ELIZA is an early
natural language processing
Natural language processing (NLP) is a subfield of computer science and especially artificial intelligence. It is primarily concerned with providing computers with the ability to process data encoded in natural language and is thus closely related ...
computer program
A computer program is a sequence or set of instructions in a programming language for a computer to Execution (computing), execute. It is one component of software, which also includes software documentation, documentation and other intangibl ...
developed from 1964 to 1967
at
MIT
The Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) is a private research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States. Established in 1861, MIT has played a significant role in the development of many areas of modern technology and sc ...
by
Joseph Weizenbaum
Joseph Weizenbaum (8 January 1923 – 5 March 2008) was a German-American computer scientist and a professor at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, MIT. He is the namesake of the Weizenbaum Award and the Weizenbaum Institute.
Life and career
...
.
Created to explore communication between humans and machines, ELIZA simulated conversation by using a
pattern matching
In computer science, pattern matching is the act of checking a given sequence of tokens for the presence of the constituents of some pattern. In contrast to pattern recognition, the match usually must be exact: "either it will or will not be a ...
and substitution
methodology
In its most common sense, methodology is the study of research methods. However, the term can also refer to the methods themselves or to the philosophical discussion of associated background assumptions. A method is a structured procedure for bri ...
that gave users an illusion of
understanding
Understanding is a cognitive process related to an abstract or physical object, such as a person, situation, or message whereby one is able to use concepts to model that object.
Understanding is a relation between the knower and an object of u ...
on the part of the program, but had no representation that could be considered really understanding what was being said by either party.
Whereas the ELIZA program itself was written (originally) in
MAD-SLIP, the pattern matching directives that contained most of its language capability were provided in separate "scripts", represented in a
lisp-like representation. The most famous script, DOCTOR, simulated a
psychotherapist of the Rogerian school (in which the therapist often reflects back the patient's words to the patient),
and used rules, dictated in the script, to respond with non-directional questions to user inputs. As such, ELIZA was one of the first
chatterbot
A chatbot (originally chatterbot) is a software application or web interface designed to have textual or spoken conversations. Modern chatbots are typically online and use generative artificial intelligence systems that are capable of main ...
s ("chatbot" modernly) and one of the first programs capable of attempting the
Turing test
The Turing test, originally called the imitation game by Alan Turing in 1949,. Turing wrote about the ‘imitation game’ centrally and extensively throughout his 1950 text, but apparently retired the term thereafter. He referred to ‘ iste ...
.
Weizenbaum intended the program as a method to explore communication between humans and machines. He was surprised and shocked that some people, including his secretary, attributed human-like feelings to the computer program, a phenomenon that came to be called the
Eliza effect
In computer science, the ELIZA effect is a tendency to project human traits — such as experience, semantic comprehension or empathy — onto rudimentary computer programs having a textual interface. ELIZA was a symbolic AI chatbot developed in 1 ...
. Many academics believed that the program would be able to positively influence the lives of many people, particularly those with psychological issues, and that it could aid doctors working on such patients' treatment. While ELIZA was capable of engaging in discourse, it could not converse with true understanding.
However, many early users were convinced of ELIZA's intelligence and understanding, despite Weizenbaum's insistence to the contrary.
The original ELIZA
source code
In computing, source code, or simply code or source, is a plain text computer program written in a programming language. A programmer writes the human readable source code to control the behavior of a computer.
Since a computer, at base, only ...
had been missing since its creation in the 1960s, as it was not common to publish articles that included source code at that time. However, more recently the MAD-SLIP source code was discovered in the MIT archives and published on various platforms, such as the
Internet Archive
The Internet Archive is an American 501(c)(3) organization, non-profit organization founded in 1996 by Brewster Kahle that runs a digital library website, archive.org. It provides free access to collections of digitized media including web ...
.
The source code is of high historical interest since it demonstrates not only the specificity of programming languages and techniques at that time, but also the beginning of software layering and abstraction as a means of achieving sophisticated software programming.
Overview
Joseph Weizenbaum
Joseph Weizenbaum (8 January 1923 – 5 March 2008) was a German-American computer scientist and a professor at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, MIT. He is the namesake of the Weizenbaum Award and the Weizenbaum Institute.
Life and career
...
's ELIZA, running the DOCTOR script, created a conversational interaction somewhat similar to what might take place in the office of "a
on-directivepsychotherapist in an initial psychiatric interview" and to "demonstrate that the communication between man and machine was superficial". While ELIZA is best known for acting in the manner of a psychotherapist, the speech patterns are due to the data and instructions supplied by the DOCTOR script.
