremely potent force on the battlefield. The British, in particular, who mistakenly believed the cuirassiers were Napoleon's bodyguards, and would later come to adapt their distinctive helmets and breastplates for their own Household Cavalry. There were originally 25 cuirassier regiments, reduced to 12 by Napoleon initially who later added three more. At the beginning of his rule, most of the cuirassier regiments were severely understrength, so Napoleon ordered the best men and horses to be allocated to the first 12 regiments, while the rest were reorganised into dragoons. Below is an abbreviated list of cuirassier regiments: * 1st–12th previously existed * 13th Cuirassiers formed on 24 December 1809 from the 1st and 2nd Provisional Heavy Cavalry Regiments * 14th Cuirassiers formed in September 1810 from the 2nd Dutch Cuirassiers

= Dragoons

= The medium-weight mainstays of the French cavalry, although considered heavy cavalry, were used for battle, skirmishing, and scouting. They were highly versatile being armed not only with distinctive straight swords, but also muskets with bayonets enabling them to fight as infantry as well as mounted, though fighting on foot had become increasingly uncommon for dragoons of all armies in the decades preceding Napoleon. The versatility of a dual-purpose soldier came at the cost of their horsemanship and swordsmanship often not being up to the same standards as those of other cavalry. Finding enough large horses proved a challenge. Some infantry officers were even required to give up their mounts for the dragoons, creating resentment towards them from this branch as well. There were 25, later 30, dragoon regiments. In 1815, only 15 could be raised and mounted in time for the Waterloo campaign. Below is an abbreviated list of dragoon regiments: * 1st–21st previously existed (as dragoon regiments) * 22nd Dragoons formed on 23 December 1802 from the 13th Cavalry Regiment * 23rd Dragoons formed on 23 December 1802 from the 14th Cavalry Regiment * 24th Dragoons formed on 23 December 1802 from the 15th Cavalry Regiment * 25th Dragoons formed on 23 December 1802 from the 16th Cavalry Regiment * 26th Dragoons formed on 23 December 1802 from the 17th Cavalry Regiment * 27th Dragoons formed on 23 December 1802 from the 18th Cavalry Regiment * 28th Dragoons formed on 23 December 1802 from the 7th Hussar Regiment * 29th Dragoons formed on 23 December 1802 from the 11th Hussar Regiment * 30th Dragoons formed on 23 December 1802 from the 12th Hussar Regiment

Light cavalry

= Hussars

= These fast, light cavalrymen were the eyes, ears, and egos of the Napoleonic armies. They regarded themselves as the best horsemen and swordsmen (''beau sabreurs'') in the entire ''Grande Armée''. This opinion was not entirely unjustified and their flamboyant uniforms reflected their panache. Tactically, they were used for

reconnaissance In military operations, military reconnaissance () or scouting is the exploration of an area by military forces to obtain information about enemy forces, the terrain, and civil activities in the area of operations. In military jargon, reconnai ...

, skirmishing, and screening for the army to keep their commanders informed of enemy movements while denying the enemy the same information and pursuing fleeing enemy troops. Armed only with curved sabres and pistols, they had reputations for reckless bravery to the point of being almost suicidal. It was said by their most famous commander General Antoine Lasalle that a hussar who lived to be 30 was truly an old guard and very fortunate. Lasalle was killed at the Battle of Wagram at age 34. There were 10 regiments in 1804, with an 11th added in 1810 and two more in 1813. Below is an abbreviated list of regiments (unless stated all formerly existed prior to 1803): * 1st–12th Hussar Regiments * 9th (second) Hussar Regiment formed on 10 January 1812 from the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th Squadrons of the 9th Hussars – redesignated as the 12th Hussars on 17 February 1813 * 13th Hussar Regiment formed on 1 January 1814 by redesignation of the Westphalian Hussar Regiment * 14th Hussar Regiment formed on 28 January 1814 from different detachments of hussars in the Army of Spain

= Horse Hunters

= These were light cavalry identical to hussars in arms and role. But, unlike the chasseurs of the Imperial Guard and their infantry counterparts, they were considered less prestigious or elite. Their uniforms were less colourful as well, consisting of infantry-style shakos (in contrast to the fur busby worn by some French hussars), green coats, green breeches, and short boots. They were, however, the most numerous of the light cavalry, with 31 regiments in 1811, six of which comprised Flemish, Swiss, Italians and Germans. These cavalry was composed of chasseurs but on the horse, they could load into melee or shoot as light infantry. Below is an abbreviated list of regiments (unless stated all formerly existed prior to 1803): * 1st–16th Horse Hunters all previously existed * 17th and 18th Horse Hunters disbanded in 1794, reformed in 1811 * 19th–26th Horse Hunters all previously existed * 27th Horse Hunters formed on 30 September 1806 by redesignation of the Prince of Aremberg's Belgian Light Cavalry * 28th Horse Hunters formed on 7 January 1808 by decree following the redesignation of the Tuscan Dragoon Regiment, following the French annexation of Tuscany * 29th Horse Hunters formed on 10 March 1808 by redesignation of the 3rd Provisional Chasseurs Regiment * 30th Horse Hunters formed in 1810 from the Hamburg Dragoons and the Horse Hunters of the Hanoverian Legion, on 18 June 1811 became the 9th Lancers Regiment * 31st Horse Hunters formed on 7 September 1811 from the 1st and 2nd Provisional Light Cavalry Regiments

= Lancers

= Some of the most feared cavalry in the ''Grande Armée'' were the Polish lancers of the

Vistula The Vistula (; ) is the longest river in Poland and the ninth-longest in Europe, at in length. Its drainage basin, extending into three other countries apart from Poland, covers , of which is in Poland. The Vistula rises at Barania Góra i ...

Uhlans. Nicknamed ''Hell's Picadors'' or ''Los Diablos Polacos'' (The Polish Devils) by the Spanish, these medium and light horse ('' Chevaux-Légers Lanciers'') cavalry had near equal speed to the hussars, shock power almost as great as the cuirassiers, and were nearly as versatile as the dragoons. They were armed with, as their name indicates, lances along with sabres and pistols. Initially, French ministers of war insisted on arming all lancers identically. Real battlefield experience, however, proved that the Polish way of arming only the first line with lances while the second rank carried carbines instead was much more practical and thus was adopted. Lancers were the best cavalry for charging against infantry squares, where their lances could outreach the infantry's bayonets, (as was the case with Colborne's British brigade at Albuera in 1811) and also in hunting down a routed enemy. Their ability to scour and finish off the wounded without ever stepping off their saddle created perfect scenes of horror for the enemy. They could be deadly against other types of cavalry as well, most famously demonstrated by the fate of Sir William Ponsonby and his Scots Greys at Waterloo. Excluding those of the Guard, there were 9 lancer regiments. Below is an abbreviated list of regiments (unless stated all were formed on 18 June 1811): * 1st–9th Light Lancer Regiments

Artillery

The emperor was a former

artillery Artillery consists of ranged weapons that launch Ammunition, munitions far beyond the range and power of infantry firearms. Early artillery development focused on the ability to breach defensive walls and fortifications during sieges, and l ...

officer, and reportedly said ''"God fights on the side with the best artillery."''Mas, M.A. M., p. 81. As such, French cannons were the backbone of the French Imperial Army, possessing the greatest firepower of the three arms and hence the ability to inflict the most casualties in the least amount of time. The French guns were often used in massed batteries (or ''grandes batteries'') to soften up enemy formations before being subjected to the closer attention of the infantry or cavalry. Superb gun-crew training allowed Napoleon to move the weapons at great speed to either bolster a weakening defensive position or else hammer a potential break in enemy lines. Besides superior training, Napoleon's artillery was also greatly aided by the numerous technical improvements to French cannons by General Jean Baptiste de Gribeauval which made them lighter, faster, and much easier to sight, as well as strengthened the carriages and introduced standard-sized calibres. In general, French guns were 4- pounders, 8-pounders, or 12-pounders and

howitzer The howitzer () is an artillery weapon that falls between a cannon (or field gun) and a mortar. It is capable of both low angle fire like a field gun and high angle fire like a mortar, given the distinction between low and high angle fire break ...

s with the lighter calibres being phased out and replaced by 6-pounders later in the Napoleonic Wars. French cannons had brass barrels and their carriages, wheels, and limbers were painted olive green. Superb organisation fully integrated the artillery into the infantry and cavalry units it supported, yet also allowed it to operate independently if the need arose. There were two basic types, ''Artillerie à pied'' (foot artillery) and ''Artillerie à cheval'' (horse artillery). * Artillery Support ** 6 x Artillery Miner Companies ** 15 x Artisan Worker CompaniesMcNab, p. 72.

