The French Civil and Military High Command () was an administrative and military governing body in

Algiers Algiers is the capital city of Algeria as well as the capital of the Algiers Province; it extends over many Communes of Algeria, communes without having its own separate governing body. With 2,988,145 residents in 2008Census 14 April 2008: Offi ...

that was created in connection with the Allied landings in

French North Africa French North Africa (, sometimes abbreviated to ANF) is a term often applied to the three territories that were controlled by France in the North African Maghreb during the colonial era, namely Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia. In contrast to French ...

on 7 and 8 November 1942 as part of

Operation Torch Operation Torch (8–16 November 1942) was an Allies of World War II, Allied invasion of French North Africa during the Second World War. Torch was a compromise operation that met the British objective of securing victory in North Africa whil ...

. It came about as a result of negotiations between the Americans and two military figures from

Vichy France Vichy France (; 10 July 1940 – 9 August 1944), officially the French State ('), was a French rump state headed by Marshal Philippe Pétain during World War II, established as a result of the French capitulation after the Battle of France, ...

whom the Americans believed could assure safe passage for the landing forces, namely Henri Giraud and François Darlan. Giraud was contacted first, and spoke with General Dwight Eisenhower in his military headquarters in Gibraltar, but negotiations were slowed when Giraud demanded too much. Meanwhile, the Americans contacted Vichy official Admiral François Darlan, who happened to be in Algiers, who made a deal with the Allies not to oppose the landings in exchange for being named High Commissioner. This was accepted, and the military-civilian body was first called the High Commission of France in Africa (). The name "Civil and Military High Command" was adopted later by Giraud, who succeeded Darlan after the latter was assassinated in 1943. The Commission exercised authority over

French Algeria French Algeria ( until 1839, then afterwards; unofficially ; ), also known as Colonial Algeria, was the period of History of Algeria, Algerian history when the country was a colony and later an integral part of France. French rule lasted until ...

, the French Protectorate of Morocco, the

French Protectorate of Tunisia The French protectorate of Tunisia (; '), officially the Regency of Tunis () and commonly referred to as simply French Tunisia, was established in 1881, during the French colonial empire era, and lasted until Tunisian independence in 1956. T ...

(after its evacuation by the Germans and Italians in May 1943) and

French West Africa French West Africa (, ) was a federation of eight French colonial empires#Second French colonial empire, French colonial territories in West Africa: Colonial Mauritania, Mauritania, French Senegal, Senegal, French Sudan (now Mali), French Guin ...

. In June of the same year, the High Commission merged with the French National Committee, the governing body of

Free France Free France () was a resistance government claiming to be the legitimate government of France following the dissolution of the Third French Republic, Third Republic during World War II. Led by General , Free France was established as a gover ...

, giving birth to the French National Liberation Committee. The question of loyalties and allegiance was a complex one. Darlan was Minister of the Navy under Philippe Petain and part of the

Vichy regime Vichy France (; 10 July 1940 – 9 August 1944), officially the French State ('), was a French rump state headed by Marshal Philippe Pétain during World War II, established as a result of the French capitulation after the defeat against ...

subjugated to Germany, but made a deal with the Allies to allow free passage during Operation Torch in exchange for being named High Commissioner. The French population of North Africa was divided among supporters of Vichy, Gaullists, and others. By the time the Civil and Military High Command merged in 1943, it was in support of and

Terminology

The French Civil and Military High Command was first known as the "High Commission of France in Africa" (")". It was also known as the "French High Command" () or the "Civil and Military Command of Algiers" ().

Background

Unlike Britain, who had supported General and Free France from the beginning of the War, the Americans had not, and maintained contact with and recognized the

government. For this reason, when the Allies began to plan the invasion of North Africa, which was under Vichy control, the American army was given the task, rather than the British, who stayed in the background. The Americans were planning the last details of the imminent landings in North Africa as part of

. Nominally under control of Vichy France as the entire French colonial Empire was, the situation on the ground in North Africa was complex, with differing loyalties among the French and other population there, including both supporters of Vichy, supporters of 's

, and others. The Americans were in negotiations trying to find a way to ensure that the landings would not be opposed, and that they would have free passage thereafter in North Africa. The new post, based in Algiers and initially called "High Commission of France in Africa" came about as a result of negotiations between the Americans and two military figures from

who the Americans believed could assure safe passage for the American landing forces of Operation Torch, namely Henri Giraud and François Darlan.