ELIZA itself examined the text for keywords, applied values to said keywords, and transformed the input into an output; the script that ELIZA ran determined the keywords, set the values of keywords, and set the rules of transformation for the output.
Weizenbaum chose to make the DOCTOR script in the context of psychotherapy to "sidestep the problem of giving the program a data base of real-world knowledge", allowing it to reflect back the patient's statements to carry the conversation forward. The result was a somewhat intelligent-seeming response that reportedly deceived some early users of the program.
Weizenbaum named his program ELIZA after
Eliza Doolittle
Eliza Doolittle is a fictional character and the protagonist in George Bernard Shaw's play '' Pygmalion'' (1913) and its 1956 musical adaptation, ''My Fair Lady''.
Eliza (from Lisson Grove, London) is a Cockney flower seller, who comes to Prof ...
, a working-class character in
George Bernard Shaw
George Bernard Shaw (26 July 1856 – 2 November 1950), known at his insistence as Bernard Shaw, was an Irish playwright, critic, polemicist and political activist. His influence on Western theatre, culture and politics extended from the 188 ...
's ''
Pygmalion'' (also appearing in the musical ''
My Fair Lady
''My Fair Lady'' is a musical theatre, musical with a book and lyrics by Alan Jay Lerner and music by Frederick Loewe. The story, based on George Bernard Shaw's 1913 play ''Pygmalion (play), Pygmalion'' and on the Pygmalion (1938 film), 1938 film ...
'', which was based on the play and was hugely popular at the time). According to Weizenbaum, ELIZA's ability to be "incrementally improved" by various users made it similar to Eliza Doolittle,
since Eliza Doolittle was taught to speak with an
upper-class
Upper class in modern societies is the social class composed of people who hold the highest social status. Usually, these are the wealthiest members of class society, and wield the greatest political power. According to this view, the upper cla ...
accent in Shaw's play.
[.] However, unlike the human character in Shaw's play, ELIZA is incapable of learning new patterns of speech or new words through interaction alone. Edits must be made directly to ELIZA's active script in order to change the manner by which the program operates.
Weizenbaum first implemented ELIZA in his own
SLIP
Slip or The Slip may refer to:
* Slip (clothing), an underdress or underskirt
Music
* The Slip (band), a rock band
* ''Slip'' (album), a 1993 album by the band Quicksand
* ''The Slip'' (album) (2008), a.k.a. Halo 27, the seventh studio al ...
list-processing language, where, depending upon the initial entries by the user, the illusion of human intelligence could appear, or be dispelled through several interchanges.
Some of ELIZA's responses were so convincing that Weizenbaum and several others have anecdotes of users becoming emotionally attached to the program, occasionally forgetting that they were conversing with a computer. Weizenbaum's own secretary reportedly asked Weizenbaum to leave the room so that she and ELIZA could have a real conversation. Weizenbaum was surprised by this, later writing: "I had not realized ... that extremely short exposures to a relatively simple computer program could induce powerful delusional thinking in quite normal people."
In 1966, interactive computing (via a teletype) was new. It was 11 years before the personal computer became familiar to the general public, and three decades before most people encountered attempts at
natural language processing
Natural language processing (NLP) is a subfield of computer science and especially artificial intelligence. It is primarily concerned with providing computers with the ability to process data encoded in natural language and is thus closely related ...
in Internet services like
Ask.com
Ask.com (known originally as Ask Jeeves) is an answer engine, e-magazine, and former web search engine, operated by Ask Media Group. It was conceptualized and developed in 1996 by Garrett Gruener and David Warthen (based in Berkeley, Califo ...
or PC help systems such as Microsoft Office
Clippit. Although those programs included years of research and work, ELIZA remains a milestone because it was the first time a programmer had attempted such a human-machine interaction with the goal of creating the illusion (however brief) of human–''human'' interaction.
At the
ICCC 1972, ELIZA was brought together with another early artificial-intelligence program named
PARRY
Parry may refer to:
People
* Parry (surname)
* Parry (given name)
Fictional characters
* Parry, protagonist of the movie ''The Fisher King'', played by Robin Williams
* Parry in the series '' Incarnations of Immortality'' by Piers Anthony
* ...
for a computer-only conversation. While ELIZA was built to speak as a doctor, PARRY was intended to simulate a patient with
schizophrenia
Schizophrenia () is a mental disorder characterized variously by hallucinations (typically, Auditory hallucination#Schizophrenia, hearing voices), delusions, thought disorder, disorganized thinking and behavior, and Reduced affect display, f ...