Foot artillery

As the name indicates, these gunners marched alongside their guns, which were, of course, pulled by horses when limbered (undeployed). Hence, they travelled at the infantry's pace or slower. In 1805, there were eight, later ten, regiments of foot artillery in the ''Grande Armée'' plus two more in the Imperial Guard, but unlike cavalry and infantry regiments, these were administrative organisations. The main operational and tactical units were the batteries (or companies) of 120 men each, which were formed into brigades and assigned to the divisions and corps. * Divisional artillery: Every division had a brigade of three or four batteries of 8 guns (six cannons and two howitzers) each. * Corps artillery reserve: Each corps would also have its own artillery reserve, of one of more brigades, armed mostly with the larger, heavier calibre pieces. Battery personnel included not only gun crews, NCOs, and officers, but drummers, trumpeters, metal workers, woodworkers, ouvriers, fouriers, and artificers. They would be responsible for fashioning spare parts, maintaining and repairing the guns, carriages, caissons and wagons, as well as tending the horses and storing munitions. Below is an abbreviated list of regiments (again, there were really only administrative units): * 1st–8th Foot Artillery Regiments (all formerly existed prior to 1803) * 9th Foot Artillery Regiment raised in 1810 from the Dutch Foot Artillery, disbanded on 12 May 1814

Horse artillery

The cavalry were supported by the fast-moving, fast-firing light guns of the horse artillery. This arm was a hybrid of cavalry and artillery with their crews riding either on the horses or on the carriages into battle. Because they operated much closer to the front lines, the officers and crews were better armed and trained for close-quarters combat, mounted or dismounted much as were the dragoons. Once in position, they were trained to quickly dismount, unlimber (deploy), and sight their guns, then fire rapid barrages at the enemy. They could then quickly limber (undeploy) the guns, remount, and move on to a new position. To accomplish this, they had to be the best trained and most elite of all artillerymen. The horse batteries of the Imperial Guard could go from riding at full gallop to firing their first shot in just under a minute. After witnessing such a performance, an astounded Duke of Wellington remarked, ''"They move their cannon as if it were a pistol!"'' There were 6 administrative regiments of horse artillery plus one in the Guard. In addition to the batteries assigned to the cavalry units, Napoleon would also assign at least one battery to each infantry corps or, if available, to each division. Their abilities came at a price, however, as horse batteries were very expensive to raise and maintain. Consequently, they were far fewer in number than their foot counterparts, typically constituting only one-fifth of the artillery's strength. It was a boastful joke among their ranks that the emperor knew every horse gunner by name. Besides better training, horses, weapons, and equipment, they used far more ammunition. Horse batteries were given twice the ammo ration of the foot, three times that of the Guard. Below is an abbreviated list of regiments (again, there were really only administrative units): * 1st–6th Horse Artillery Regiments (all formerly existed prior to 1803) * 7th Horse Artillery Regiment disbanded on 31 December 1801, re-raised with two companies from the Dutch Horse Artillery on 18 August 1810, incorporated into the 1st and 4th Horse Artillery Regiments in February 1811

Logistics

Of all the types of ammunition used in the Napoleonic Wars, the cast iron, spherical,

round shot A round shot (also called solid shot or simply ball) is a solid spherical projectile without explosive charge, launched from a gun. Its diameter is slightly less than the bore of the barrel from which it is shot. A round shot fired from a lar ...

was the staple of the gunner. Even at long range when the shot was travelling relatively slowly it could be deadly, though it might appear to be bouncing or rolling along the ground relatively gently. At short range, carnage could result.McNab, p. 145. In the French Imperial Army, the ammunition columns were grouped into Equipment Trains or ''Train des Équipages.'' In 1809, there were more than 11 battalions, with a 12th forming in Commercy, including two reserve battalions being formed in

Spain Spain, or the Kingdom of Spain, is a country in Southern Europe, Southern and Western Europe with territories in North Africa. Featuring the Punta de Tarifa, southernmost point of continental Europe, it is the largest country in Southern Eur ...

. Each battalion was composed of 6 companies, of which each was commanded by a captain and oversaw some 44 other ranks. A battalion headquarters comprised 4 x officers (a captain in command), 5 x NCOs, and 5 x craftsmen. Each company numbered 1 x officer (sous-lieutenant), 7 x NCOs, 4 x craftsmen, 80 x drivers, 36 x vehicles, and 161 x horses.Haythornwaite, p. 16 Below is a list of the equipment train battalions: * Before 1812 ** 1st–13th Equipment Train (existed by 1810) ** 14th–22nd Equipment Train (raised in 1812) *** 18th Ambulance Train (consisted of medical vehicles) * After 1812 ** 1st–9th Equipment Train ** 10th–12th Equipment Train raised shortly after ** 1st & 2nd Provisional Equipment Trains in Spain ** Light Mule Equipment Train formed in Spain with pack mules

Artillery train

The Artillery Train ''(Train d'Artillerie)'', was established by Napoleon in January 1800. Its function was to provide the teamsters and drivers who handled the horses that hauled the artillery's vehicles. Prior to this, the French, like all other period armies, had employed contracted, civilian teamsters who would sometimes abandon the guns under fire, rendering them immobile, rather than risk their lives or their valuable teams of horses.Elting, John R.:"Swords Around A Throne", pp. 254–255, Da Capo Press, 1997 Its personnel, unlike their civilian predecessors, were armed, trained, and uniformed as soldiers. Apart from making them look better on parade, this made them subject to military discipline and capable of fighting back if attacked. The drivers were armed with a carbine, a short sword of the same type used by the infantry, and a pistol. They needed little encouragement to use these weapons, earning surly reputations for gambling, brawling, and various forms of mischief. Their uniforms and coats of grey helped enhance their tough appearance. But their combativeness could prove useful as they often found themselves attacked by Cossacks and Spanish and Tyrolian guerillas. Each ''train d'artillerie'' battalion was originally composed of 5 companies. The first company was considered elite and assigned to a horse artillery battery; the three "centre" companies were assigned to the foot artillery batteries and "parks" (spare caissons, field forges, supply wagons, etc.); and one became a depot company for training recruits and remounts. Following the campaigns of 1800, the train was re-organised into eight battalions of six companies each. As Napoleon enlarged his artillery, additional battalions were created, rising to a total of fourteen in 1810. In 1809, 1812, and 1813 the first thirteen battalions were "doubled" to create 13 additional battalions. These 'double battalions' added the suffix bis''' after their title, for instance, the doubled 1st became the 1st ''bis''.Haythornthwaite, pp. 12–14 Additionally, after 1809 some battalions raised extra companies to handle the regimental guns attached to the infantry. Following the Restoration, the train was reduced to just four squadrons of 15 x officers and 271 x men, raised to 8 x squadrons in 1815 during the Hundred Days. The Imperial Guard had its own train, which expanded as ''La Gardes artillery park was increased, albeit organised as regiments rather than battalions. At their zenith, in 1813–14, the Old Guard artillery was supported by a 12-company regiment while the Young Guard had a 16-company regiment, one for each of their component artillery batteries. Below is a list of the artillery train battalions: * 1st–10th Artillery Train Battalions, existed prior to and in 1805 * 9th and 10th Artillery Train Battalions were disbanded by 1808, later reformed by 1809 * 11th Artillery Train Battalion formed by 1805 * 12th Artillery Train Battalion formed by 1808 * 13th Artillery Train Battalion formed in 1808 *14th Artillery Train Battalion formed in 1814 *1st ''bis''–13th ''bis'' formed in 1813 * Light Mule Train Battalion formed by 1809

Support services

Engineers

While the glory of battle went to the cavalry, infantry, and artillery, the army also included military engineers of various types. The bridge builders of the ''Grande Armée'', the ''pontonniers'', were an indispensable part of Napoleon's military machine. Their main contribution was helping the emperor to get his forces across water obstacles by erecting

pontoon bridge A pontoon bridge (or ponton bridge), also known as a floating bridge, is a bridge that uses float (nautical), floats or shallow-draft (hull), draft boats to support a continuous deck for pedestrian and vehicle travel. The buoyancy of the support ...

