Dhamma

Dharma (; sa, धर्म, dharma, ; pi, dhamma, italic=yes) is a key concept with multiple meanings in Indian religions, such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism and others. Although there is no direct single-word translation for ''dharma'' in European languages, it is commonly translated as "righteousness", "merit" or "religious and moral duties" governing individual conduct.Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. (9 April 2019)
Dharma
. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. Accessed 14 September 2021.

In Hinduism, dharma is one of the four components of the '' Puruṣārtha'', the aims of life, and signifies behaviours that are considered to be in accord with '' Ṛta'', the order that makes life and universe possible. It includes duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues and "right way of living".see: *"Dharma", ''The Columbia Encyclopedia'', 6th Ed. (2013), Columbia University Press, Gale, ; *Steven Rosen (2006), Essential Hinduism, Praeger, , Chapter 3. It had a transtemporal validity.

In Buddhism, dharma means "cosmic law and order",dhamma
, ''The New Concise Pali English Dictionary''. as expressed by the teachings of the Buddha. In Buddhist philosophy, '' dhamma/dharma'' is also the term for "phenomena". David Kalupahana. ''The Philosophy of the Middle Way''. SUNY Press, 1986, pp. 15–16.

Dharma in Jainism refers to the teachings of '' Tirthankara'' (''Jina'') and the body of doctrine pertaining to the purification and moral transformation of human beings.

In Sikhism, dharma means the path of righteousness and proper religious practice and one's own moral duties toward God.

The concept of dharma was already in use in the historical Vedic religion, and its meaning and conceptual scope has evolved over several millennia. The ancient Tamil moral text '' Tirukkuṟaḷ'', despite being a collection of aphoristic teachings on dharma (''aram''), artha (''porul''), and kama (''inpam''), is completely and exclusively based on '' aṟam'', the Tamil term for dharma. As with the other components of the ''Puruṣārtha'', the concept of dharma is pan-Indian. The antonym of dharma is '' adharma''.

Etymology

The word ''dharma'' has roots in the Sanskrit ''dhr-'', which means ''to hold'' or ''to support'', and is related to Latin ''firmus'' (firm, stable). Chambers Dictionary of Etymology, Barnhart, R. K., editor (1998). From this, it takes the meaning of "what is established or firm", and hence "law". It is derived from an older Vedic Sanskrit ''n''-stem ''dharman-'', with a literal meaning of "bearer, supporter", in a religious sense conceived as an aspect of Rta.

In the Rigveda, the word appears as an ''n''-stem, ', with a range of meanings encompassing "something established or firm" (in the literal sense of prods or poles). Figuratively, it means "sustainer" and "supporter" (of deities). It is semantically similar to the Greek '' themis'' ("fixed decree, statute, law").

In Classical Sanskrit, and in the Vedic Sanskrit of the Atharvaveda, the stem is thematic: ' ( Devanagari: धर्म). In Prakrit and Pali, it is rendered ''dhamma''. In some contemporary Indian languages and dialects it alternatively occurs as ''dharm''.

In the 3rd century BCE the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka translated ''dharma'' into Greek and Aramaic he used the Greek word '' eusebeia'' (εὐσέβεια, piety, spiritual maturity, or godliness) in the Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription and the Kandahar Greek Edicts. In the Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription he used the Aramaic word ('; truth, rectitude).

Definition

Dharma is a concept of central importance in Indian philosophy and religion. It has multiple meanings in Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism and Jainism. It is difficult to provide a single concise definition for ''dharma'', as the word has a long and varied history and straddles a complex set of meanings and interpretations. There is no equivalent single-word synonym for ''dharma'' in western languages.See:
* Ludo Rocher (2003), The Dharmasastra, Chapter 4, in Gavin Flood (Editor), ''The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism'', .
* Alban G. Widgery, "The Principles of Hindu Ethics", ''International Journal of Ethics'', Vol. 40, No. 2 (Jan. 1930), pp. 232–245.

There have been numerous, conflicting attempts to translate ancient Sanskrit literature with the word ''dharma'' into German, English and French. The concept, claims Paul Horsch, has caused exceptional difficulties for modern commentators and translators. For example, while Grassmann's translation of Rig-Veda identifies seven different meanings of dharma, Karl Friedrich Geldner in his translation of the Rig-Veda employs 20 different translations for dharma, including meanings such as "law", "order", "duty", "custom", "quality", and "model", among others. However, the word ''dharma'' has become a widely accepted loanword in English, and is included in all modern unabridged English dictionaries.