.
Design and implementation
Weizenbaum originally wrote ELIZA in MAD-SLIP for
CTSS on an
IBM 7094
The IBM 7090 is a second-generation transistorized version of the earlier IBM 709 vacuum tube mainframe computer that was designed for "large-scale scientific and technological applications". The 7090 is the fourth member of the IBM 700/7000 se ...
as a program to make natural-language conversation possible with a computer. To accomplish this, Weizenbaum identified five "fundamental technical problems" for ELIZA to overcome: the identification of key words, the discovery of a minimal context, the choice of appropriate transformations, the generation of responses in the absence of key words, and the provision of an editing capability for ELIZA scripts.
Weizenbaum solved these problems and made ELIZA such that it had no built-in contextual framework or universe of discourse.
However, this required ELIZA to have a script of instructions on how to respond to inputs from users.
ELIZA starts its process of responding to an input by a user by first examining the text input for a "keyword".
A "keyword" is a word designated as important by the acting ELIZA script, which assigns to each keyword a precedence number, or a RANK, designed by the programmer.
If such words are found, they are put into a "keystack", with the keyword of the highest RANK at the top. The input sentence is then manipulated and transformed as the rule associated with the keyword of the highest RANK directs.
For example, when the DOCTOR script encounters words such as "alike" or "same", it would output a message pertaining to similarity, in this case "In what way?",
as these words had high precedence number. This also demonstrates how certain words, as dictated by the script, can be manipulated regardless of contextual considerations, such as switching first-person pronouns and second-person pronouns and vice versa, as these too had high precedence numbers. Such words with high precedence numbers are deemed superior to conversational patterns and are treated independently of contextual patterns.
Following the first examination, the next step of the process is to apply an appropriate transformation rule, which includes two parts: the "decomposition rule" and the "reassembly rule".
First, the input is reviewed for syntactical patterns in order to establish the minimal context necessary to respond. Using the keywords and other nearby words from the input, different disassembly rules are tested until an appropriate pattern is found. Using the script's rules, the sentence is then "dismantled" and arranged into sections of the component parts as the "decomposition rule for the highest-ranking keyword" dictates. The example that Weizenbaum gives is the input "You are very helpful", which is transformed to "I are very helpful". This is then broken into (1) empty (2) "I" (3) "are" (4) "very helpful". The decomposition rule has broken the phrase into four small segments that contain both the keywords and the information in the sentence.
The decomposition rule then designates a particular reassembly rule, or set of reassembly rules, to follow when reconstructing the sentence.
The reassembly rule takes the fragments of the input that the decomposition rule had created, rearranges them, and adds in programmed words to create a response. Using Weizenbaum's example previously stated, such a reassembly rule would take the fragments and apply them to the phrase "What makes you think I am (4)", which would result in "What makes you think I am very helpful?". This example is rather simple, since depending upon the disassembly rule, the output could be significantly more complex and use more of the input from the user. However, from this reassembly, ELIZA then sends the constructed sentence to the user in the form of text on the screen.
These steps represent the bulk of the procedures that ELIZA follows in order to create a response from a typical input, though there are several specialized situations that ELIZA/DOCTOR can respond to. One Weizenbaum specifically wrote about was when there is no keyword. One solution was to have ELIZA respond with a remark that lacked content, such as "I see" or "Please go on".
The second method was to use a "MEMORY" structure, which recorded prior recent inputs, and would use these inputs to create a response referencing a part of the earlier conversation when encountered with no keywords.
This was possible due to Slip's ability to tag words for other usage, which simultaneously allowed ELIZA to examine, store, and repurpose words for usage in outputs.
While these functions were all framed in ELIZA's programming, the exact manner by which the program dismantled, examined, and reassembled inputs is determined by the operating script. The script is not static and can be edited, or a new one created, as is necessary for the operation in the context needed. This would allow the program to be applied in multiple situations, including the well-known DOCTOR script, which simulates a Rogerian psychotherapist.
A
Lisp
Lisp (historically LISP, an abbreviation of "list processing") is a family of programming languages with a long history and a distinctive, fully parenthesized Polish notation#Explanation, prefix notation.
Originally specified in the late 1950s, ...
version of ELIZA, based on Weizenbaum's CACM paper, was written shortly after that paper's publication by Bernie Cosell.