Henri Giraud

At the outset of World War II, Henri Giraud was a member of the French Superior War Council, and disagreed with Charles de Gaulle about the tactics of using armored troops. Giraud became commander of the 7th Army when it was sent to the Netherlands on 10 May 1940, and was captured by the Germans. He escaped in April 1942 and managed to slip back into what was by then the collaborationist

regime. He tried to persuade Vichy leader Marshall Philippe Pétain that Germany would lose and that France should resist German occupation. His views were rejected, but he was not returned to the Germans. Giraud's escape became known all over France. Giraud remained loyal to Pétain and the Vichy government, but refused to cooperate with the Germans.

Heinrich Himmler Heinrich Luitpold Himmler (; 7 October 1900 – 23 May 1945) was a German Nazism, Nazi politician and military leader who was the 4th of the (Protection Squadron; SS), a leading member of the Nazi Party, and one of the most powerful p ...

tried to have him assassinated. Giraud was secretly contacted by the Allies, who were preparing the invasion of North Africa. Giraud was already planning for the day when American troops landed in France, and agreed to support an Allied landing in

, provided that only American troops were used; like many other French officers he was bitterly resentful of the British, particularly after their

attack on Mers-el-Kébir The attack on Mers-el-Kébir (Battle of Mers-el-Kébir) on 3 July 1940, during the Second World War, was a British naval attack on French Navy ships at the naval base at Mers El Kébir, near Oran, on the coast of French Algeria. The attack was ...

, and that he or another French officer was the commander of such an operation. He considered this latter condition essential to maintaining French sovereignty over North Africa. Franklin D

The invasion was agreed on at a secret meeting on 23 October with U.S. General Mark W. Clark and diplomat Robert Daniel Murphy, but the Americans promised only that Giraud would be in command "as soon as possible". Still in France, Giraud responded with a demand for a written commitment that he would be commander within 48 hours of the landing, and for landings in France as well as North Africa. General

Dwight Eisenhower Dwight David "Ike" Eisenhower (born David Dwight Eisenhower; October 14, 1890 – March 28, 1969) was the 34th president of the United States, serving from 1953 to 1961. During World War II, he was Supreme Commander of the Allied Expeditionar ...

advised that he should be brought to his Torch operational headquarters in

Gibraltar Gibraltar ( , ) is a British Overseas Territories, British Overseas Territory and British overseas cities, city located at the southern tip of the Iberian Peninsula, on the Bay of Gibraltar, near the exit of the Mediterranean Sea into the A ...

, and on 5 November, Giraud was picked up near

Toulon Toulon (, , ; , , ) is a city in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region of southeastern France. Located on the French Riviera and the historical Provence, it is the prefecture of the Var (department), Var department. The Commune of Toulon h ...

by the British submarine HMS ''Seraph'', arriving on 7 November, only a few hours before the landings. Eisenhower asked Giraud to assume command of French troops in North Africa during

and order them to join the Allies. But Giraud had expected to command the whole Allied operation, and adamantly refused to participate on any other basis. He said "his honor would be tarnished" and that he would only be a spectator in the affair. While Giraud dithered in Gibraltar, a last minute overture to a compatriot of Giraud bore fruit in Algiers.

François Darlan

To bring a quick end to the resistance and secure French co-operation, the Allies came to an agreement with Darlan, who as commander-in-chief could give the necessary orders.

Dwight D. Eisenhower Dwight David "Ike" Eisenhower (born David Dwight Eisenhower; October 14, 1890 – March 28, 1969) was the 34th president of the United States, serving from 1953 to 1961. During World War II, he was Supreme Commander of the Allied Expeditionar ...

, the Allied commander on the spot recognized Darlan as commander of all French forces in the area and recognized his self-nomination as High Commissioner of France in Africa (head of civil government) for North and West Africa on 14 November. In return, on 10 November, Darlan ordered all French forces to join the Allies. His order was obeyed; not only in French North Africa, but also by the Vichy forces in French West Africa with its potentially useful facilities at Dakar.

History

Philippe Pétain Henri Philippe Bénoni Omer Joseph Pétain (; 24 April 1856 – 23 July 1951), better known as Marshal Pétain (, ), was a French marshal who commanded the French Army in World War I and later became the head of the Collaboration with Nazi Ger ...

and the

ordered Admiral François Darlan to oppose to the allied landings in North Africa of early November 1942. After a few days, Darlan realized the reality of the balance of power and switched to the Allied camp. On 13 November, Darlan was recognized as "High Commissioner of France in North Africa" by General Eisenhower. But on 24 December 1942, Fernand Bonnier de La Chapelle, one of the 7 November activists enlisted in the Corps Francs d'Afrique in World War II, shot Darlan. He was executed, after a summary trial, on 26 December. The greatest confusion reigned. Supporters of the

count of Paris Count of Paris () was a title for the local magnate of the district around Paris in Carolingian times. After Hugh Capet was elected King of the Franks in 987, the title merged into the crown and fell into disuse. However, it was later revived ...

