Emperor at home, king abroad was a system of conducting relations between states within the Chinese cultural sphere. Rulers of lesser regimes would adopt the title of ''

emperor The word ''emperor'' (from , via ) can mean the male ruler of an empire. ''Empress'', the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife (empress consort), mother/grandmother (empress dowager/grand empress dowager), or a woman who rules ...

'' (皇帝; or other equivalents) and/or other imperial titles domestically, and adopt the title of ''

king King is a royal title given to a male monarch. A king is an Absolute monarchy, absolute monarch if he holds unrestricted Government, governmental power or exercises full sovereignty over a nation. Conversely, he is a Constitutional monarchy, ...

'' (王; or other equivalents) when dealing with the dominant Chinese regime. Instead of using the styles '' Imperial Majesty'' and ''

Majesty Majesty (abbreviated HM for His Majesty or Her Majesty, oral address Your Majesty; from the Latin , meaning ) is used as a manner of address by many monarchs, usually kings or queens. Where used, the style outranks the style of ''(Imperial/Roy ...

'' (陛下), rulers of lesser realms were styled as ''

Highness Highness (abbreviation HH, oral address Your Highness) is a formal style used to address (in second person) or refer to (in third person) certain members of a reigning or formerly reigning dynasty. It is typically used with a possessive adjec ...

'' (殿下). This system was applicable to Japan, Korea and Vietnam, as well as less powerful Chinese states, among others. As China was a hegemonic power in East Asia for a large part of history, surrounding states were compelled to pay tribute to Chinese emperors in exchange for peace and political legitimacy. In this system, lesser regimes accepted the

suzerainty A suzerain (, from Old French "above" + "supreme, chief") is a person, state (polity)">state or polity who has supremacy and dominant influence over the foreign policy">polity.html" ;"title="state (polity)">state or polity">state (polity)">st ...

of the dominant Chinese power and acknowledged the Chinese emperor as their nominal overlord. Since Chinese emperors claimed to be the Son of Heaven and held supremacy over

all under Heaven ''Tianxia'', 'all under Heaven', is a Chinese term for a historical Chinese cultural concept that denoted either the entire geographical world or the metaphysical realm of mortals, and later became associated with political sovereignty. In anc ...

, rulers of lesser regimes were to use titles subordinate to ''emperor''. The same doctrine also maintained that there could only be one emperor at any given time.

Origin

When the Qin dynasty fell, general

Zhao Tuo Zhao Tuo (), rendered as Triệu Đà in Vietnamese language, Vietnamese, was a Qin dynasty Chinese general and first emperor of Nanyue. He participated in the conquest of the Baiyue peoples of Guangdong, Guangxi and Northern Vietnam. After ...

conquered the commanderies of Xiang and Guilin and proclaimed himself "Martial King of

Nanyue Nanyue ( zh, c=南越 or 南粵, p=Nányuè, cy=, j=Naam4 Jyut6, l=Southern Yue, , ), was an ancient kingdom founded in 204 BC by the Chinese general Zhao Tuo, whose family (known in Vietnamese as the Triệu dynasty) continued to rule until ...

" () and in 196 BCE he was recognized "King of Nanyue" () after

Liu Bang Emperor Gaozu of Han (2561 June 195 BC), also known by his given name Liu Bang, was the founder and first emperor of the Han dynasty, reigning from 202 to 195 BC. He is considered by traditional Chinese historiography to be one o ...

became emperor and founded the

Han dynasty The Han dynasty was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China (202 BC9 AD, 25–220 AD) established by Liu Bang and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–206 BC ...

. After Liu Bang's death, his officials petitioned his widow Empress Lü to forbid trade in iron between Nanyue and Han; upon hearing the news, Zhao proclaimed himself "Martial Emperor of Nanyue" (), on par with the Han emperors.