A
BASIC
Basic or BASIC may refer to:
Science and technology
* BASIC, a computer programming language
* Basic (chemistry), having the properties of a base
* Basic access authentication, in HTTP
Entertainment
* Basic (film), ''Basic'' (film), a 2003 film
...
version appeared in ''
Creative Computing
''Creative Computing'' was one of the earliest magazines covering the microcomputer revolution. Published from October 1974 until December 1985, the magazine covered the spectrum of hobbyist/home/personal computing in a more accessible format t ...
'' in 1977 (although it was written in 1973 by Jeff Shrager). This version, which was ported to many of the earliest personal computers, appears to have been subsequently translated into many other versions in many other languages. Shrager claims not to have seen either Weizenbaum's or Cosell's versions.
In 2021, Jeff Shrager searched MIT's Weizenbaum archives, along with
MIT
The Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) is a private research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States. Established in 1861, MIT has played a significant role in the development of many areas of modern technology and sc ...
archivist Myles Crowley, and found files labeled Computer Conversations. These included the complete source code listing of ELIZA in MAD-SLIP, with the DOCTOR script attached. The Weizenbaum estate gave permission to open-source this code under a
Creative Commons
Creative Commons (CC) is an American non-profit organization and international network devoted to educational access and expanding the range of creative works available for others to build upon legally and to share. The organization has release ...
CC0
public domain
The public domain (PD) consists of all the creative work to which no Exclusive exclusive intellectual property rights apply. Those rights may have expired, been forfeited, expressly Waiver, waived, or may be inapplicable. Because no one holds ...
license. The code and other information can be found on the ELIZAGEN site.
The 1965 source code has been dated as part of a software archaeology project which brings together researchers from
USC USC may refer to:
Education
United States
* Universidad del Sagrado Corazón, Santurce, Puerto Rico
* University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina
** University of South Carolina System, a state university system of South Carolina
* ...
,
University of Sussex
The University of Sussex is a public university, public research university, research university located in Falmer, East Sussex, England. It lies mostly within the city boundaries of Brighton and Hove. Its large campus site is surrounded by the ...
,
Oxford
Oxford () is a City status in the United Kingdom, cathedral city and non-metropolitan district in Oxfordshire, England, of which it is the county town.
The city is home to the University of Oxford, the List of oldest universities in continuou ...
, and
Stanford University
Leland Stanford Junior University, commonly referred to as Stanford University, is a Private university, private research university in Stanford, California, United States. It was founded in 1885 by railroad magnate Leland Stanford (the eighth ...
, who have worked together to unravel the complicated history of ELIZA.
In December 2024, Rupert Lane, with the assistance of several other engineers who had been studying the original MAD-SLIP ELIZA, brought up the original ELIZA and demonstrated that the implementation of ELIZA based on the discovered code can reproduce almost exactly the published conversations with ELIZA from Weizenbaum's 1966 paper. This original ELIZA was reconstructed using the vast majority of the 1965 version of the source code: approximately 96% of the functions. This was run on a version of the original MIT
CTSS running on a
7094 emulator, both of the latter due to David Pitts.
Another version of Eliza popular among software engineers is the version that comes with the default release of
GNU Emacs
GNU Emacs is a text editor and suite of free software tools. Its development began in 1984 by GNU Project founder Richard Stallman, based on the Emacs editor developed for Unix operating systems. GNU Emacs has been a central component of the GNU ...
, and which can be accessed by typing
M-x doctor
from most modern
Emacs
Emacs (), originally named EMACS (an acronym for "Editor Macros"), is a family of text editors that are characterized by their extensibility. The manual for the most widely used variant, GNU Emacs, describes it as "the extensible, customizable, s ...
implementations.
Pseudocode
From Figure 15.5, Chapter 15 of Speech and Language Processing (third edition).
function ELIZA GENERATOR(user ''sentence'') returns ''response''
Let ''w'' be the word in ''sentence'' that has the highest keyword rank
if ''w'' exists
Let r be the highest ranked rule for w that matches sentence
''response'' ← Apply the transform in ''r'' to ''sentence''
if w = 'my'
''future'' ← Apply a transformation from the ‘memory’ rule list to ''sentence''
Push ''future'' onto the memory queue
else (no keyword applies)
Either
''response'' ← Apply the transform for the NONE keyword to ''sentence''
Or
''response'' ← Pop the oldest response from the memory queue
Return ''response''
Response and legacy
Lay responses to ELIZA were disturbing to Weizenbaum and motivated him to write his book ''
Computer Power and Human Reason: From Judgment to Calculation'', in which he explains the limits of computers, as he wants to make clear his opinion that the anthropomorphic views of computers are just a reduction of human beings or any life form for that matter. In the independent documentary film ''
Plug & Pray'' (2010) Weizenbaum said that only people who misunderstood ELIZA called it a sensation.