s. The skills of his pontonniers allowed Napoleon to outflank enemy positions by crossing rivers where the enemy least expected and, in the case of the great retreat from Moscow, saved the army from complete annihilation at the Berezina River. They may not have had the glory, but Napoleon clearly valued his ''pontonniers'' and had 14 companies commissioned into his armies, under the command of the brilliant engineer, General Jean Baptiste Eblé. His training, along with their specialized tools and equipment, enabled them to quickly build the various parts of the bridges, which could then be rapidly assembled and reused later. All the needed materials, tools, and parts were carried on their wagon trains. If they did not have a part or item, it could be quickly made using the mobile wagon-mounted forges of the ''pontonniers''. A single company of ''pontonniers'' could construct a bridge of up to 80 pontoons (a span of some 120 to 150 metres long) in just under seven hours, an impressive feat even by today's standards. In addition to the ''pontonniers'', there were companies of

sapper A sapper, also called a combat engineer, is a combatant or soldier who performs a variety of military engineering duties, such as breaching fortifications, demolitions, bridge-building, laying or clearing minefields, preparing field defenses ...

s, to deal with enemy fortifications. They were used far less often in their intended role than the ''pontonniers''. However, since the emperor had learned in his early campaigns (such as the Siege of Acre) that it was better to bypass and isolate fixed fortifications, if possible, than to directly assault them, the sapper companies were usually put to other tasks. The different types of engineer companies were formed into battalions and regiments called ''Génie'', which was originally a

slang A slang is a vocabulary (words, phrases, and linguistic usages) of an informal register, common in everyday conversation but avoided in formal writing and speech. It also often refers to the language exclusively used by the members of pa ...

term for engineer. This name, which is still used today, was both a play on the word (''jeu de mot'') and a reference to their seemingly magical abilities to grant wishes and make things appear much like the mythical

Genie GEnie (General Electric Network for Information Exchange) was an online service provider, online service created by a General Electric business, GEIS (now GXS Inc., GXS), that ran from 1985 through the end of 1999. In 1994, GEnie claimed around ...

. Under the Empire there were a number of notable changes in the engineer establishment. The six companies of miners were first reduced to five, then increased to nine, and in 1808 a 10th Company was formed and the whole corps divided into two battalions with each comprising file companies. The sapper battalions were increased in number once more until eventually there were eight (five French, one Dutch, one Italian, and one Spanish). But the losses in the Invasion of Russia led to the number being reduced to five battalions. An Imperial innovation was an engineer train battalion, which was badly needed, and in 1806 each sapper battalion was director to hold a park of tools. A number of pioneer companies were formed to provide unskilled labour for engineer work. Sometime by the time of 1815, the battalions were grouped so that were at least three Engineer Regiments ''(Régiments du Génie)'' with at least two battalions each. Battalions of sappers and miners constituted ‘magazines’ of men from which armies and corps drew companies, and sometimes only detachments, according to their needs. Engineers took a major part in sieges, they were responsible for road works in the field, they advised the infantry in the construction of field fortifications, they laid out the works for protecting gun emplacements, and they were entirely responsible for the fortification of fixed defences. Below is a list of battalions within the engineer corps: * Engineering Troops ** 1st–5th Engineer Battalions were French and all formed by 1810 ** 6th Engineer Battalion formed in 1810 comprising Dutch engineers, disbanded following the Invasion of Russia ** 7th Engineer Battalion formed in 1810/11/12 comprising Italian engineers, disbanded following the Invasion of Russia ** 8th Engineer Battalion formed in 1811/12 comprising Spanish engineers, disbanded following the Invasion of Russia ** 1st Engineer Regiment ** 2nd Engineer Regiment ** 3rd Engineer Regiment * Bridging Troops ** 1st Bridging Battalion ** 2nd Bridging Battalion *** 11th Company (formed following the annexation of the Kingdom of Holland and subsequent absorption of the Dutch Engineers) ** 3rd Bridging Battalion formed on 18 April 1813 ** Sailors and Workers Battalion formed on 13 December 1813 * MinersRogers, p. 148. ** 1st–5th Miner Companies existed prior to 1805 ** 6th–9th Miner Companies formed in 1805 ** 10th–12th Miner Companies formed later * Engineering Support ** Engineering Train Battalion ** Pioneers *** 1st–38th Pioneer Battalions – all formed from Spanish, Portuguese, and Austrian Prisoners of War **** 15 x for Fortresses, Castles, and other Fortifications **** 15 x for Repairing and Building Roads **** 8 x for Seaport and Off-shore services *** Black Pioneer Battalion Pionniers Noires. – transferred to the Neapolitan Army in 1806 ***White Pioneer Battalion – (formed in February 1806 from Austrian prisoners in five companies, later 8 by 1811) ***Spanish Pioneers – formed in March 1812 of four companies totalling 200 ***Spanish Pioneer Corps – formed in November 1813 from members of foreign corps in French service

Medical Service

The most significant innovation was the establishment of a system of ''ambulances volantes'' (flying ambulances) in the closing years of the 18th century by Dominique Jean Larrey (who would later become Surgeon-General of the Imperial Guard). His inspiration was the use of fast horse artillery, or "flying artillery", which could manoeuver rapidly around the battlefield to provide urgent artillery support, or to escape an advancing enemy. The flying ambulance was designed to follow the advance guard and provide initial dressing of wounds (often under fire), while rapidly transporting the critically injured away from the battlefield. The personnel for a given ambulance team included a doctor, quartermaster, non-commissioned officer, a drummer boy (who carried the bandages), and 24 infantrymen as stretcher-bearers.

Communications

Most dispatches were conveyed as they had been for centuries, via messengers on horseback. Hussars, due to their bravery and riding skills, were often favoured for this task. Shorter-range tactical signals could be sent visually by flags or audibly by drums, bugles, trumpets, and other musical instruments. Thus, standard bearers and musicians, in addition to their symbolic, ceremonial, and morale functions, also played important communication roles.

= Gendarmerie

= Under Napoléon, the numbers and responsibilities of the gendarmerie—renamed ''gendarmerie impériale''—were expanded significantly. In contrast to the mounted ''

Maréchaussée The were corps of soldiers in the armies of France initially put in charge of military policing and justice during the Middle Ages, and later extended to civilian responsibilities. They gradually coalesced into a police force with jurisdictio ...

'', the gendarmerie were both horse and foot personnel; in 1800, these numbered approximately 10,500 of the former and 4,500 of the latter, respectively. In 1804 the first Inspector General of Gendarmerie was appointed and a general staff was established based out of the ''Rue du Faubourg-Saint-Honoré'' in Paris. Subsequently, special gendarmerie units were created within the Imperial Guard for combat duties in French-occupied Spain.

Reserve Army

Napoleon utilised the National Guard ''(Garde Nationale)'' on many instances, but was very reluctant to use them in the field, and instead kept them within the borders of France. During this period, the Reserves and National Guard were grouped into what became known as the 'Reserve Army', ''Armée de Reserve''. This 'Army' was not a field army, but only an administrative group which oversaw all reserves throughout Metropolitan France.

Reserve

Most of the troops within the Reserve were retired troops or those who, for many reasons, wouldn't be able to deploy with the field armies. The Reserve was organised into two 'groups', the Legions which were regional forces composed solely of infantry, and the provisional regiments which were those of any other type. Below is a list of the units as they appeared by type: Cavalry The provisional cavalry regiments were formed in 1809, and consisted of the following: * 3 x Heavy Cavalry Regiments * 6 x Dragoon Regiments, increased to 10 in 1810 * 5 x Hussar Regiments * 4 x Mounted ''Chasseur'' Regiments These regiments however only lasted for a short time and were either absorbed into other regiments, or formed as new regiments. Infantry In 1803, four 'volunteer legions' were created of volunteers under the age of 40, with each legion comprising an artillery company. In 1807, the new 'Departmental Legions' were formed by decree on 20 March 1807 for the defence of the borders, and based in the following towns:

Lille Lille (, ; ; ; ; ) is a city in the northern part of France, within French Flanders. Positioned along the Deûle river, near France's border with Belgium, it is the capital of the Hauts-de-France Regions of France, region, the Prefectures in F ...

Metz Metz ( , , , then ) is a city in northeast France located at the confluence of the Moselle (river), Moselle and the Seille (Moselle), Seille rivers. Metz is the Prefectures in France, prefecture of the Moselle (department), Moselle Departments ...

Rennes Rennes (; ; Gallo language, Gallo: ''Resnn''; ) is a city in the east of Brittany in Northwestern France at the confluence of the rivers Ille and Vilaine. Rennes is the prefecture of the Brittany (administrative region), Brittany Regions of F ...

Versailles The Palace of Versailles ( ; ) is a former royal residence commissioned by King Louis XIV located in Versailles, Yvelines, Versailles, about west of Paris, in the Yvelines, Yvelines Department of Île-de-France, Île-de-France region in Franc ...