, including Henri d'Astier de la Vigerie, attempted to promote the accession to power of the Orléanist pretender to the throne of France. On 26 December, General Giraud was elected High Commissioner by the members of an "Imperial Council" created by Darlan after proclaiming himself High Commissioner in France and Africa (though this was rejected by Vichy). The candidacy of the "Count of Paris" does not seem to have been considered. That of Charles Noguès, preferred by the Vichystes and whom Giraud would later affirm that he thought of supporting for a while, did not meet with the approval of the Americans and British because of his attitude during Operation Torch. By an order of February 5, 1943, Giraud took the title of "Civil and Military Commander-in-Chief ". The of the French High Commission in Africa was replaced, as of February 20, by that of the French Civil and Military High Command. Giraud signed his decrees and orders, as "General of the Army, and French Civil and Military Commander in Chief". Giraud exercised authority over French Algeria and the French Protectorate of Morocco, while the Tunisian campaign against the Germans and Italians continued in the French Protectorate of Tunisia. Darlan having previously won the support of

, the latter was also in Giraud's camp, while

French Equatorial Africa French Equatorial Africa (, or AEF) was a federation of French colonial territories in Equatorial Africa which consisted of Gabon, French Congo, Ubangi-Shari, and Chad. It existed from 1910 to 1958 and its administration was based in Brazzav ...

was in de Gaulle's camp. Giraud kept a number of Darlan's employees at his side. Several of the Vichy laws continued for a while, tolerated by the United States despite the protests of General Charles de Gaulle. On December 30, Bergeret had several people arrested, most of them Gaullists, who had participated in the Allied operations of November 8 "as a preventive measure". Under allied pressure, the twelve Gaullists arrested were gradually freed, as were the twenty-seven communist deputies previously interned in Algeria in March 1941. On 20 January, Giraud appointed Marcel Peyrouton, former Vichy Minister of the Interior and actor in the abrogation of the

Crémieux Decree The Crémieux Decree (; ) was a law that granted French citizenship to the majority of the Jewish population in French Algeria (around 35,000), signed by the Government of National Defense on 24 October 1870 during the Franco-Prussian War. It was ...

to the post of Governor General. At the beginning of March 1943, several measures heralded a distancing from Vichy. The images of

and allusions to the

Vichy government Vichy France (; 10 July 1940 – 9 August 1944), officially the French State ('), was a French rump state headed by Marshal Philippe Pétain during World War II, established as a result of the French capitulation after the defeat against ...

gradually disappeared from public buildings and official documents. These developments were accelerated by the arrival, at the beginning of March, of Jean Monnet, sent by

Franklin Delano Roosevelt Franklin Delano Roosevelt (January 30, 1882April 12, 1945), also known as FDR, was the 32nd president of the United States, serving from 1933 until his death in 1945. He is the longest-serving U.S. president, and the only one to have served ...

to support Giraud. On 14 March, Giraud delivered a speech that he later described as "the first democratic speech of islife", in which he broke with Vichy by affirming that the Armistice of 22 June 1940 did not commit France and that the legislation promulgated since then was null and void. Jean Monnet pushed Giraud to negotiate with de Gaulle after having made initial contact with him at the

Casablanca Conference The Casablanca Conference (codenamed SYMBOL) or Anfa Conference was held in Casablanca, French Morocco, from January 14 to 24, 1943, to plan the Allies of World War II, Allied European strategy for the next phase of World War II. The main disc ...

. Several parts of the Vichyist legislation were gradually abandoned. Giraud refused, however, to go back on the repeal of the

, which would result in restoring French citizenship to the Jews of Algeria, considering that "in North Africa, Jews should not be considered any different from Muslims. They are indigenous people practicing a religion different from that of their neighbors, and nothing else." The decree wasn't reinstated until October. De Gaulle arrived in

on 30 May 1943. On 3 June, the Civil and Military High Command in Algiers merged with the French National Committee in London to form the French National Liberation Committee.

References

;Notes ;Footnotes

Works cited

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External links

{{Authority control Antisemitism in France Ministers of the overseas of France French people of World War II French Resistance German occupation of France during World War II Jewish French history November 1942 Military history of France during World War II Vichy France Algeria in World War II