David Avidan
David Avidan (; February 21, 1934 – May 11, 1995) was an Israeli "poet, painter, filmmaker, publicist, and playwright" (as he often put it). He wrote 20 published books of Hebrew poetry.
Biography and literary career
He was born in Tel Aviv, M ...
, who was fascinated with future technologies and their relation to art, desired to explore the use of computers for writing literature. He conducted several conversations with an
APL implementation of ELIZA and published them – in English, and in his own translation to
Hebrew
Hebrew (; ''ʿÎbrit'') is a Northwest Semitic languages, Northwest Semitic language within the Afroasiatic languages, Afroasiatic language family. A regional dialect of the Canaanite languages, it was natively spoken by the Israelites and ...
– under the title ''My Electronic Psychiatrist – Eight Authentic Talks with a Computer''. In the foreword, he presented it as a form of
constrained writing
Constrained writing is a literary technique in which the writer is bound by some condition that forbids certain things or imposes a pattern.
Constraints are very common in poetry, which often requires the writer to use a particular verse form.
D ...
.
There are many programs based on ELIZA in different programming languages. For
MS-DOS
MS-DOS ( ; acronym for Microsoft Disk Operating System, also known as Microsoft DOS) is an operating system for x86-based personal computers mostly developed by Microsoft. Collectively, MS-DOS, its rebranding as IBM PC DOS, and a few op ...
computers, some
Sound Blaster
Sound Blaster is a family of sound cards and audio peripherals designed by Creative Technology, Creative Technology/Creative Labs of Singapore. The first Sound Blaster card was introduced in 1989.
Sound Blaster sound cards were the de facto stan ...
cards came bundled with
Dr. Sbaitso, which functions like the DOCTOR script. Other versions adapted ELIZA around a religious theme, such as ones featuring Jesus (both serious and comedic), and another Apple II variant called ''I Am Buddha''. The 1980 game ''
The Prisoner
''The Prisoner'' is a British television series created by Patrick McGoohan. McGoohan portrays Number Six (The Prisoner), Number Six, an unnamed British intelligence agent who is abducted and imprisoned in a The Village (The Prisoner), mysteri ...
'' incorporated ELIZA-style interaction within its gameplay. In 1988, the British artist and friend of Weizenbaum
Brian Reffin Smith created two art-oriented ELIZA-style programs written in
BASIC
Basic or BASIC may refer to:
Science and technology
* BASIC, a computer programming language
* Basic (chemistry), having the properties of a base
* Basic access authentication, in HTTP
Entertainment
* Basic (film), ''Basic'' (film), a 2003 film
...
, one called "Critic" and the other "Artist", running on two separate
Amiga 1000
The Amiga 1000, also known as the A1000, is the first personal computer released by Commodore International in the Amiga line. It combines the 16/32-bit Motorola 68000 CPU which was powerful by 1985 standards with one of the most advanced grap ...
computers and showed them at the exhibition "Salamandre" in the Musée du Berry,
Bourges
Bourges ( ; ; ''Borges'' in Berrichon) is a commune in central France on the river Yèvre (Cher), Yèvre. It is the capital of the Departments of France, department of Cher (department), Cher, and also was the capital city of the former provin ...
, France. The visitor was supposed to help them converse by typing in to "Artist" what "Critic" said, and vice versa. The secret was that the two programs were identical.
GNU Emacs
GNU Emacs is a text editor and suite of free software tools. Its development began in 1984 by GNU Project founder Richard Stallman, based on the Emacs editor developed for Unix operating systems. GNU Emacs has been a central component of the GNU ...
formerly had a
psychoanalyze-pinhead
command
Command may refer to:
Computing
* Command (computing), a statement in a computer language
* command (Unix), a Unix command
* COMMAND.COM, the default operating system shell and command-line interpreter for DOS
* Command key, a modifier key on A ...
that simulates a session between ELIZA and
Zippy the Pinhead
Zippy the Pinhead is a fictional character who is the protagonist of ''Zippy'', an American comic strip created by Bill Griffith. Zippy's most famous quotation, "Are we having fun yet?", appears in ''Bartlett's Familiar Quotations'' and became a ...
. The Zippyisms were removed due to copyright issues, but the DOCTOR program remains.