, and

Grenoble Grenoble ( ; ; or ; or ) is the Prefectures in France, prefecture and List of communes in France with over 20,000 inhabitants, largest city of the Isère Departments of France, department in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes Regions of France, region ...

. Later that year, contrary to their initial purpose, the legions were sent into Spain becoming the 'Provisional Battalions'. The majority of these legions were destroyed at the Battle of Bailén, with small cadres of the first three battalions reformed on 1 January 1809, later becoming the 121st and 122nd Line Infantry Regiments. In 1809 and 1810, 30 demi-brigades were formed as provisional regiments, and were organised as follows: * 8 x 'active' demi-brigades of the Army of Germany * 22 x 'reserve' demi-brigades of the Army of Spain A number of reserve legions ''(Légions de Reserve)'' were formed following these reorganisations: * 1st Legion of the Reserve * 2nd Legion of the Reserve * 3rd Legion of the Reserve * 4th Legion of the Reserve * 5th Legion of the Reserve During the Hundred Days, several auxiliary and regional units were formed, including the ''Chasseurs de La Vendée''. Along with the artillery, companies of veterans ''(Compagnies des Vétérans)'' were formed, with at least 16 of these being formed during this period comprising around 3 x Officers and 84 x Other ranks. In addition, veteran fusilier companies ''(Compagnies des Fusiliers Vétérans)'' were formed, with at least 4 of the type being formed in the Jura region.

National Guard

Garde nationale strassbg1815-Lancer Off Tirailleur

Throughout the Revolutionary Wars and early years of the consulate, the National Guard proved to be very good regional military police, and were able to be mobilised quickly in the event of invasion. Napoleon, therefore, saw the need in providing a constantly available force of National Guardsmen when needed. By the time of the

War of the Fourth Coalition The War of the Fourth Coalition () was a war spanning 1806–1807 that saw a multinational coalition fight against Napoleon's First French Empire, French Empire, subsequently being defeated. The main coalition partners were Kingdom of Prussia, ...

and subsequent invasion of Prussia, Napoléon ordered the mobilisation of 3,000 grenadiers and chasseurs of the national guard of

Bordeaux Bordeaux ( ; ; Gascon language, Gascon ; ) is a city on the river Garonne in the Gironde Departments of France, department, southwestern France. A port city, it is the capital of the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region, as well as the Prefectures in F ...

to reinforce the coastal defences. Though the expected invasion never came, this small mobilisation proved the National Guard were ready, willing, and able to quickly provide defence where needed. A decree of 12 November 1806 ordered all Frenchmen aged 20 to 60 would be required to perform National Guard service. Under this decree, companies of Grenadiers and Chasseurs could, if possible, be called upon to perform domestic service in towns of more than 5,000 inhabitants alongside the ''

Gendarmerie A gendarmerie () is a paramilitary or military force with law enforcement duties among the civilian population. The term ''gendarme'' () is derived from the medieval French expression ', which translates to " men-at-arms" (). In France and so ...

'', or mobilise for military service. Following the failed

Walcheren Campaign The Walcheren Campaign () was an unsuccessful United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, British expedition to the Kingdom of Holland in 1809 intended to open another front in the Austrian Empire's struggle with First French Empire, France ...

, Napoleon's commitment to the National Guard was expanded, and by the end of the year released all regulars into the field while leaving border protection duties and coastal defences solely to the National Guard. On 14 March 1812, a decree called for the recruitment of 88 cohorts (battalion strength), recruited by their respective departments in proportion to the population. These new cohorts were charged specifically with strengthening the coastal troops and border surveillance corps. These cohorts each had an artillery company attached. Under the 1813 reorganisations, the cohorts were absorbed by the regular army into 22 new line infantry regiments. The 88 companies of artillery were incorporated into the regular artillery at this same time as well. When the Invasion of France began in 1813, a decree was signed to call for 101,640 more men to be raised from the National Guard for the protection of the country. Two divisions were present at the Battle of Fère-Champenoise and at the Battle of Paris. Most regional national guards consisted of a cavalry unit (usually light cavalry (''Chasseurs à Cheval'')), 1 or 2 line infantry battalions, and sometimes a regional artillery/coastal artillery company. The National Guard of Paris for example had 12 Legions (companies), and comprised infantry and ''Tirailleurs''. During the Hundred Days, a company of artillery part of the National Guard formed part of the Belfort garrison. During the Hundred Days, new National Guard divisions were formed with many being integral parts of the Corps of Observations. At the Battle of Vélizy and Battle of Rocquencourt, National Guardsmen were able to hold up a large Prussian column advancing in the East of France. In retaliation, the Prussians burned the town of Vélizy. During the Hundred Days, the National Guard divisions were spread as follows: * 1st and 2nd National Guard Divisions in the

Vendée Vendée () is a department in the Pays de la Loire region in Western France, on the Atlantic coast. In 2019, it had a population of 685,442.Corps of Observation of the Vendée * 3rd and 4th National Guard Divisions in the Jura region near the border of

Switzerland Switzerland, officially the Swiss Confederation, is a landlocked country located in west-central Europe. It is bordered by Italy to the south, France to the west, Germany to the north, and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east. Switzerland ...

part of the Corps of Observation of the Jura * 5th, 6th, 7th, and 8th National Guard Divisions part of the Corps of Observation of the Alps

Coastal Artillery

Napoleon had inherited 100 x companies of coastal artillery ''(Cononniers Gardes du Côtes)'' who manned shore defences, totalling 10,000 men. However, after Napoleon's 1803-1805 reforms, the artillery was completely reorganised into 100 x mobile companies under artillery command and 28 x static companies of National Guard, each company with a nominal establishment of 121 (actual strength varied). By 1812, some 144 x companies existed, but all were disbanded in May 1814 following the restoration. The coastal artillery's uniform was a black bicorne with a green pompom, a light blue coat with blue cuffs, white turnbacks, sea green collar, lapels, cuff flaps, waistcoat, and breeches, red epaulettes, and yellow buttons. They used infantry equipment, the cartridge box bore a brass badge of an anchor superimposed on a crossed cannon barrel and musket, and the sword knot was red. After the shako was adopted in 1806, it was black with brass chinscales latterly with a red tufted pompom, and a plate bearing crossed cannon, anchor and branches of oak and laurel. From 1812 the plate was like that of the foot artillery please crossed cannons and an anchor.

Garrison Artillery

The 28 x companies of garrison artillery ''(Canonniers Sédentaires)'', raised to 30 x companies by 1812 wore foot artillery uniforms, with a shako plat without a number. Most distinguished was the Garrison Artillery of Lille, a unit formed in 1483, which merged with the National Guard in 1791, and performed with distinction in the Siege of Lille. Their shake plates bore their title. An illustration of a musician of 1815 shows an ordinary uniform but pointed scarlet cuffs, gold trefoil epaulettes, and a cylindrical shako bearing a large brass plate of a trophy of arms atop an 1812-patter shield bearing a grenade over a crossed cannons, with a plume of red over white and blue, over a blue ball. The garrison artillery were not exclusively garrison troops, for example, the Lille Corps (formed into a battalion of two companies in 1803) served in the

, where they lost 3 x officers and 24 x other ranks.

Veteran Artillery

In April 1792, the previous Invalid Companies were replaced by the Veteran Companies, of which 12 x were artillery, raising to 13 x companies of 52 x men in September 1799. In May 1805, the artillery was enlarged to 25 x companies of 100 men each, 19 x companies in 1812, and reduced back to 10 x companies in May 1814. The uniform was that of the foot artillery.

Organisation

Corps of Observation

A Corps of Observation () was a field formation commanded by a senior officer, with the rank of Brigade General, Divisional General, or at largest a Marshal of France. These formations were separate and independent units which didn't report to an overall army. These corps were designed to advance, to occupy, and hold strategic barrages blocking probable enemy lines of approach. * Corps of Observation of the Adige * Corps of Observation of

Bavaria Bavaria, officially the Free State of Bavaria, is a States of Germany, state in the southeast of Germany. With an area of , it is the list of German states by area, largest German state by land area, comprising approximately 1/5 of the total l ...

* Corps of Observation of

Bayonne Bayonne () is a city in southwestern France near the France–Spain border, Spanish border. It is a communes of France, commune and one of two subprefectures in France, subprefectures in the Pyrénées-Atlantiques departments of France, departm ...