The root of the word ''dharma'' is "dhr̥", which means "to support, hold, or bear". It is the thing that regulates the course of change by not participating in change, but that principle which remains constant.Steven Rosen (2006), ''Essential Hinduism'', Praeger, , pp. 34–45. Monier-Williams, the widely cited resource for definitions and explanation of Sanskrit words and concepts of Hinduism, offers numerous definitions of the word ''dharma'', such as that which is established or firm, steadfast decree, statute, law, practice, custom, duty, right, justice, virtue, morality, ethics, religion, religious merit, good works, nature, character, quality, property. Yet, each of these definitions is incomplete, while the combination of these translations does not convey the total sense of the word. In common parlance, ''dharma'' means "right way of living" and "path of rightness".

The meaning of the word ''dharma'' depends on the context, and its meaning has evolved as ideas of Hinduism have developed through history. In the earliest texts and ancient myths of Hinduism, ''dharma'' meant cosmic law, the rules that created the universe from chaos, as well as rituals; in later Vedas, Upanishads, Puranas and the Epics, the meaning became refined, richer, and more complex, and the word was applied to diverse contexts.see:
*English translated version by Jarrod Whitaker (2004): Horsch, Paul, "From Creation Myth to World Law: the Early History of Dharma", ''Journal of Indian Philosophy'', December 2004, Volume 32, Issue 5–6, pp. 423–448; Original peer reviewed publication in German: Horsch, Paul, "Vom Schoepfungsmythos zum Weltgesetz", in ''Asiatische Studien: Zeitschrift der Schweizerischen Gesellschaft für Asiankunde'', Volume 21 (Francke: 1967), pp. 31–61;
*English translated version by Donald R. Davis (2006): Paul Hacker, "Dharma in Hinduism", ''Journal of Indian Philosophy'', Volume 34, Issue 5, pp. 479–496; Original peer reviewed publication in German: Paul Hacker, "Dharma im Hinduismus" in ''Zeitschrift für Missionswissenschaft und Religionswissenschaft'' 49 (1965): pp. 93–106.
In certain contexts, ''dharma'' designates human behaviours considered necessary for order of things in the universe, principles that prevent chaos, behaviours and action necessary to all life in nature, society, family as well as at the individual level. ''Dharma'' encompasses ideas such as duty, rights, character, vocation, religion, customs and all behaviour considered appropriate, correct or morally upright.

The antonym of ''dharma'' is '' adharma'' (Sanskrit: अधर्म), meaning that which is "not dharma". As with ''dharma'', the word ''adharma'' includes and implies many ideas; in common parlance, adharma means that which is against nature, immoral, unethical, wrong or unlawful.

In Buddhism, ''dharma'' incorporates the teachings and doctrines of the founder of Buddhism, the Buddha.

History

According to Pandurang Vaman Kane, author of the authoritative book ''History of Dharmaśāstra'', the word ''dharma'' appears at least fifty-six times in the hymns of the Rigveda, as an adjective or noun. According to Paul Horsch,Horsch, Paul, "From Creation Myth to World Law: the Early History of Dharma", ''Journal of Indian Philosophy'', December 2004, Volume 32, Issue 5-6, pp. 423–448. the word ''dharma'' has its origin in the myths of Vedic Hinduism. The hymns of the Rig Veda claim Brahman created the universe from chaos, they hold (dhar-) the earth and sun and stars apart, they support (dhar-) the sky away and distinct from earth, and they stabilise (dhar-) the quaking mountains and plains.

The gods, mainly Indra, then deliver and hold order from disorder, harmony from chaos, stability from instability – actions recited in the Veda with the root of word dharma. In hymns composed after the mythological verses, the word dharma takes expanded meaning as a cosmic principle and appears in verses independent of gods. It evolves into a concept, claims Paul Horsch, that has a dynamic functional sense in Atharvaveda for example, where it becomes the cosmic law that links cause and effect through a subject. Dharma, in these ancient texts, also takes a ritual meaning. The ritual is connected to the cosmic, and "dharmani" is equated to ceremonial devotion to the principles that gods used to create order from disorder, the world from chaos.

Past the ritual and cosmic sense of dharma that link the current world to mythical universe, the concept extends to ethical-social sense that links human beings to each other and to other life forms. It is here that dharma as a concept of law emerges in Hinduism.

Dharma and related words are found in the oldest Vedic literature of Hinduism, in later Vedas, Upanishads, Puranas, and the Epics; the word dharma also plays a central role in the literature of other Indian religions founded later, such as Buddhism and Jainism. According to Brereton, ''Dharman'' occurs 63 times in Rig-veda; in addition, words related to Dharman also appear in Rig-veda, for example once as dharmakrt, 6 times as ''satyadharman'', and once as ''dharmavant'', 4 times as ''dharman'' and twice as ''dhariman''.