Sima Qian Sima Qian () was a Chinese historian during the early Han dynasty. He is considered the father of Chinese historiography for the ''Shiji'' (sometimes translated into English as ''Records of the Grand Historian''), a general history of China cov ...

, ''

Records of the Grand Historian The ''Shiji'', also known as ''Records of the Grand Historian'' or ''The Grand Scribe's Records'', is a Chinese historical text that is the first of the Twenty-Four Histories of imperial China. It was written during the late 2nd and early 1st ce ...

''
"Vol. 113: Account of Nanyue"
/ref> Zhao's troops raided the neighboring

Changsha Kingdom The Changsha Kingdom was a kingdom within the Han Empire of China, located in present-day Hunan and some surrounding areas. The kingdom was founded when Emperor Gaozu granted the territory to his follower Wu Rui in 203 or 202 BC, around the s ...

, which was part of the Han Empire, before returning to Nanyue. In 181 BCE, Empress Lü dispatched general Zhou Zao to lead troops against Nanyue. However, Zhou's troops fell ill because of the heat and dampness and thus failed to cross the mountains to enter Nanyue; later, they were recalled in 180 BCE after Empress Lü's death. Zhao took the opportunity to menace and bribe the leaders of the

Minyue Minyue (; Pinyin: ''Mǐnyuè, Mínyuè'') was an ancient kingdom in what is now the Fujian province in southern China. It was a contemporary of the Han dynasty, and was later annexed by the Han empire as the Southward expansion of the Han dynas ...

, the Western Ouyue, and the Luoyue into submission. Zhao then stopped sending envoys to the Han court. In response,

Emperor Wen of Han Emperor Wen of Han (; 203/02 – 6 July 157 BC), personal name Liu Heng (), was the fifth Emperor of China, emperor of the Han dynasty from 180 until his death in 157 BC. The son of Emperor Gaozu of Han, Emperor Gao and Empress Dowager Bo, Conso ...

sent Lu Jia to reprimand Zhao. Frightened, Zhao wrote a letter of apology, humbled himself as a feudal subject of the Han Emperor, promised to offer tributes, and publicly announced in Nanyue that he would relinquish imperial title and practices. However, Zhao still secretly designated himself as "Emperor" () inside Nanyue and only used titles appropriate for a tributary feudal lord like "king" () when sending envoys to the Son of Heaven.

Korea

The rulers of

Balhae Balhae,, , ) also rendered as Bohai or Bohea, and called Jin (; ) early on, was a multiethnic kingdom established in 698 by Dae Joyeong (Da Zuorong). It was originally known as the Kingdom of Jin (震, Zhen) until 713 when its name was changed ...

used imperial titles, such as ''Seongwang'' () and ''Hwangsang'' (), and had independent era names. In 933, King Taejo of Goryeo was conferred the title of ''King of Goryeo'' (高麗國王) by the Emperor Mingzong of Later Tang. Prior to its capitulation to the

Yuan dynasty The Yuan dynasty ( ; zh, c=元朝, p=Yuáncháo), officially the Great Yuan (; Mongolian language, Mongolian: , , literally 'Great Yuan State'), was a Mongol-led imperial dynasty of China and a successor state to the Mongol Empire after Div ...

, imperial designations and terminology were widely used by the

Goryeo dynasty Goryeo (; ) was a Korean state founded in 918, during a time of national division called the Later Three Kingdoms period, that unified and ruled the Korea, Korean Peninsula until the establishment of Joseon in 1392. Goryeo achieved what has b ...

domestically. Its rulers claimed to be the '' Son of Heaven'', as did Chinese emperors. King Gyeongsun of Silla addressed King Taejo of Goryeo as the ''Son of Heaven'' when he surrendered. Even though the

Song dynasty The Song dynasty ( ) was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 960 to 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song, who usurped the throne of the Later Zhou dynasty and went on to conquer the rest of the Fiv ...