* Corps of Observation of the Elbe * Corps of Observation of the Escaut * Corps of Observation of the Gironde * Corps of Observation of

Holland Holland is a geographical regionG. Geerts & H. Heestermans, 1981, ''Groot Woordenboek der Nederlandse Taal. Deel I'', Van Dale Lexicografie, Utrecht, p 1105 and former provinces of the Netherlands, province on the western coast of the Netherland ...

* Corps of Observation of

Italy Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a country in Southern Europe, Southern and Western Europe, Western Europe. It consists of Italian Peninsula, a peninsula that extends into the Mediterranean Sea, with the Alps on its northern land b ...

* Corps of Observation of Mayence * Corps of Observation of

Minden Minden () is a middle-sized town in the very north-east of North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany, the largest town in population between Bielefeld and Hanover. It is the capital of the district () of Minden-Lübbecke, situated in the cultural region ...

* Reserve Corps of Observation of the ''Midi'' * Corps of Observation of the

Pyrenees The Pyrenees are a mountain range straddling the border of France and Spain. They extend nearly from their union with the Cantabrian Mountains to Cap de Creus on the Mediterranean coast, reaching a maximum elevation of at the peak of Aneto. ...

* Corps of Observation of

* Hundred Days (specific) ** Corps of Observation of the Vendée — later expanded to the Army of the West ** Corps of Observation of the Rhine – later expanded into the Army of the Rhine ** Corps of Observation of the Jura ** Corps of Observation of the Alps – later expanded into the Army of the Alpes ** Corps of Observation of the Var ** Corps of Observation of the Eastern Pyrenees ** Corps of Observation of the Western Pyrenees

Military Districts

Military Divisions (really districts) were originally formed following the

Seven Years' War The Seven Years' War, 1756 to 1763, was a Great Power conflict fought primarily in Europe, with significant subsidiary campaigns in North America and South Asia. The protagonists were Kingdom of Great Britain, Great Britain and Kingdom of Prus ...

to oversee the recruitment of the province, control the regional militia and later militia grenadiers, and local garrisons. In 1812 they were reorganised and expanded into the following districts along with their departments and HQ location: * 1st Military Division, in

(encompassing

Seine The Seine ( , ) is a river in northern France. Its drainage basin is in the Paris Basin (a geological relative lowland) covering most of northern France. It rises at Source-Seine, northwest of Dijon in northeastern France in the Langres plat ...

Aisne Aisne ( , ; ; ) is a French departments of France, department in the Hauts-de-France region of northern France. It is named after the river Aisne (river), Aisne. In 2020, it had a population of 529,374. Geography The department borders No ...

Eure-et-Loir Eure-et-Loir (, locally: ) is a French department, named after the Eure and Loir rivers. It is located in the region of Centre-Val de Loire. In 2019, Eure-et-Loir had a population of 431,575.Oise Oise ( ; ; ) is a department in the north of France. It is named after the river Oise. Inhabitants of the department are called ''Oisiens'' () or ''Isariens'', after the Latin name for the river, Isara. It had a population of 829,419 in 2019.< ...

Seine-et-Marne Seine-et-Marne () is a department in the Île-de-France region in Northern France. Named after the rivers Seine and Marne, it is the region's largest department with an area of 5,915 square kilometres (2,284 square miles); it roughly covers its ...

, and Seine-et-Oise) * 2nd Military Division, in Charleville-Mézières (encompassing Ardennes,

Meuse The Meuse or Maas is a major European river, rising in France and flowing through Belgium and the Netherlands before draining into the North Sea from the Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta. It has a total length of . History From 1301, the upper ...

, and Marne) * 3rd Military Division, in

( Forêts and

Moselle The Moselle ( , ; ; ) is a river that rises in the Vosges mountains and flows through north-eastern France and Luxembourg to western Germany. It is a bank (geography), left bank tributary of the Rhine, which it joins at Koblenz. A sm ...

) * 4th Military Division, in Nancy (

Meurthe-et-Moselle Meurthe-et-Moselle () is a '' département'' in the Grand Est region of France, named after the rivers Meurthe and Moselle. Its prefecture and largest city is Nancy and it borders the departments of Meuse to the west, Vosges to the south, ...

and Vosges) * 5th Military Division, in

Strasbourg Strasbourg ( , ; ; ) is the Prefectures in France, prefecture and largest city of the Grand Est Regions of France, region of Geography of France, eastern France, in the historic region of Alsace. It is the prefecture of the Bas-Rhin Departmen ...

(

Bas-Rhin Bas-Rhin () is a department in Alsace which is a part of the Grand Est region of France. The name means 'Lower Rhine', referring to its lower altitude among the two French Rhine departments: it is downstream of the Haut-Rhin (Upper Rhine) de ...

and

Haut-Rhin Haut-Rhin (); Alsatian: ''Owerelsàss'' or '; , . is a department in the Grand Est region, France, bordering both Germany and Switzerland. It is named after the river Rhine; its name means Upper Rhine. Haut-Rhin is the smaller and less pop ...

) * 6th Military Division, in

Besançon Besançon (, ; , ; archaic ; ) is the capital of the Departments of France, department of Doubs in the region of Bourgogne-Franche-Comté. The city is located in Eastern France, close to the Jura Mountains and the border with Switzerland. Capi ...

( Ain,

Doubs Doubs (, ; ; ) is a department in the Bourgogne-Franche-Comté region in Eastern France. Named after the river Doubs, it had a population of 543,974 in 2019.Jura, and Haute-Saône) * 7th Military Division, in

(

Isère Isère ( , ; ; , ) is a landlocked Departments of France, department in the southeastern French Regions of France, region of Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes. Named after the river Isère (river), Isère, it had a population of 1,271,166 in 2019.

Hautes-Alpes Hautes-Alpes (; ; ) is a Departments of France, department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur Regions of France, region of Southeastern France. It is located in the heart of the French Alps, after which it is named. Hautes-Alpes had a population ...

Drôme Drôme (; Occitan: ''Droma''; Arpitan: ''Drôma'') is the southernmost department in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region of Southeastern France. Named after the river Drôme, it had a population of 516,762 as of 2019.

, Léman, and

Mont-Blanc Mont Blanc (, ) is a mountain in the Alps, rising above sea level, located right at the France-Italy border, Franco-Italian border. It is the highest mountain in Europe outside the Caucasus Mountains, the List of European ultra-prominent peaks ...

) * 8th Military Division, in

Marseille Marseille (; ; see #Name, below) is a city in southern France, the Prefectures in France, prefecture of the Departments of France, department of Bouches-du-Rhône and of the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur Regions of France, region. Situated in the ...

( Bouches-du-Rhône, Basses Alpes,

Alpes-Maritimes Alpes-Maritimes (; ; ; ) is a Departments of France, department of France located in the country's southeast corner, on the France–Italy border, Italian border and Mediterranean Sea, Mediterranean coast. Part of the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'A ...

Vaucluse Vaucluse (; or ) is a department in the southeastern French region of Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur. It had a population of 561,469 as of 2019.

, and Var) * 9th Military Division, in

Montpellier Montpellier (; ) is a city in southern France near the Mediterranean Sea. One of the largest urban centres in the region of Occitania (administrative region), Occitania, Montpellier is the prefecture of the Departments of France, department of ...

(

Hérault Hérault (; , ) is a departments of France, department of the Regions of France, region of Occitania (administrative region), Occitania, Southern France. Named after the Hérault (river), Hérault River, its Prefectures in France, prefecture is M ...

Aveyron Aveyron (; ) is a Departments of France, department in the Regions of France, region of Occitania (administrative region), Occitania, Southern France. It was named after the river Aveyron (river), Aveyron. Its inhabitants are known as ''Aveyro ...

Ardèche Ardèche (; , ; ) is a Departments of France, department in Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes, Southeastern France. It is named after the river Ardèche (river), Ardèche and had a population of 328,278 as of 2019.Lozère Lozère (; ) is a landlocked Departments of France, department in the Regions of France, region of Occitania (administrative region), Occitanie in Southern France, located near the Massif Central, bounded to the northeast by Haute-Loire, to the ...

Gard Gard () is a department in Southern France, located in the region of Occitanie. It had a population of 748,437 as of 2019;Tarn) * 10th Military Division, in

Toulouse Toulouse (, ; ; ) is a city in southern France, the Prefectures in France, prefecture of the Haute-Garonne department and of the Occitania (administrative region), Occitania region. The city is on the banks of the Garonne, River Garonne, from ...

(

Haute-Garonne Haute-Garonne (; , ; ''Upper Garonne'') is a department in the southwestern French region of Occitanie. Named after the river Garonne, which flows through the department. Its prefecture and main city is Toulouse, the country's fourth-largest. ...