ELIZA has been referenced in popular culture and continues to be a source of inspiration for programmers and developers focused on artificial intelligence. It was also featured in a 2012 exhibit at
Harvard University
Harvard University is a Private university, private Ivy League research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States. Founded in 1636 and named for its first benefactor, the History of the Puritans in North America, Puritan clergyma ...
titled "Go Ask
A.L.I.C.E.", as part of a celebration of mathematician
Alan Turing
Alan Mathison Turing (; 23 June 1912 – 7 June 1954) was an English mathematician, computer scientist, logician, cryptanalyst, philosopher and theoretical biologist. He was highly influential in the development of theoretical computer ...
's 100th birthday. The exhibit explores Turing's lifelong fascination with the interaction between humans and computers, pointing to ELIZA as one of the earliest realizations of Turing's ideas.
[
ELIZA won a 2021 Legacy ]Peabody Award
The George Foster Peabody Awards (or simply Peabody Awards or the Peabodys) program, named for the American businessman and philanthropist George Foster Peabody, George Peabody, honor what are described as the most powerful, enlightening, and in ...
. A 2023 preprint
In academic publishing, a preprint is a version of a scholarly or scientific paper that precedes formal peer review and publication in a peer-reviewed scholarly or scientific journal. The preprint may be available, often as a non-typeset versi ...
reported that ELIZA beat OpenAI
OpenAI, Inc. is an American artificial intelligence (AI) organization founded in December 2015 and headquartered in San Francisco, California. It aims to develop "safe and beneficial" artificial general intelligence (AGI), which it defines ...
's GPT-3.5, the model used by ChatGPT
ChatGPT is a generative artificial intelligence chatbot developed by OpenAI and released on November 30, 2022. It uses large language models (LLMs) such as GPT-4o as well as other Multimodal learning, multimodal models to create human-like re ...
at the time, in a Turing test
The Turing test, originally called the imitation game by Alan Turing in 1949,. Turing wrote about the ‘imitation game’ centrally and extensively throughout his 1950 text, but apparently retired the term thereafter. He referred to ‘ iste ...
study. However, it did not outperform GPT-4
Generative Pre-trained Transformer 4 (GPT-4) is a multimodal large language model trained and created by OpenAI and the fourth in its series of GPT foundation models. It was launched on March 14, 2023, and made publicly available via the p ...
or real humans.
Eliza Effect
The Eliza effect borrowed its name from ELIZA the chatbot. This effect is first defined in '' Fluid Concepts and Creative Analogies: Computer Models and the Fundamental Mechanisms of Thought'' as humans’ assumption of which computer programs understand the user inputs and make analogies. However, it has no permanent knowledge but “handling a list of ‘assertions’.”
This misunderstanding can potentially manipulate and misinform users. When interacting and communicating with chatbots, users can be overly confident in the reliability of the chatbots’ answers. Other than misinforming, the chatbot's human-mimicking nature can also cause severe consequences, especially for younger users who lack a sufficient understanding of the chatbot's mechanism.
References
Bibliography
* .
* .
* .
* .
Further reading
*
External links
ELIZAGEN
- Weizenbaum's original code for ELIZA
Collection
of several source code versions at GitHub
GitHub () is a Proprietary software, proprietary developer platform that allows developers to create, store, manage, and share their code. It uses Git to provide distributed version control and GitHub itself provides access control, bug trackin ...
* , a collection of dialogues between ELIZA and various conversants, such as a company vice president and PARRY
Parry may refer to:
People
* Parry (surname)
* Parry (given name)
Fictional characters
* Parry, protagonist of the movie ''The Fisher King'', played by Robin Williams
* Parry in the series '' Incarnations of Immortality'' by Piers Anthony
* ...
(a simulation of a paranoid schizophrenic)
Weizenbaum. Rebel at work
– Peter Haas, Silvia Holzinger, Documentary film with Joseph Weizenbaum and ELIZA.
CORECURSIVE #078; The History and Mystery Of Eliza; With Jeff Shrager
– Adam Gordon Bell interviews Jeff Shrager, author of the 1973/77 BASIC ELIZA, and discoverer of the original ELIZA code.
ELIZA Reanimated
ELIZAGen.org blog post describing Rupert Lane's restoration of the original MAD-SLIP ELIZA running on CTSS on a 7094 emulator
{{DEFAULTSORT:Eliza
History of artificial intelligence
Chatbots
Health software
Psychotherapy
Public-domain software with source code
1960s electronic literature works
American electronic literature works