, the Liao dynasty and the Jin dynasty were well-informed of Goryeo's use of imperial titles, all three Chinese dynasties tolerated such practice. The Goryeo dynasty later became a semi-autonomous region of the Yuan dynasty, bringing an end to its domestic imperial system. Its rulers bore the title ''king'' and were prohibited from having

temple name Temple names are posthumous titles accorded to monarchs of the Sinosphere for the purpose of ancestor worship. The practice of honoring monarchs with temple names began during the Shang dynasty in China and had since been adopted by other dynas ...

s which were reserved specifically for the Yuan emperors. In 1356, King Gongmin of Goryeo declared independence from the Yuan dynasty. In 1392, King Taejo of Joseon overthrew the Goryeo dynasty and founded the

Joseon dynasty Joseon ( ; ; also romanized as ''Chosun''), officially Great Joseon (), was a dynastic kingdom of Korea that existed for 505 years. It was founded by Taejo of Joseon in July 1392 and replaced by the Korean Empire in October 1897. The kingdom w ...

. He was bestowed the title ''King of Joseon'' (朝鮮國王) by the

Hongwu Emperor The Hongwu Emperor (21 October 1328– 24 June 1398), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Taizu of Ming, personal name Zhu Yuanzhang, courtesy name Guorui, was the List of emperors of the Ming dynasty, founding emperor of the Ming dyna ...

of the

Ming dynasty The Ming dynasty, officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming was the last imperial dynasty of ...

. Both domestically and externally, Joseon monarchs held the title of ''king'', unlike the domestic claim of imperial titles before Goryeo's submission to the Yuan dynasty. Following the

First Sino-Japanese War The First Sino-Japanese War (25 July 189417 April 1895), or the First China–Japan War, was a conflict between the Qing dynasty of China and the Empire of Japan primarily over influence in Joseon, Korea. In Chinese it is commonly known as th ...

, Joseon regained its independence from China and with the King Gojong becoming the ' (황제) of the

Korean Empire The Korean Empire, officially the Empire of Korea or Imperial Korea, was a Korean monarchical state proclaimed in October 1897 by King Gojong of the Joseon dynasty. The empire lasted until the Japanese annexation of Korea in August 1910. Dur ...

Vietnam

In 544,

Lý Bôn LY or ly may refer to: Government and politics * Libya (ISO 3166-1 country code LY) * Lý dynasty, a Vietnamese dynasty * Labour Youth of Ireland * Legislative Yuan, the unicameral legislature of the Republic of China (Taiwan) Science and tech ...

established the Early Lý dynasty and proclaimed himself the ''Emperor of Vạn Xuân'' (萬春帝). In 968, Đinh Bộ Lĩnh founded the Đinh dynasty and declared himself as ''emperor'', abolishing the old title of '' Jinghaijun

Jiedushi The ''jiedushi'' (, Old Turkic: Tarduş) or jiedu, was a regional military governor in China; the title was established in the Tang dynasty and abolished in the Yuan dynasty. The post of ''jiedushi'' has been translated as "military commissi ...

'' (靜海軍節度使), a title of Chinese regional military commander. The Emperor Taizu of Song later bestowed the title ''King of Jiaozhi Prefecture'' to Đinh Bộ Lĩnh. In 986,

Lê Hoàn Lê Hoàn (10 August 941 – 18 March 1005), posthumously title Lê Đại Hành, was the third ruler of Đại Việt kingdom, ruling from 981 to 1005, and founder of the Early Lê dynasty. He first served as the generalissimo commanding ...

was bestowed the title of ''Jinghaijun Jiedushi'' when the emissary of the Song dynasty visited. In 988, Lê Hoàn was promoted to ''Proxy Grand Commandant'' (檢校太尉); in 993 to ''Prince of Jiaozhi Commandery'' (交趾郡王); and finally in 997 his title was promoted to the ''King of Nanping'' (南平王). In 1010, Lý Thái Tổ established the