, Ariège,

Hautes-Pyrénées Hautes-Pyrénées (; Gascon/ Occitan: ''Nauts Pirenèus / Hauts Pirenèus'' awts piɾeˈnɛʊs ; alts piɾiˈneʊs ) is a department in the region of Occitania, southwestern France. The department is bordered by Pyrénées-Atlantiques to t ...

Gers Gers (; or , ) is a departments of France, department in the regions of France, region of Occitania (administrative region), Occitania, Southwestern France. Gers is bordered by the departments of Hautes-Pyrénées and Pyrénées-Atlantiques to ...

Tarn-et-Garonne Tarn-et-Garonne (; ) is a Departments of France, department in the Occitania (administrative region), Occitania Regions of France, region in Southern France. It is traversed by the rivers Tarn (river), Tarn and Garonne, from which it takes its n ...

Aude Aude ( ; ) is a Departments of France, department in Southern France, located in the Occitania (administrative region), Occitanie Regions of France, region and named after the river Aude (river), Aude. The departmental council also calls it " ...

, and

Pyrénées-Orientales Pyrénées-Orientales (; ; ; ), also known as Northern Catalonia, is a departments of France, department of the Regions of France, region of Occitania (administrative region), Occitania, Southern France, adjacent to the northern Spain, Spanish ...

) * 11th Military Division, in

(

Gironde Gironde ( , US usually , ; , ) is the largest department in the southwestern French region of Nouvelle-Aquitaine. Named after the Gironde estuary, a major waterway, its prefecture is Bordeaux. In 2019, it had a population of 1,623,749.

, Landes, and Basses Pyrenees) * 12th Military Division, in

La Rochelle La Rochelle (, , ; Poitevin-Saintongeais: ''La Rochéle'') is a city on the west coast of France and a seaport on the Bay of Biscay, a part of the Atlantic Ocean. It is the capital of the Charente-Maritime Departments of France, department. Wi ...

( Charente-Inferieure,

Vendée Vendée () is a department in the Pays de la Loire region in Western France, on the Atlantic coast. In 2019, it had a population of 685,442.Loire Inferieure,

Deux-Sèvres Deux-Sèvres (, Poitevin-Saintongese: ''Deùs Saevres'') is a French department. ''Deux-Sèvres'' literally means "two Sèvres": the Sèvre Nantaise and the Sèvre Niortaise are two rivers which have their sources in the department. It had a ...

, and Vienne) * 13th Military Division, in Brest (

Finistère Finistère (, ; ) is a Departments of France, department of France in the extreme west of Brittany. Its prefecture is Quimper and its largest city is Brest, France, Brest. In 2019, it had a population of 915,090.Cotes-du-Nord,

Ille-et-Vilaine Ille-et-Vilaine (; Gallo language, Gallo: ''Ill-e-Vilaenn'', ) is a departments of France, department of France, located in the regions of France, region of Brittany (administrative region), Brittany in the northwest of the country. It is named a ...

, and

Morbihan The Morbihan ( , ; ) is a departments of France, department in the administrative region of Brittany (administrative region), Brittany, situated in the northwest of France. It is named after the Gulf of Morbihan, Morbihan (''small sea'' in Breton ...

) * 14th Military Division, in

Caen Caen (; ; ) is a Communes of France, commune inland from the northwestern coast of France. It is the Prefectures in France, prefecture of the Departments of France, department of Calvados (department), Calvados. The city proper has 105,512 inha ...

( Calvados,

Manche Manche (, ; Norman language, Norman: ) is a coastal Departments of France, French ''département'' in Normandy (administrative region), Normandy on the English Channel, which is known as , literally "the sleeve", in French. Manche is bordered by ...

, and

Orne Orne (; or ) is a département in the northwest of France, named after the river Orne. It had a population of 279,942 in 2019.Rouen Rouen (, ; or ) is a city on the River Seine, in northwestern France. It is in the prefecture of Regions of France, region of Normandy (administrative region), Normandy and the Departments of France, department of Seine-Maritime. Formerly one ...

( Seine Inferieure,

Eure Eure ( ; ; or ) is a department in the administrative region of Normandy, northwestern France, named after the river Eure. Its prefecture is Évreux. In 2021, Eure had a population of 598,934.Somme) * 16th Military Division, in

( Nord, Lys, and

Pas-de-Calais The Pas-de-Calais (, ' strait of Calais'; ; ) is a department in northern France named after the French designation of the Strait of Dover, which it borders. It has the most communes of all the departments of France, with 890, and is the ...

) * 17th Military Division, in

Amsterdam Amsterdam ( , ; ; ) is the capital of the Netherlands, capital and Municipalities of the Netherlands, largest city of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It has a population of 933,680 in June 2024 within the city proper, 1,457,018 in the City Re ...

( Zuyderzée, Bouches-de-la-Meuse, and Yssel-Supérieur) * 18th Military Division, in

Dijon Dijon (, ; ; in Burgundian language (Oïl), Burgundian: ''Digion'') is a city in and the Prefectures in France, prefecture of the Côte-d'Or Departments of France, department and of the Bourgogne-Franche-Comté Regions of France, region in eas ...

(

Aube Aube ( ) is a French departments of France, department in the Grand Est region of northeastern France. As with sixty departments in France, this department is named after a river: the Aube (river), Aube. With 310,242 inhabitants (2019),

Côte-d'Or Côte-d'Or () is a département in the Bourgogne-Franche-Comté region of Northeastern France. In 2019, it had a population of 534,124.

Haute-Marne Haute-Marne (; English: Upper Marne) is a department in the Grand Est region of Northeastern France. Named after the river Marne, its prefecture is Chaumont. In 2019, it had a population of 172,512.Saône-et-Loire Saône-et-Loire (; Arpitan: ''Sona-et-Lêre'') is a department in the Bourgogne-Franche-Comté region in France. It is named after the rivers Saône and Loire, between which it lies, in the country's central-eastern part. Saône-et-Loire is B ...

, and

Yonne Yonne (, in Burgundian: ''Ghienne'') is a department in the Bourgogne-Franche-Comté region in France. It is named after the river Yonne, which flows through it, in the country's north-central part. One of Bourgogne-Franche-Comté's eight con ...

) * 19th Military Division, in

Lyon Lyon (Franco-Provençal: ''Liyon'') is a city in France. It is located at the confluence of the rivers Rhône and Saône, to the northwest of the French Alps, southeast of Paris, north of Marseille, southwest of Geneva, Switzerland, north ...

(

Rhône The Rhône ( , ; Occitan language, Occitan: ''Ròse''; Franco-Provençal, Arpitan: ''Rôno'') is a major river in France and Switzerland, rising in the Alps and flowing west and south through Lake Geneva and Southeastern France before dischargi ...

Loire The Loire ( , , ; ; ; ; ) is the longest river in France and the 171st longest in the world. With a length of , it drains , more than a fifth of France's land, while its average discharge is only half that of the Rhône. It rises in the so ...

Puy-de-Dôme Puy-de-Dôme (; or ''lo Puèi Domat'') is a department in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region in the centre of France. In 2021, it had a population of 662,285.Haute-Loire Haute-Loire (; or ''Naut Leir''; English: Upper Loire) is a landlocked department in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region of south-central France. Named after the Loire River, it is surrounded by the departments of Loire, Ardèche, Lozère, Canta ...

, and

Cantal Cantal (; or ) is a rural Departments of France, department in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes Regions of France, region of France, with its Prefectures in France, prefecture in Aurillac. Its other principal towns are Saint-Flour, Cantal, Saint-Flou ...

) * 20th Military Division, in Périgueux (

Corrèze Corrèze (; ) is a département in France, named after the river Corrèze which runs through it. Although its prefecture is Tulle, its most populated city is Brive-la-Gaillarde. Corrèze is located in the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region, on the bo ...

Dordogne Dordogne ( , or ; ; ) is a large rural departments of France, department in south west France, with its Prefectures in France, prefecture in Périgueux. Located in the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region roughly half-way between the Loire Valley and ...

Lot-et-Garonne Lot-et-Garonne (, ) is a department in the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region of Southwestern France. Named after the rivers Lot and Garonne, it had a population of 331,271 in 2019.Lot, and

Charente Charente (; Saintongese: ''Chérente''; ) is a department in the administrative region of Nouvelle-Aquitaine, southwestern France. It is named after the river Charente, the most important and longest river in the department, and also the r ...