Indo-European parallels for "dharma" are known, but the only Iranian equivalent is Old Persian ''darmān'' "remedy", the meaning of which is rather removed from Indo-Aryan ''dhárman'', suggesting that the word "dharma" did not have a major role in the Indo-Iranian period, and was principally developed more recently under the Vedic tradition.Joel Brereton (2004), "Dharman in the RgVeda", ''Journal of Indian Philosophy'', Vol. 32
pp. 449–489
"There are Indo-European parallels to ''dhárman'' (cf. Wennerberg 1981: 95f.), but the only Iranian equivalent is Old Persian ''darmān'', 'remedy', which has little bearing on Indo-Aryan ''dhárman''. There is thus no evidence that IIr. *dharman was a significant culture word during the Indo-Iranian period." (p. 449) "The origin of the concept of dharman rests in its formation. It is a Vedic, rather than an Indo-Iranian word, and a more recent coinage than many other key religious terms of the Vedic tradition. Its meaning derives directly from dhr 'support, uphold, give foundation to' and therefore 'foundation' is a reasonable gloss in most of its attestations." (p. 485)

However, it is thought that the ''Daena'' of Zoroastrianism, also meaning the "eternal Law" or "religion", is related to Sanskrit "dharma".

Ideas in parts overlapping to ''Dharma'' are found in other ancient cultures: such as Chinese Tao, Egyptian Maat, Sumerian Me.

Eusebeia and dharma

In the mid-20th century, an inscription of the Indian Emperor Asoka from the year 258 BC was discovered in Afghanistan, the Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription. This rock inscription contains Greek and Aramaic text. According to Paul Hacker, on the rock appears a Greek rendering for the Sanskrit word dharma: the word eusebeia.Paul Hacker (1965), "Dharma in Hinduism", '' Journal of Indian Philosophy'', Volume 34, Issue 5, pp. 479–496 (English translated version by Donald R. Davis (2006)).

Scholars of Hellenistic Greece explain eusebeia as a complex concept. Eusebia means not only to venerate gods, but also spiritual maturity, a reverential attitude toward life, and includes the right conduct toward one's parents, siblings and children, the right conduct between husband and wife, and the conduct between biologically unrelated people. This rock inscription, concludes Paul Hacker, suggests dharma in India, about 2300 years ago, was a central concept and meant not only religious ideas, but ideas of right, of good, of one's duty toward the human community.

Rta, maya and dharma

The evolving literature of Hinduism linked ''dharma'' to two other important concepts: ''Ṛta'' and ''Māyā''. Ṛta in Vedas is the truth and cosmic principle which regulates and coordinates the operation of the universe and everything within it. Māyā in Rig-veda and later literature means illusion, fraud, deception, magic that misleads and creates disorder, thus is contrary to reality, laws and rules that establish order, predictability and harmony. Paul Horsch suggests Ṛta and dharma are parallel concepts, the former being a cosmic principle, the latter being of moral social sphere; while Māyā and dharma are also correlative concepts, the former being that which corrupts law and moral life, the later being that which strengthens law and moral life.Koller, J. M. (1972), "Dharma: an expression of universal order", ''Philosophy East and West'', 22(2), pp. 136–142.

Day proposes dharma is a manifestation of Ṛta, but suggests Ṛta may have been subsumed into a more complex concept of dharma, as the idea developed in ancient India over time in a nonlinear manner. The following verse from the Rigveda is an example where ''rta'' and dharma are linked:

Hinduism

Dharma is an organising principle in Hinduism that applies to human beings in solitude, in their interaction with human beings and nature, as well as between inanimate objects, to all of cosmos and its parts. It refers to the order and customs which make life and universe possible, and includes behaviours, rituals, rules that govern society, and ethics. Hindu dharma includes the religious duties, moral rights and duties of each individual, as well as behaviours that enable social order, right conduct, and those that are virtuous. Dharma, according to Van Buitenen,J. A. B. Van Buitenen, "Dharma and Moksa", ''Philosophy East and West'', Vol. 7, No. 1/2 (Apr. – Jul., 1957), pp. 33–40 is that which all existing beings must accept and respect to sustain harmony and order in the world. It is neither the act nor the result, but the natural laws that guide the act and create the result to prevent chaos in the world. It is innate characteristic, that makes the being what it is. It is, claims Van Buitenen, the pursuit and execution of one's nature and true calling, thus playing one's role in cosmic concert. In Hinduism, it is the dharma of the bee to make honey, of cow to give milk, of sun to radiate sunshine, of river to flow. In terms of humanity, dharma is the need for, the effect of and essence of service and interconnectedness of all life.