Lý dynasty The Lý dynasty (, , chữ Nôm: 茹李, chữ Hán: 朝李, Vietnamese language, Vietnamese: ''triều Lý''), officially Đại Cồ Việt (chữ Hán: 大瞿越) from 1009 to 1054 and Đại Việt (chữ Hán: 大越) from 1054 to 1225, was ...

and was granted the title ''Prince of Jiaozhi'' by the Emperor Zhenzong of Song. In 1174,

Lý Anh Tông Emperor Lý Anh Tông (1136 – 14 August 1175) of Đại Việt () was the sixth emperor of the later Lý dynasty in Vietnamese history, from 1138 until his death in 1175. Since Lý Anh Tông, given name Lý Thiên Tộ ( 李天祚), w ...

was bestowed the title ''King of Annan'' (安南國王); "Annan" or "An Nam", meaning "the Pacified South", was the name of Vietnam during Chinese rule. Domestically, rulers of the Lý dynasty maintained the use of the title ''emperor''. Upon proclaiming the Later Lê dynasty, Lê Thái Tổ claimed kingship with the title ''Đại Vương'' (大王). It was not until the reign of Lê Thánh Tông did Vietnamese rulers reclaimed imperial titles. The system continued to be used until the end of the dynasty itself, as all rulers claimed imperial status domestically and reverted to royal rank when dealing with China. The Gia Long Emperor of the

Nguyễn dynasty The Nguyễn dynasty (, chữ Nôm: 茹阮, chữ Hán: 朝阮) was the last List of Vietnamese dynasties, Vietnamese dynasty, preceded by the Nguyễn lords and ruling unified Vietnam independently from 1802 until French protectorate in 1883 ...

was conferred the title ''King of Việt Nam'' (越南國王) by the

Jiaqing Emperor The Jiaqing Emperor (13 November 1760 – 2 September 1820), also known by his temple name Emperor Renzong of Qing, personal name Yongyan, was the sixth emperor of the Qing dynasty and the fifth Qing emperor to rule over China proper. He was ...

of the

Qing dynasty The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing, was a Manchu-led Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China and an early modern empire in East Asia. The last imperial dynasty in Chinese history, the Qing dynasty was preceded by the ...

. While the Nguyễn dynasty accepted Chinese suzerainty and adopted the title of ''king'' when dealing with the Qing dynasty, it entered into foreign relations with other states as ''Emperor of Đại Việt Nam'' (大越南皇帝) and later as ''Emperor of Đại Nam'' (大南皇帝). Domestically, Nguyễn monarchs also used the title ''emperor'' and referred to its realm as the "southern dynasty" (in relation to the Qing dynasty, the "northern dynasty"), implying an equal status with China.

Japan

Chinese emperors originally referred to Japanese rulers as the ''King of Wa'' (倭王), while they were called ''kimi'' or ''ōkimi'' in Japan. Some of the rulers, notably the five kings of Wa, accepted Chinese suzerainty. During the

Sui dynasty The Sui dynasty ( ) was a short-lived Dynasties of China, Chinese imperial dynasty that ruled from 581 to 618. The re-unification of China proper under the Sui brought the Northern and Southern dynasties era to a close, ending a prolonged peri ...

, the Japanese diplomat Ono no Imoko delivered a letter by Prince Shōtoku to the

Emperor Yang of Sui Emperor Yang of Sui (隋煬帝, 569 – 11 April 618), personal name Yang Guang (), alternative name Ying (), Xianbei name Amo (), was the second emperor of the Sui dynasty of China. Emperor Yang's original name was Yang Ying, but he was rena ...

which claimed the Empress Suiko as "the Son of Heaven where the sun rises", implying an equal status between the Japanese and Chinese monarchs. The Emperor Yang of Sui was angered by such a claim. Since then, the

Emperor of Japan The emperor of Japan is the hereditary monarch and head of state of Japan. The emperor is defined by the Constitution of Japan as the symbol of the Japanese state and the unity of the Japanese people, his position deriving from "the will of ...