) * 21st Military Division, in

Bourges Bourges ( ; ; ''Borges'' in Berrichon) is a commune in central France on the river Yèvre (Cher), Yèvre. It is the capital of the Departments of France, department of Cher (department), Cher, and also was the capital city of the former provin ...

(

Allier Allier ( , , ; ) is a Departments of France, department in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes Regions of France, region that borders Cher (department), Cher to the west, Nièvre to the north, Saône-et-Loire and Loire (department), Loire to the east, Pu ...

Indre Indre (); is a department in central France named after the river Indre. The inhabitants of the department are known as the ''Indriens'' (masculine; ) and ''Indriennes'' (feminine; ). Indre is part of the current administrative region of Cent ...

Nièvre Nièvre () is a department in the Bourgogne-Franche-Comté region, central-east France. Named after the river Nièvre, it had a population of 204,452 in 2019.Haute-Vienne Haute-Vienne (; , ; Upper Vienne) is a département in the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region in southwest-central France. Named after the Vienne River, it is one of the twelve départements that together constitute Nouvelle-Aquitaine. The prefecture an ...

Creuse Creuse (; or ) is a department in central France named after the river Creuse. After Lozère, it is the second least populated department in France. It is bordered by Indre and Cher to the north, Allier and Puy-de-Dôme to the east, Cor ...

, and

Cher Cher ( ; born Cheryl Sarkisian, May 20, 1946) is an American singer, actress and television personality. Dubbed the "Honorific nicknames in popular music, Goddess of Pop", she is known for her Androgyny, androgynous contralto voice, Music an ...

) * 22nd Military Division, in

Tours Tours ( ; ) is the largest city in the region of Centre-Val de Loire, France. It is the Prefectures in France, prefecture of the Departments of France, department of Indre-et-Loire. The Communes of France, commune of Tours had 136,463 inhabita ...

(

Mayenne Mayenne ( ) is a landlocked department in northwest France named after the river Mayenne. Mayenne is part of the administrative region of Pays de la Loire and is surrounded by the departments of Manche, Orne, Sarthe, Maine-et-Loire, and Il ...

Sarthe Sarthe () is a department of the French region of Pays de la Loire, and the province of Maine, situated in the '' Grand-Ouest'' of the country. It is named after the river Sarthe, which flows from east of Le Mans to just north of Angers. It ha ...

Loir-et-Cher Loir-et-Cher (, ) is a Departments of France, department in the Centre-Val de Loire Regions of France, region of France. It is named after two rivers which run through it, the Loir in its northern part and the Cher (river), Cher in its southern p ...

Maine-et-Loire Maine-et-Loire () is a department in the Loire Valley in the Pays de la Loire region in Western France. It is named after the two rivers, Maine and the Loire. It borders Mayenne and Sarthe to the north, Loire-Atlantique to the west, Indr ...

, and

Indre-et-Loire Indre-et-Loire () is a department in west-central France named after the Indre River and Loire River. In 2019, it had a population of 610,079.Bastia Bastia ( , , , ; ) is a communes of France, commune in the Departments of France, department of Haute-Corse, Corsica, France. It is located in the northeast of the island of Corsica at the base of Cap Corse. It also has the second-highest popu ...

( Corse) * 24th Military Division, in

Brussels Brussels, officially the Brussels-Capital Region, (All text and all but one graphic show the English name as Brussels-Capital Region.) is a Communities, regions and language areas of Belgium#Regions, region of Belgium comprising #Municipalit ...

( Dyle, Bouches-de-l'Elbe, Escaut, Jemmape, and Deux-Nèthes) * 25th Military Division, in

Wesel Wesel () is a city in North Rhine-Westphalia, in western Germany. It is the capital of the Wesel (district), Wesel district. Geography Wesel is situated at the confluence of the Lippe River and the Rhine. Division of the city Suburbs of Wesel i ...

( Bouches-du-Rhin, Meuse-Inférieure, Ourthe, Sambre-et-Meuse, Roer, and

Lippe Lippe () is a ''Kreis'' (district) in the east of North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. Neighboring districts are Herford, Minden-Lübbecke, Höxter, Paderborn, Gütersloh, and district-free Bielefeld, which forms the region Ostwestfalen-Lippe. ...

) * 26th Military Division, in

Mainz Mainz (; #Names and etymology, see below) is the capital and largest city of the German state of Rhineland-Palatinate, and with around 223,000 inhabitants, it is List of cities in Germany by population, Germany's 35th-largest city. It lies in ...

( Mont-Tonnerre, Rhin-et-Moselle, and Sarre) * 27th Military Division, in

Turin Turin ( , ; ; , then ) is a city and an important business and cultural centre in northern Italy. It is the capital city of Piedmont and of the Metropolitan City of Turin, and was the first Italian capital from 1861 to 1865. The city is main ...

( Doire, Pô, Sésia, and Stura) * 28th Military Division, in Génis ( Apennins,

Taro Taro (; ''Colocasia esculenta'') is a root vegetable. It is the most widely cultivated species of several plants in the family Araceae that are used as vegetables for their corms, leaves, stems and Petiole (botany), petioles. Taro corms are a ...

, Gênes, Marengo, and Montenotte) * 29th Military Division, in

Florence Florence ( ; ) is the capital city of the Italy, Italian region of Tuscany. It is also the most populated city in Tuscany, with 362,353 inhabitants, and 989,460 in Metropolitan City of Florence, its metropolitan province as of 2025. Florence ...

( Arno, Méditerranée, Ombrone) * 30th Military Division, in

Rome Rome (Italian language, Italian and , ) is the capital city and most populated (municipality) of Italy. It is also the administrative centre of the Lazio Regions of Italy, region and of the Metropolitan City of Rome. A special named with 2, ...

(

and Trasimène) * 31st Military Division, in

Groningen Groningen ( , ; ; or ) is the capital city and main municipality of Groningen (province), Groningen province in the Netherlands. Dubbed the "capital of the north", Groningen is the largest place as well as the economic and cultural centre of ...

(

Bouches-de-l'Yssel Bouches-de-l'Yssel (; "Mouths of the IJssel"; ) was a departments of France, department of the First French Empire in the present-day Netherlands. It was formed in 1810, when the Kingdom of Holland was annexed by France. Its territory corresponded ...

, Ems-Occidental, Ems-Oriental, and Frise) * 32nd Military Division, in

Hamburg Hamburg (, ; ), officially the Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg,. is the List of cities in Germany by population, second-largest city in Germany after Berlin and List of cities in the European Union by population within city limits, 7th-lar ...

( Bouches-de-l'Elbe, Bouches-du-Weser, and Ems-Supérieur)

Corps

Lists

List of regiments: * List of cavalry regiments of the French Imperial Army * List of infantry regiments of the French Imperial Army * List of artillery regiments of the French Imperial Army * List of foreign regiments of the French Imperial Army * List of auxiliary regiments of the French Imperial Army * List of regional units of the French Imperial Army

Formations and tactics

While Napoleon is best known as a master strategist and charismatic presence on the battlefield, he was also a tactical innovator. He combined classic formations and tactics that had been used for thousands of years with more recent ones, such as Frederick the Great's "Oblique Order" (best illustrated at the

Battle of Leuthen The Battle of Leuthen was fought on 5 December 1757 between Frederick II of Prussia, Frederick the Great's Prussian Army and an Austrian army commanded by Prince Charles Alexander of Lorraine, Prince Charles of Lorraine and Count Leopold ...

) and the "mob tactics" of the early ''

Levée en masse ''Levée en masse'' ( or, in English, ''mass levy'') is a French term used for a policy of mass national conscription, often in the face of invasion. The concept originated during the French Revolutionary Wars, particularly for the period fo ...

'' armies of the

Revolution In political science, a revolution (, 'a turn around') is a rapid, fundamental transformation of a society's class, state, ethnic or religious structures. According to sociologist Jack Goldstone, all revolutions contain "a common set of elements ...