In its true essence, dharma means for a Hindu to "expand the mind". Furthermore, it represents the direct connection between the individual and the societal phenomena that bind the society together. In the way societal phenomena affect the conscience of the individual, similarly may the actions of an individual alter the course of the society, for better or for worse. This has been subtly echoed by the credo धर्मो धारयति प्रजा: meaning dharma is that which holds and provides support to the social construct.

In Hinduism, ''dharma'' generally includes various aspects:
* Sanātana Dharma, the eternal and unchanging principals of dharma.
* Varṇ āśramā dharma, one's duty at specific stages of life or inherent duties.
* Sav dharma, one's own individual or personal duty.
* Āpad dharma, dharma prescribed at the time of adversities.
* Sadharana dharma, moral duties irrespective of the stages of life.
* Yuga dharma, dharma which is valid for a yuga, an epoch or age as established by Hindu tradition and thus may change at the conclusion of its time.Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. (9 April 2019)
Dharma
. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. Accessed 14 September 2021.

In Vedas and Upanishads

The history section of this article discusses the development of dharma concept in Vedas. This development continued in the Upanishads and later ancient scripts of Hinduism. In Upanishads, the concept of dharma continues as universal principle of law, order, harmony, and truth. It acts as the regulatory moral principle of the Universe. It is explained as law of righteousness and equated to '' satya'' (Sanskrit: सत्यं, truth), in hymn 1.4.14 of Brhadaranyaka Upanishad, as follows:

In the Epics

The Hindu religion and philosophy, claims Daniel Ingalls, places major emphasis on individual practical morality. In the Sanskrit epics, this concern is omnipresent.

In the Second Book of Ramayana, for example, a peasant asks the King to do what dharma morally requires of him, the King agrees and does so even though his compliance with the law of dharma costs him dearly. Similarly, dharma is at the centre of all major events in the life of Rama, Sita, and Lakshman in Ramayana, claims Daniel Ingalls.Daniel H. H. Ingalls, "Dharma and Moksa", ''Philosophy East and West'', Vol. 7, No. 1/2 (April – July 1957), pp. 41–48. Each episode of Ramayana presents life situations and ethical questions in symbolic terms. The issue is debated by the characters, finally the right prevails over wrong, the good over evil. For this reason, in Hindu Epics, the good, morally upright, law-abiding king is referred to as "dharmaraja".

In Mahabharata, the other major Indian epic, similarly, dharma is central, and it is presented with symbolism and metaphors. Near the end of the epic, the god Yama, referred to as dharma in the text, is portrayed as taking the form of a dog to test the compassion of Yudhishthira, who is told he may not enter paradise with such an animal, but refuses to abandon his companion, for which decision he is then praised by dharma. The value and appeal of the Mahabharata is not as much in its complex and rushed presentation of metaphysics in the 12th book, claims Ingalls, because Indian metaphysics is more eloquently presented in other Sanskrit scriptures; the appeal of Mahabharata, like Ramayana, is in its presentation of a series of moral problems and life situations, to which there are usually three answers given, according to Ingalls: one answer is of Bhima, which is the answer of brute force, an individual angle representing materialism, egoism, and self; the second answer is of Yudhishthira, which is always an appeal to piety and gods, of social virtue and of tradition; the third answer is of introspective Arjuna, which falls between the two extremes, and who, claims Ingalls, symbolically reveals the finest moral qualities of man. The Epics of Hinduism are a symbolic treatise about life, virtues, customs, morals, ethics, law, and other aspects of dharma. There is extensive discussion of dharma at the individual level in the Epics of Hinduism, observes Ingalls; for example, on free will versus destiny, when and why human beings believe in either, ultimately concluding that the strong and prosperous naturally uphold free will, while those facing grief or frustration naturally lean towards destiny. The Epics of Hinduism illustrate various aspects of dharma, they are a means of communicating dharma with metaphors.

According to 4th-century Vatsyayana

According to Klaus Klostermaier, 4th-century CE Hindu scholar Vātsyāyana explained dharma by contrasting it with adharma.Klaus Klostermaier, A survey of Hinduism, SUNY Press, , Chapter 3: "Hindu dharma". Vātsyāyana suggested that dharma is not merely in one's actions, but also in words one speaks or writes, and in thought. According to Vātsyāyana:

# Adharma of body: hinsa (violence), steya (steal, theft)