has started to adopt the imperial title of both domestically and externally, and the title ''king'' (國王) was sometimes used for trade with China by

shogun , officially , was the title of the military aristocracy, rulers of Japan during most of the period spanning from 1185 to 1868. Nominally appointed by the Emperor of Japan, Emperor, shoguns were usually the de facto rulers of the country, exc ...

s, who held ''de facto'' power in Japan. China did not officially allow Japanese emperors to use the title ''tennō'', although it did little to compel the Japanese rulers into reverting to lesser titles. During the

Tang dynasty The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, c=唐朝), or the Tang Empire, was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907, with an Wu Zhou, interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dynasty and followed ...

, Japanese rulers were conferred the title ''King of Japan'' (日本國王). From 630 to 838 Japan sent a total of 19 envoys to the Tang dynasty to stimulate cultural learning and exchange. During the

Kublai Khan Kublai Khan (23 September 1215 – 18 February 1294), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Shizu of Yuan and his regnal name Setsen Khan, was the founder and first emperor of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty of China. He proclaimed the ...

demanded the submission of the ''King of Japan'', referring to the Japanese emperor. Japan rejected this demand, which resulted in the

Mongol invasions of Japan Major military efforts were taken by Kublai Khan of the Yuan dynasty in 1274 and 1281 to conquer the Japanese archipelago after the submission of the Korean kingdom of Goryeo to Vassal state, vassaldom. Ultimately a failure, the invasion attemp ...

. During the

Nanboku-chō period The , also known as the Northern and Southern Courts period, was a period in Japanese history between 1336-1392 CE, during the formative years of the Ashikaga shogunate, Muromachi (Ashikaga) shogunate. Ideologically, the two courts fought for 50 ...

of Japan, Prince Kaneyoshi refused to accept the title of ''king'' granted by China, and killed seven Chinese ambassadors in retaliation. The shogun Ashikaga Yoshimitsu accepted the title ''King of Japan'' bestowed by the

Yongle Emperor The Yongle Emperor (2 May 1360 – 12 August 1424), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Chengzu of Ming, personal name Zhu Di, was the third List of emperors of the Ming dynasty, emperor of the Ming dynasty, reigning from 1402 to 142 ...

due to his desire to establish trade relations with the

. During the rule of the

Tokugawa shogunate The Tokugawa shogunate, also known as the was the military government of Japan during the Edo period from 1603 to 1868. The Tokugawa shogunate was established by Tokugawa Ieyasu after victory at the Battle of Sekigahara, ending the civil wars ...

, Tokugawa Hidetada changed the title of ''king'' to '' taikun'' (大君), as a sign of respect to the Japanese emperor. Thereafter,

Tokugawa Ienobu (11 June 1662 – 12 November 1712) was the sixth ''shōgun'' of the Tokugawa dynasty of Japan. He was the eldest son of Tokugawa Tsunashige, thus making him the nephew of Tokugawa Ietsuna and Tokugawa Tsunayoshi, the grandson of Tokugawa Iem ...

switched the title back to ''king'', only to be changed once again to ''taikun'' by Tokugawa Yoshimune. Following the

Meiji Restoration The , referred to at the time as the , and also known as the Meiji Renovation, Revolution, Regeneration, Reform, or Renewal, was a political event that restored Imperial House of Japan, imperial rule to Japan in 1868 under Emperor Meiji. Althoug ...

in 1868, the Japanese emperor regained his political power. The Treaty of Shimonoseki in 1895 calls the Japanese emperor ''The Great Emperor of the Japanese Empire'' (大日本帝國大皇帝陛). Text of the Treaty of Shimonoseki on

Wikisource Wikisource is an online wiki-based digital library of free-content source text, textual sources operated by the Wikimedia Foundation. Wikisource is the name of the project as a whole; it is also the name for each instance of that project, one f ...

(Chinese)

Notes

References