. Napoleonic tactics and formations were highly fluid and flexible. In contrast, many of the ''Grande Armée'''s opponents were still wedded to a rigid system of "Linear" (or Line) tactics and formations, in which masses of infantry would simply line up and exchange volleys of fire, in an attempt to either blow the enemy from the field or outflank them. Due to the vulnerabilities of the line formations to flanking attacks, it was considered the highest form of military manoeuvre to outflank one's adversary. Armies would often retreat or even surrender if this was accomplished. Consequently, commanders who adhered to this system would place a great emphasis on flank security, often at the expense of a strong centre or reserve. Napoleon would frequently take full advantage of this linear mentality by feigning flank attacks or offering the enemy his own flank as "bait" (best illustrated at the

Battle of Austerlitz The Battle of Austerlitz (2 December 1805/11 Frimaire An XIV French Republican calendar, FRC), also known as the Battle of the Three Emperors, was one of the most important military engagements of the Napoleonic Wars. The battle occurred near t ...

and also later at Lützen), then throw his main effort against their centre, split their lines, and roll up their flanks. He always kept a strong reserve as well, mainly in the form of his Imperial Guard, which could deliver a "knockout blow" if the battle was going well or turn the tide if it was not. Some of the more famous, widely used, effective, and interesting formations and tactics included: * Line (''Ligne''): The basic three rank line formation, best used for delivering volley fire and was also a decent melee formation for infantry or cavalry, but it was relatively slow moving and vulnerable on the flanks. * March Column (''Colonne de Marche''): The best formation for rapid or sustained movement of troops and a good melee attacking formation, but it offered little firepower and was also vulnerable to flank attack, ambush, artillery, and "funneling". * Wedge (''Colonne de Charge''): An arrow or spearhead-shaped cavalry formation, designed to close rapidly and break the enemy's line. Classic and effective mounted formation used throughout history, and still used by tanks today. But if the wedge was halted, or its attack lost momentum, then it was vulnerable to counter-

pincer movement The pincer movement, or double envelopment, is a maneuver warfare, military maneuver in which forces simultaneously attack both flanking maneuver, flanks (sides) of an enemy Military organization, formation. This classic maneuver has been im ...

s on its flanks. * Attack Column (''Colonne d'Attaque''): A wide column of infantry, almost a hybrid of line and column, with light infantry skirmishers in front to disrupt the enemy and screen the column's advance. Once the column closed, the skirmishers would move off to its flanks, then the column would fire a massed musket salvo and charge with their bayonets. An excellent formation against a standard, thin line. The Attack Column was developed from the "Mob" or "Horde" tactics of the early French Revolutionary Armies. Its disadvantages were a lack of massed firepower and vulnerability to artillery fire. * Mixed Order (''Ordre Mixte''): Was Napoleon's preferred infantry formation. Some units (usually regiments or battalions in size) would be placed in line formation, with other units in attack columns behind and in between them. This combined the firepower of the line with the speed, melee, and skirmishing advantages of the attack column. It also had some disadvantages of both, so support from artillery and cavalry was especially vital for this tactic to succeed. * Open Order (''Ordre Ouvert''): Foot and/or horse would spread out by unit and/or individually. This formation was best for light troops and skirmishers. It allowed for rapid movement, especially over broken or rough terrain such as hills or forests, and offered the best protection from enemy fire since the troops were spread out. Its disadvantages were it did not allow for massed or volley fire and was terrible for melee or close-quarters fighting and thus, especially vulnerable to cavalry. *

Square In geometry, a square is a regular polygon, regular quadrilateral. It has four straight sides of equal length and four equal angles. Squares are special cases of rectangles, which have four equal angles, and of rhombuses, which have four equal si ...

(''Carré''): Classic infantry formation for defence against cavalry. Soldiers would form a hollow square at least three or four ranks deep on each side, with officers and artillery or cavalry in the middle. It offered infantry their best protection against charges, especially on good defensive terrain such as on the top or reverse slope of a hill. Squares were slow-moving, almost stationary targets, however. This, along with their density, made squares very vulnerable to artillery and to a lesser extent, infantry fire. Once broken, squares tended to completely collapse. * Flying Battery (''Batterie Volante''): Designed to take advantage of the French artillery's mobility and training. A battery would move to one area on the field, lay down a short, sharp barrage, then rapidly redeploy to another area and fire another barrage, then quickly redeploy again, etc. The combined, cumulative effect of numerous batteries doing this all along the enemy's lines could be devastating. The horse artillery were especially well suited for this tactic. Napoleon used it to great success in the early campaigns of the ''Grande Armée''. Its flexibility allowed him to quickly mass well-aimed fire anywhere it was needed. But it required superbly trained and conditioned artillerymen and horses as well as close command, coordination, and control in order to work. * Grand Battery (''Grande Batterie''): An alternative artillery tactic, when circumstances prohibited the flying batteries. Artillery would mass its fire at a single, crucial point on the battlefield (usually against the enemy's centre). It could be devastating if the enemy was caught by surprise or in the open. But massing large numbers of guns in a single area without the enemy's knowledge could be tricky. Once the battery opened fire and its target became clear, measures could be taken to avoid it. It was also vulnerable to counter-battery fire from enemy artillery and needed protection from cavalry attack. Although this has become the most well-known French artillery tactic, Napoleon preferred the flying batteries and used it only when he had to or thought it posed a better chance of success. Often at the start of a battle, he would mass batteries into a large battery, then after a few salvoes, break it up into flying batteries. In the early campaigns, it was rarely used, but as the quantity of the horses of the ''Grande Armée'' and the quality of its artillerymen declined, Napoleon would be forced to employ it much more frequently in later battles. * Boar's Head (''Tête du Sanglier''): Another hybrid formation, somewhat like the mixed order, but combining all three arms into a wedge-like square, which could be used for assault or defence. Infantry would form a short, but thick, line many ranks deep on the front, which would be the boar's "snout" (''boutoir''). Behind them would be two groups of artillery batteries or the "eyes" of the boar. On their flanks and behind them, in oblique order, would be other infantry in column, line, or square to form the boar's "face". Protecting their flanks and rear would be two groups of cavalry, which would serve as the boar's "tusk". This was a highly complex formation, which could not be formed as easily or quickly as the others. Once formed, except for the tusks, it had slow mobility. It was, however, faster moving than the traditional square and less vulnerable to artillery or infantry fire. The "tusks" also gave it stronger offensive capabilities. It would later be employed to great effect during the French conquests in North Africa during the 1830s and 1840s, and would be used up until the 1920s.

Ranks of the Imperial Army

Unlike the armies of the ''Ancien Régime'' and other monarchies, advancement in the ''Grande Armée'' was based on proven ability rather than social class or wealth. Napoleon wanted his army to be a meritocracy, where every soldier, no matter how humble of birth, could rise rapidly to the highest levels of command, much as he had done (provided, of course, they did not rise too high or too fast). This was equally applied to the French and foreign officers, and no less than 140 foreigners attained the rank of ''Général''. By and large this goal was achieved. Given the right opportunities to prove themselves, capable men could rise to the top within a few years, whereas in other armies it usually required decades if at all. It was said that even the lowliest private carried a marshal's baton in his knapsack. ''Maréchal d'Empire'', or

Marshal of the Empire Marshal of the Empire () was a civil dignity during the First French Empire. It was established by on 18 May 1804 and to a large extent reinstated the formerly abolished title of Marshal of France. According to the ''Sénatus-consulte'', a Mar ...

, was not a rank within the ''Grande Armée'', but a personal title granted to distinguished divisional generals, along with higher pay and privileges. The same applied to the corps commanders (''General de Corps d'armee'') and army commanders (''General en chef''). The highest permanent rank in the ''Grande Armée'' was actually ''Général de division'' and those higher than it were positions of the same rank but with separate insignia for appointment holders.Elting, John R.: "Swords Around A Throne.", p. 124. Da Capo Press, 1997. The position of Colonel General of a branch (such as dragoons or grenadiers of the Guard) was akin to Chief Inspector-General of that branch, whose office holder used his current officer rank and its corresponding insignia.

Footnotes

References

* * * * * * * * * * * * {{DEFAULTSORT:French Imperial Army (1804-1815) 1804 establishments in France 1815 disestablishments in France Military units and formations established in 1804 Military units and formations disestablished in 1815 First French Empire Disbanded armies Armies of Napoleonic Wars French Army

History

Method of conscription

Command staff

Commander-in-Chief

Minister of War

Types of units

Imperial Guard

Infantry

Line Infantry

= Grenadiers

Light Infantry

= Chasseurs

Cavalry

Heavy Cavalry

= Horse Carabiniers

= Cuirassiers

= Dragoons

Light cavalry

= Hussars

= Horse Hunters

= Lancers

Artillery

Foot artillery

Horse artillery

Logistics

Artillery train

Support services

Engineers

Medical Service

Communications

= Gendarmerie

Reserve Army

Reserve

National Guard

Coastal Artillery

Garrison Artillery

Veteran Artillery

Organisation

Corps of Observation

Military Districts

Corps

Lists

Formations and tactics

Ranks of the Imperial Army

See also

Footnotes

References